CHEMISTRY CONCEPTS

MODULE 1 : ENERGY

THE NATURE OF ENERGY

Because energy takes many forms, only some of which can be seen or felt, it is defined
by its effect on matter.

Thermal energy results from atomic and molecular motion; the faster the motion, the
greater the thermal energy. The temperature of an object is a measure of its thermal
energy content.

Radiant energy is the energy carried by light, microwaves, and radio waves. Objects
left in bright sunshine or exposed to microwaves become warm because much of the
radiant energy they absorb is converted to thermal energy.

Electrical energy results from the flow of electrically charged particles. When the
ground and a cloud develop a separation of charge, for example, the resulting flow of
electrons from one to the other produces lightning, a natural form of electrical energy.

Nuclear energy is stored in the nucleus of an atom

Chemical energy is stored within a chemical compound because of a particular

arrangement of atoms.

Electrical energy, nuclear energy, and chemical energy are different forms of
potential energy (PE), which is energy stored in an object because of the relative
positions or orientations of its components.

Law of Conservation of Energy states that the total amount of energy in the universe
remains constant. Energy cannot be created or destroyed.
Energy, Heat, and Work

Energy
One definition of energy is the capacity to do work. The easiest form of work to
visualize is mechanical work which is the energy required to move an object a distance
d when opposed by a force F, such as gravity.

Heat
Heat (q) is thermal energy that can be transferred from an object at one
temperature to an object at another temperature. The net transfer of thermal energy
stops when the two objects reach the same temperature. Transferred from a body at a
high temperature to one at a lower temperature when they are brought in contact with
each other.

Kinetic and Potential Energy

Potential energy is the energy caused by the relative position or orientation of an
object.
Kinetic energy is the energy an object possesses due to its motion.

Units of Energy
Remember that the units of energy are the same regardless of the form of
energy, whether thermal, radiant, chemical, or any other form. Because heat and work
result in changes in energy, their units must also be the same.

Energy can also be expressed in the non-SI units of calories (cal), where 1 cal
was originally defined as the amount of energy needed to raise the temperature of
exactly 1 g of water from 14.5°C to 15.5°C. The name is derived from the Latin calor,
meaning “heat.” Although energy may be expressed as either calories or joules,
calories were defined in terms of heat, whereas joules were defined in terms of
motion.
FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

Work and heat are interrelated concepts. Heat is the transfer of thermal
energy between two bodies that are at different temperatures and is not equal to
thermal energy. Work is the force used to transfer energy between a system and its
surroundings and is needed to create heat and the transfer of thermal energy. Both
work and heat together allow systems to exchange energy. The relationship between
the two concepts can be analyzed through the topic of Thermodynamics, which is the
scientific study of the interaction of heat and other types of energy.

Internal energy is the one that links heat and work. Internal energy refers to all
the energy within a given system, including the kinetic energy of molecules and the
energy stored in all of the chemical bonds between molecules. With the interactions of
heat, work and internal energy, there are energy transfers and conversions every time a
change is made upon a system. However, no net energy is created or lost during these
transfers.

The First Law of Thermodynamics states that energy can be converted from one
form to another with the interaction of heat, work and internal energy, but it cannot be
created nor destroyed, under any circumstances.

The internal energy of a system would decrease if the system gives off heat or
does work. Therefore, internal energy of a system increases when the heat
increases (this would be done by adding heat into a system). The internal energy
would also increase if work were done onto a system. Any work or heat that goes into or
out of a system changes the internal energy. However, since energy is never created
nor destroyed (thus, the first law of thermodynamics), the change in internal energy
always equals zero. If energy is lost by the system, then it is absorbed by the
surroundings. If energy is absorbed into a system, then that energy was released by the
surroundings.

Energy is never created nor destroyed. Since the area of the clue cube
decreased the visual area of the yellow circle increased. This symbolizes how energy
lost by a system is gained by the surroundings. The affects of different surroundings and
changes on a system help determine the increase or decrease of internal energy, heat
and work.
HEAT CAPACITY AND CALORIMETRY

Thermochemistry
Thermochemistry is the study of heat flow that accompanies chemical reactions.
The heat flow of the reaction is composed of two parts, the system, and the
surroundings. The system is part of the universe on which attention is focused.
Reactants and products after a chemical reaction. While surrounding is the rest of the
universe. Materials in close contact with the system are considered.

State Properties
State properties are the quantities that depend only on the state of the system
and not the path the system took to reach the state. The state of a system is specified
by giving its composition, temperature, and pressure.

Exothermic and Endothermic Reactions

Exothermic reactions are reactions or processes that release energy, usually in

the form of heat or light. In an exothermic reaction, energy is released because the total
energy of the products is less than the total energy of the reactants. For this reason, the
change in enthalpy, ΔH, for an exothermic reaction will always be negative. In the
presence of water, a strong acid will dissociate quickly and release heat, so it is an
exothermic reaction. In an exothermic reaction, the total energy of the products is
less than the total energy of the reactants. Therefore, the change in enthalpy is
negative, and heat is released to the surroundings.
Endothermic reactions are reactions that require external energy, usually in
the form of heat, for the reaction to proceed. Since endothermic reactions draw in
heat from their surroundings, they tend to cause their environments to cool down.
They are also generally non-spontaneous, since endothermic reactions yield products
that are higher in energy than the reactants. As such, the change in enthalpy for an
endothermic reaction is always positive. A spontaneous reaction is a reaction that
favors the formation of products at the conditions under which the reaction is
occurring. In an endothermic reaction, the products are higher in energy than the
reactants. Therefore, the change in enthalpy is positive, and heat is absorbed from the
surroundings by the reaction.

Direction of Heat Flow

Heat flow is positive when the heat flows into the system from the surroundings,
and negative when heat flows from the system into the surroundings.
Measuring Heat Flow

A calorimeter is a device used to measure the heat flow of a reaction. It is also

used to measure the amount of heat absorbed in a reaction. The walls are insulated to
block exchange of heat with the surrounding air. Heat flow for the system is equal in
magnitude.

Coffee-Cup Calorimeter uses Polystyrene as

a good insulator. The cup is partially filled with
a known volume of water and a thermometer is
inserted through the lid of the cup so that its
bulb is below the water surface. Coffee-cup
calorimeter cannot be used in experiments that
involve gasses since they would escape from
the cup. It also cannot be used for
high-temperature reactions since these would
melt the cup. The heat evolved from the
reaction is absorbed by the water. The heat
capacity of the coffee-cup calorimeter is that of
water.

Bomb Calorimeter is a constant

volume calorimeter (constant volume is
isochoric). So the heat measured by such an
instrument is equivalent to the change in
internal energy or ΔU. For a bomb calorimeter,
the heat capacity is usually quite large due to
all the water and the hardware (stirring
paddles, blades, the stainless steel "bomb"
holding the reactants, the wiring, the walls of
the calorimeter. Commonly used in
experiments involving high temperatures and
gasses.
Enthalpy of a Chemical Reaction

The amount of heat absorbed or released by a chemical reaction at constant

atmospheric pressure is called enthalpy (H). Enthalpy specifically refers to the heat
content of a chemical reaction. If the change in enthalpy is positive, the reaction is
endothermic in nature, and a lower enthalpy means it requires less energy. Enthalpy or
also known as heat content. Heat flow is equal to the difference in enthalpy (H) between
products and reactants.

Conditions for the use of Enthalpy

● Sign of ΔH indicates - Whether the reaction is endothermic or exothermic
● Coefficients of thermochemical equation - Represent number of moles of reactant
and product
● Phases of all reactant and product species must be specified using symbols
● Value of ΔH applies when products and reactants are at the same temperature-
Usually 25°C unless specified otherwise
Rules of Thermochemistry
● The magnitude of ΔH is directly proportional to the amount of reactant or product
● ΔH for the reaction is equal in magnitude but opposite in sign for ΔH for the
reverse of the reaction
● The value of ΔH is the same whether the reaction occurs in one step or as a
series of steps - The rule is a statement of Hess’s law and a direct consequence
of the fact that enthalpy is a state variable.

Enthalpies of Formation
Standard molar enthalpy of formation,D o f H , is equal to the enthalpy change
when one mole of a compound is
● Formed at constant pressure of 1 atm at a fixed temperature of 25°C
● From elements in their stable states at that temperature and pressure

Bond Enthalpy
Bond enthalpy (which is also known as bond-dissociation enthalpy, average bond
energy, or bond strength) describes the amount of energy stored in a bond between
atoms in a molecule. Specifically, it's the energy that needs to be added for the
homolytic or symmetrical cleavage of a bond in the gas phase.
MODULE 2: ELECTROCHEMISTRY

Electrochemistry
The study of the interconversion of electrical and chemical energy. It is the study
of chemical processes that cause electrons to move. This movement of electrons is
called electricity, which can be generated by movements of electrons from one element
to another in a reaction known as an oxidation-reduction ("redox") reaction.
A redox reaction is a reaction that involves a change in oxidation state of one or
more elements. When a substance loses an electron, its oxidation state increases; thus,
it is oxidized. When a substance gains an electron, its oxidation state decreases, thus
being reduced. The species being oxidized is also known as the reducing agent or
reductant, and the species being reduced is called the oxidizing agent or oxidant.
MODULE 3: NUCLEAR REACTIONS

Nuclear reactions differ from other chemical processes in one critical way: in a
nuclear reaction, the identities of the elements change. In addition, nuclear reactions
are often accompanied by the release of enormous amounts of energy, as much as a
billion times more than the energy released by chemical reactions. Moreover, the yields
and rates of a nuclear reaction are generally unaffected by changes in temperature,
pressure, or the presence of a catalyst.

Nuclear Reactions
Result from changes taking place within atomic nuclei
• Representation of atomic nuclei 12/6 C
• Atomic number, Z, is shown as a left subscript - The atomic number or proton number
(symbol Z) of a chemical element is the number of protons found in the nucleus of every
atom of that element.
• Mass number, A, appears as a left superscript - the sum of the numbers of protons
and neutrons present in the nucleus of an atom.

Nuclear Equations
Use nuclear symbols
• Resemble an ordinary chemical equation
• Require balancing nuclear charge and nuclear mass
• Example

• Reactants are an N-14 nucleus and a neutron

• Products are a C-14 nucleus and an H-1 nucleus

Nuclear Stability
Characteristic of atomic nuclei at the short distances of separation involves attractive
forces between nuclear particles
• Balance between the forces and electrostatic repulsion influences the stability of a
nucleus

Emperical Rules that Determine the Stability of Nuclei

Neutron-to-proton ratio + (/ ) n p required for stability varies with atomic number
• Nuclei with more than 83 protons are unstable
• Nuclei with an even number of nucleons are more stable than those with an odd
number of nucleons
• Certain numbers of neutrons or protons show exceptional stability
• Magic numbers - 2, 8, 20, 28, 50, 82, 126
Radioactivity

Nuclear chemistry is the study of reactions that involve changes in nuclear

structure. The chapter on atoms, molecules, and ions introduced the basic idea of
nuclear structure, that the nucleus of an atom is composed of protons and, with the
exception of 1/1H, neutrons. Recall that the number of protons in the nucleus is called
the atomic number (Z) of the element, and the sum of the number of protons and the
number of neutrons is the mass number (A). Atoms with the same atomic number but
different mass numbers are isotopes of the same element.

Changes of nuclei that result in changes in their atomic numbers, mass numbers,
or energy sta0tes are nuclear reactions. To describe a nuclear reaction, we use an
equation that identifies the nuclides involved in the reaction, their mass numbers and
atomic numbers, and the other particles involved in the reaction.

Nuclear Equations

A balanced chemical reaction equation reflects the fact that during a chemical
reaction, bonds break and form, and atoms are rearranged, but the total numbers of
atoms of each element are conserved and do not change. A balanced nuclear reaction
equation indicates that there is a rearrangement during a nuclear reaction, but of
subatomic particles rather than atoms. Nuclear reactions also follow conservation laws,
and they are balanced in two ways:

1. The sum of the mass numbers of the reactants equals the sum of the mass
numbers of the products.
2. The sum of the charges of the reactants equals the sum of the charges of the
products.
Kinds of Nuclear Reactions:

Nuclear Decay Reaction

Also called radioactive decay, an unstable nucleus emits radiation and is

transformed into the nucleus of one or more other elements. The resulting daughter
nuclei have a lower mass and are lower in energy (more stable) than the parent nucleus
that decayed. As we shall see, nuclear decay reactions occur spontaneously under all
conditions.

Just as we use the number and type of atoms present to balance a chemical
equation, we can use the number and type of nucleons present to write a balanced
nuclear equation for a nuclear decay reaction. This procedure also allows us to predict
the identity of either the parent or the daughter nucleus if the identity of only one is
known. Regardless of the mode of decay, the total number of nucleons is conserved in
all nuclear reactions.
Alpha Decay

Many nuclei with mass numbers greater than 200 undergo alpha (α) decay,
which results in the emission of a helium-4 nucleus as an alpha (α) particle.

The daughter nuclide contains two fewer protons and two fewer neutrons than
the parent. Thus α-particle emission produces a daughter nucleus with a mass number
A − 4 and a nuclear charge Z − 2 compared to the parent nucleus.

Beta Decay

Nuclei that contain too many neutrons often undergo beta (β) decay, in which a
neutron is converted to a proton and a high-energy electron that is ejected from the
nucleus as a β particle:

Although beta decay does not change the mass number of the nucleus, it does
result in an increase of +1 in the atomic number because of the addition of a proton in
the daughter nucleus. Thus beta decay decreases the neutron-to-proton ratio, moving
the nucleus toward the band of stable nuclei. For example, carbon-14 undergoes beta
decay to form nitrogen-14.

Positron Emission

Because a positron has the same mass as an electron but opposite charge,
positron emission is the opposite of beta decay. Thus positron emission is characteristic
of neutron-poor nuclei, which decay by transforming a proton to a neutron and emitting
a high-energy positron.

Like beta decay, positron emission does not change the mass number of the
nucleus. In this case, however, the atomic number of the daughter nucleus is lower by 1
than that of the parent. Thus the neutron-to-proton ratio has increased, again moving
the nucleus closer to the band of stable nuclei.

Gamma Emission

Many nuclear decay reactions produce daughter nuclei that are in a nuclear
excited state, which is similar to an atom in which an electron has been excited to a
higher-energy orbital to give an electronic excited state. Just as an electron in an
electronic excited state emits energy in the form of a photon when it returns to the
ground state, a nucleus in an excited state releases energy in the form of a photon
when it returns to the ground state. These high-energy photons are γ rays. Gamma (y)
emission can occur virtually instantaneously.
Spontaneous Fission
Only very massive nuclei with high neutron-to-proton ratios can undergo
spontaneous fission, in which the nucleus breaks into two pieces that have different
atomic numbers and atomic masses. This process is most important for the
transactinide elements, with Z ≥ 104. Spontaneous fission is invariably accompanied by
the release of large amounts of energy, and it is usually accompanied by the emission
of several neutrons as well.

Nuclear Transmutation Reaction

In a Nuclear Transmutation Reaction, the nucleus reacts with a subatomic

particle or another nucleus to form a product nucleus that is more massive than the
starting material. This reaction occurs only under very special conditions, such as the
collision of a beam of highly energetic particles with a target nucleus or in the interior of
stars.

Bombardment Reactions

• Nuclear bombardment reactions are nuclear reactions in which a nucleus is

bombarded or struck by another nucleus or nuclear particle. Here fission or fusion may
occur. Another type of nuclear reaction occurs when scientists purposefully launch two
types of nuclei together or launch a small particle at a nucleus. These reactions have
two things written on the left side of the arrow and two or more written on the right. The
sum of the mass numbers on the left has to equal the sum of the mass numbers on the
right.

Prepare isotopes per element ranging from 1 to 34 in which a stable nucleus is

converted into a radioactive one

• Stable nuclei are bombarded with:

• Neutrons of low energy, produced in a fission reactor

• Product nucleus, Al-28, is radioactive, decaying by beta emission

• Charged particles can be accelerated to high velocities in electric and/or magnetic

fields.
• Product, phosphorus-30, is radioactive, decaying by positron emission:

Transuranium Elements

Possess an atomic number greater than that of uranium

• Neptunium (Np, Z = 93), the first transuranium element, was synthesized in 1940

• Latest detection was that of Uuo-294 (Element 118) in 2006, caused by the following
collisions

Synthesis of Transuranium Elements

Application of Isotopes

Medicine

• Cancer treatment

- Cobalt-60 is used widely

- 131 123 I or I used to treat thyroid cancer

• Diagnostics

- Positron emission tomography (PET)

- Single positron emission computer tomography (SPECT)

Medical Uses of Isotopes

Neutron activation analysis

• Sample is bombarded by neutrons, inducing radioactivity

• Chemical identity of the element is retained, but the isotope formed is radioactive

- Wavelength of gamma rays emitted varies across elements

 - Used in archaeology to study the nature of the diet practiced by prehistoric
humans

Smoke detectors

• Use americium-241

- Placed in a chamber in the unit, which also consists of a battery

- Am-241 ionizes air and completes a circuit caused by the battery
- Smoke particles impede the circuit, causing a drop in electric current, which
triggers the alarm

Food preservation

• Gamma rays kill insects, larvae, and parasites

• Sprouting of onions and potatoes is inhibited using irradiation

• Food that is irradiated has a longer shelf life

• Irradiated food is less harmful than chemically treated food

• Irradiation kills E.coli and also the anthrax virus

Rate of Radioactive Decay

Radioactive decay is a first-order process:

• k is the first-order rate constant

• t½ is the half life

• X is the amount of radioactive species at time t

• X0 is the amount of radioactive species at t = 0

Rate of decay of atoms per unit time:

• A is the activity

• k is the first-order rate constant

• N is the number of radioactive nuclei present

• Units of activity

- 1 Becquerel (Bq) = 1 atom/s

- 1 Curie (Ci) = 3.700 x 10^10 atoms / s

Age of Organic Material

Professor W.F. Libby of the University of Chicago in the 1950s devised a method to
determine the age of organic material

• Based on the decay rate of carbon-14

• Carbon-14 formed by the above reaction is incorporated into the carbon dioxide in the
atmosphere

• Steady-state concentration results in one atom of carbon-14 for every 12 10 carbon-12

atoms in atmospheric CO2 (1 atom of C-14 : 10^12 atom of C-12)

• Sample containing one gram of carbon has an activity of 15.3 atoms/min (1.0g of C : A
15.3 atoms/min)

Intake of radioactive carbon stops when an organism dies

• C-14 level falls due to radioactive decay

• Activity of a sample is directly proportional to the amount of C-14

▶ Ao is the original activity (15.3 atoms / min)

▶ A is the current measure of activity

▶ t is the age of the sample

Shroud of Turin

Sample of 0.1 g of the Shroud of Turin was analyzed by a recently developed technique
• Specially designed mass spectrometer provides an accurate count of C-14 atoms

• Evidence showed that the flax used to make the linen of which the Shroud is
composed grew in the fourteenth century A.D

- Indicating that the burial garment could not have been the burial cloth of Christ

Mass Energy Relations

Energy change accompanying a nuclear reaction can be calculated from the equation

- Δm = change in mass = mass of products − mass of reactants

- ΔE = change in energy = energy of products − energy of reactants
- c is the speed of light

• Products weigh less than the reactants in a spontaneous nuclear reaction

- Energy of the products is less than the energy of the reactants (ΔE negative)
- Energy is released when the reaction takes place

• Δm is quantifiable in a nuclear reaction, when compared to chemical reactions

- Δm amounts to 0.002% or more of the mass of reactants in nuclear reactions

Nuclear Masses on the 12C Scale

• Useful form of the equation 2 DEcm = D is obtained by substituting for the value of c in
meters per second 8 c = 3.00 10 m/s

• Calculating the energy change in joules requires conversion factors • Relationship

between ΔE and Δm in kilojoules can be found by using conversion factors

Nuclear Binding Energy

Nucleus weighs less than the individual protons and neutrons

• Consider the nucleus of 6 3Li

• One mole of Li-6 weighs 6.01348 g

• Calculating the total mass of three moles of neutrons and three moles of protons
3(1.00867g) + 3(1.00728 g) = 6.04785 g

Proton mass = 1.00727647

Neutron mass = 1.008665

• Therefore, one mole of Li-6 weighs less than the corresponding protons and neutrons
• The difference in quantity is called the mass defect

Calculating the difference in energy (Binding Energy)

• Binding energy Indicates the stability of a nucleus

- A higher binding energy makes decomposing the nucleus harder

• Binding energy per mole of nuclear particles is accurate in measuring stability

- Calculated by dividing the binding energy per molecule per mole of nuclei by the
number of particles per nucleus
- Example for Li-6
Nuclear Fission and Nuclear Fusion

Nuclear fission - Single nucleus splits into smaller nuclei, accompanied by an evolution
of energy

Nuclear fusion - Light nuclei are combined to form a heavier nucleus, accompanied by a
larger evolution of energy
Fission Process

• Isotopes of heavy elements undergo fission when bombarded with high-energy

neutrons

• 235 / 92 U and 239 / 94 Pu can be split by relatively low-energy neutrons

• Uranium-235 splits into two unequal fragments and a number of neutrons and beta
particles

• Fission products are located near the middle of the periodic table

- Smaller stable neutron-to-proton ratio

• Following steps are needed to reach a stable nucleus

Chain Reactions

• Require the sample to be sufficiently large to capture maximum neutrons internally

- Samples that are small result in the escape of the neutrons, which breaks the
chain

Nuclear Reactors

• Produce about 20% of the electricity generated in the U.S. using the fission of U-235

• Light-water reactor

- Increased amounts of heat turns water to steam which allows a turbine to

produce electricity
- Ordinary water is used to cool the reaction and to slow the neutrons produced by
fission

Heavy-Water Reactors

• Canadian reactors (Advanced CANDU)

- Use lightly enriched uranium, similar to light water reactors

- Use of D2O allows the use of natural uranium without enrichment

Pressurized Water Reactor

Nuclear Accidents and Disposal of Radioactive Waste

Nuclear accidents

- Accidents at Three Mile Island, Pennsylvania, in 1979 had a negative effect on

public opinion in the U.S.
- Explosion at Chernobyl, Ukraine led to the permanent shutting down of all the
reactors at Chernobyl

Disposal of radioactive waste

- Applies the NIMBY (Not in my backyard) attitude

- U.S. government has developed a nuclear burial site at Yucca Mountain,
Nevada, for burying 70,000 metric tons of nuclear waste

Nuclear Fusion

• Light nuclei such as those of hydrogen are unstable with respect toward fusion into
heavier isotopes

• Energy available is greater than that given off in the fission of an equal
mass of a heavy element

End point

• Comparing the answers to fusion and fission, it appears that the fusion reaction
produces about seven times as much energy per gram of reactant 7 7 (57.2 10 vers ´ ´
us 8.19 10 kJ) as does the fission reaction
• This factor varies from about 3 to 10, depending on the particular reaction chosen to
represent the fission and fusion processes

Nuclear Fusion

• Advantages

- Light isotopes are more abundant than the heavy isotopes required for fission

Disadvantages

- High activation energies

- Generating electricity requires developing equipment in which high temperatures
are maintained for long durations
MODULE 4: FUELS

MODULE 5: CHEMISTRY OF ENGINEERING MATERIALS

Chemistry of Metals

Mineral - is a naturally occurring substance with a range of chemical compositions.

Ore - is a mineral deposit concentrated enough to allow economical recovery of a

desired metal.

Metallurgy - is the science and technology of separating metals from their ores and of
compounding alloys.

The mineral must first be separated from the surrounding ore material by physical
means

Extractive metallurgy are the chemical processes that separate a metal from its mineral

Refining are the processes that purify the metal for use

Metal Ores:

Chlorides • Oxides • Sulfides • “Native” Ores

Alloy - is a solid solution either of two or more metals, or of a metal or metals with one
or more nonmetals.

Principal Ores of Group 1, Group 2, and Transition Metals

Chloride Ores: Na From NaCl

Sodium metal is obtained from the electrolysis of molten sodium chloride

• Cathode: 2Na (l) +2e → 2Na(l)

• Anode: 2Cl- (l) → Cl (g) + 2e

=> 2NaCl (l) → 2Na (l) +Cl2 g (g)

• Cell is operated at about 600°C to keep the electrolyte molten

Electrolysis of Molten Sodium

CaCl2 is added to lower the melting point

• Operated at 600˚C

• About 14 kJ of energy is required to produce 1 gram sodium

Oxide Ores: Aluminum

Al from Al2O3

• Aluminum is extracted electrolysis:

• 2Al2O3(l) → 4Al(l) + 3O2(g)

• Cryolite, Na3AlF6, is added to Al2O3 to produce a mixture that melts at about

1000°C

• Principal ore of aluminum is bauxite

Oxide Ores: Iron

MODULE 6 : POLYMERS

Polymers are molecules of high molecular weight made by joining smaller molecules,
called monomers.

• A chain of monomers can be thousands of units long

There are two primary types of polymers:

Addition polymers are formed when a bond breaks, and the electrons in that bond
make two new bonds.

Condensation polymers are formed when a small molecule is removed between two
large molecules.

Synthetic Addition Polymers

An addition polymer is the result of the direct addition of monomer units

• Monomer ethylene – During polymerization, double bonds are converted to single

bonds

n can be around 2000

Addition Polymers

Initiation: a free radical (species with an unpaired electron) is produced.

Propagation: the free radical attacks the double bond of the monomer to break the
double bond, leaving a single bond; a new free radical containing the monomer results.
– The free radical propagates itself by reacting with more monomers.
Termination: a free radical reacts with another free radical. – Also called chain
termination. – Termination is a random event, not all polymer chains will have the same
length.

Initiators, such as an organic peroxide,

produce free radicals upon heating.

• Each propagation step adds another

monomer to the chain.

• Termination occurs when two radicals

combine and polymer chain growth
ends.
Common Addition Polymers

Branched and Linear Polyethylene

Depending on the conditions of polymerization, the resulting polyethylene may be: –

Branched - Soft, flexible polymer

Linear - Rigid, crystalline Polymer

Addition Polymere

• Propylene

• The choice of propylene gives rise to different types of polypropylene.

- Polypropylene resembles ethylene, but one H has been replaced with a methyl
(-CH3) group.
- The methyl group attaches to the carbon backbone in three different ways.

• Isotactic - all methyl groups are arranged on the same side of the polymer chain.

• Syndiotactic - methyl groups alternate systematically from one side of the polymer
chain to the other.

• Atactic - methyl groups are arranged randomly along the polymer chain.

• Arrangement of methyl groups impacts the properties of the polymer.

• Monomers can link together in different ways.

- Isotactic
- Syndotactic
- Atactic
- Isotactic and syndiotactic polymers generally lead to more predictable and
controllable properties

Teflon

• (C2F2)n

- n falls between 104 and 105

• It is versatile but costs between $10 and $20 per kg

• Fluorine atoms form a protective shield

• Chemically resistant even at high temperatures

- Invulnerable to chemical attack by aqueous or organic solvents

- Low coefficient of friction makes the surface of utensils slippery

Condensation Polymers

• Condensation - The combination of two molecules by splitting a small molecule (water)

- An example of condensation is the reaction of alcohol, ROH, or an amine, RNH2,

with a carboxylic acid

• The molecule split out is often water

• Monomers are required to have functional groups at both ends of the molecule
• Polyesters and polyamides are the products formed

• Consider a reaction between an alcohol with two groups and a dicarboxylic acid

- The ester produced has a reactive group at both ends of the molecule
- The reaction continues, eventually forming a polymer chain with 500 or more
ester groups

• Polyethylene terephthalate (PET or PETE 1)

- Ethylene glycol and terephthalic acid are used in the preparation of PET

– Products • Fabric (Dacron) • Plastic bottles • Magnetically coated film (Mylar)

MODULE 7: Crystal Structures

Metallic Bonding - the sharing of free electrons among a lattice of positively charged
metal ions. The structure of metallic bonds is very different from that of covalent and
ionic bonds. While ionic bonds join metals to nonmetals, and covalent bonds join
nonmetals to nonmetals, metallic bonds are responsible for the bonding between metal
atoms.

● Many of the unique properties of metals can be explained by metallic bonds.

● Metallic bonds can occur between different elements to form an alloy.
● In contrast to electrons that participate in both ionic and covalent bonds,
electrons that participate in metallic bonds delocalize, forming a sea of electrons
around the positive nuclei of metals. The availability of “free” electrons
contributes to metals being excellent conductors.
● metallic bond: A chemical bond in which mobile electrons are shared over many
nuclei; this leads to electrical conduction.
● electron sea: The body of delocalized electrons that surrounds positive metal
ions in metallic bonds.

In metallic bonds, the valence electrons from the s and p orbitals of the interacting metal
atoms delocalize. That is to say, instead of orbiting their respective metal atoms, they
form a “sea” of electrons that surrounds the positively charged atomic nuclei of the
interacting metal ions. The electrons then move freely throughout the space between
the atomic nuclei.
The characteristics of metallic bonds explain a number of the unique properties of
metals:
● Metals are good conductors of electricity because the electrons in the electron
sea are free to flow and carry electric current.
● Metals are ductile and malleable because local bonds can be easily broken and
reformed.
● Metals are shiny. Light cannot penetrate their surface; the photons simply reflect
off the metal surface. However, there is an upper limit to the frequency of light at
which the photons are reflected.
Metallic bonds can occur between different elements, forming an alloy. Aluminum foil
and copper wire are examples of metallic bonding in action.
Metallic bonds are mediated by strong attractive forces. This property contributes to the
low volatility, high melting and boiling points, and high density of most metals. The
group-XII metals zinc, cadmium, and mercury are exceptions to this rule.
Doping: Connectivity and Semiconductors
The process of adding substances to a pure semiconductor for the purposes of
modulating its electrical properties is known as doping.

● Semiconductors are doped to generate either a surplus or a deficiency in valence

electrons.
● Doping allows researchers to exploit the properties of sets of elements, referred
to as dopants, in order to modulate the conductivity of a semiconductor.
● There are two types of dopants, n-type dopants and p-type dopants; n-type
dopants act as electron donors, and p-type dopants act as electron acceptors.
● Combining n-type and p-type semiconductors creates systems which have useful
applications in modern electronics.
● doping: The addition of small quantities of an element (an impurity) to a pure
semiconductor to change its electrical conductivity characteristics.
● p-type semiconductor: A doped semiconductor in which conduction is due to the
movement of positively-charged holes.
● n-type semiconductor: A doped semiconductor in which conduction is due to the
movement of additional electrons.

Electrical Conduction in Solids

There are two general categories of semiconductors: intrinsic semiconductors,
which are composed of only one material, and extrinsic semiconductors, which have
had other substances added to them to alter their properties. In semiconductor
production, the process of creating extrinsic semiconductors by adding substances to a
pure semiconductor for the purposes of modulating its electrical properties is known as
doping. Semiconductors are doped to generate either a surplus or a deficiency in
valence electrons.

Energy Bands in Solids

Electrons in free atoms have discrete energy values. In contrast, the energy
states available to the free electrons in a metal sample form a continuum of “energy
bands.” In the atomic lattice of a substance, there is a set of filled atomic energy “bands”
with a full complement of electrons, and a set of higher energy unfilled “bands” which
have no electrons. The highest energy band contains valence electrons available for
chemical reactions. The conduction band is the band above the valence band. Electrons
in the conduction band are free to move about in the lattice and can conduct current. In
order for a substance to conduct electricity, its valence electrons must cross the band
gap, which is the energy gap between the valence band and conduction band.
 If the gap between the valence and conduction bands is large, then the
substance does not conduct electricity easily (it is an insulator). On the other hand,
these bands overlap in metallic samples, which make these samples excellent
conductors of electricity. In the case of semiconductors, the gap is small enough for
electrons to jump to the conduction band due to thermal or some other excitation.
Because the band gap is so small for semiconductors, doping with small
amounts of impurities can dramatically increase the conductivity of the material. Doping,
therefore, allows scientists to exploit the properties of sets of elements referred to as
“dopants” in order to modulate the conductivity of a semiconductor.

Semiconductor Doping
There are two types of dopants, n-type (“n” for negative), and p-type (“p” for
positive) dopants. n-type dopants act as electron donors and have extra valence
electrons with energies very close to the conduction band. When incorporated into the
atomic lattice of a semiconductor, the valence electrons of n-type dopants can be easily
excited to the conduction band. p-type dopants assist in conduction by accepting
electrons. When a p-type dopant is incorporated into the atomic lattice of a
semiconductor, it is able to host electrons from the conduction band, allowing the easy
formation of positive holes.
Generating an n-Type Semiconductor
When doping a semiconductor, such as the group IV
element silicon (Si), with arsenic (As), a pentavalent
n-type dopant from group V in the periodic table (which
has one more valence electron than the
semiconductor), the dopant behaves as an electron
donor. When this occurs, an atom of dopant replaces
an atom of silicon in the lattice, and therefore an extra
valence electron is introduced into the structure. The
fifth valence electron of As creates a surplus of
electrons. When just a few atoms of the dopant replace
silicon atoms in the lattice, an n-type semiconductor is
created. The newly created semiconductor is better
able to conduct current than the pure semiconductor.

Generating a p-Type Semiconductor

When a group IV semiconductor is doped with a p-type
trivalent group III dopant (such as boron, B), which has
one less valence electron than the semiconductor, the
dopant acts as an electron acceptor. When a few atoms
of trivalent dopant replace silicon atoms in the lattice, a
vacant state (or electron “hole”) is created and can act
as electron carrier through the structure, which creates a
p-type semiconductor. p-type semiconductors are
characterized by a deficit of electrons and positive
holes, which have the same effect as a surplus of
positive charge. These positive holes accept electrons,
rendering the semiconductor more effective at
conducting current.

The p-n Junction

When we place p-type and n-type semiconductors in
contact with one another, a p-n junction is formed. p-n
junctions are basic components of most common
electrical devices. While semiconductors doped with
either n-type dopants or p-type dopants are better
conductors than intrinsic semiconductors, interesting
properties emerge when p- and n-type semiconductors
are combined to form a p-n junction.
If no electricity is being passed through the system,
then no current passes through the junction between
n- and p-type semiconductors. In this scenario, the
surplus of electrons from the n-type semiconductor
and the deficiency in electrons from the p-type
semiconductor combine to create a depletion region.
In this state, the system is said to be at equilibrium.
However, if the cathode of a battery is connected to
the p-type semiconductor, and the anode is
connected to the n-type semiconductor, the system is
said to be “forward biased.” In this scenario, electrons
flow from the anode toward the cathode pole and
charge flows across the junction. If the connectivity is
reversed, with the battery anode connected to the
p-type semiconductor and the cathode connected to
the n-type semiconductor, the system is said to be
“reverse biased” and negligible charge flows across
the junction. Combining n-type and p-type
semiconductors creates a system which has useful
applications in modern electronics.

Electronic devices and instruments, such as digital

alarm clocks, mp3 players, computer processors, and
the electronics in cell phones, all take advantage of
semiconductor technology. Doping provides a way to
modulate the properties of semiconductors that have
broad applications in daily life.
Types of Solids

Metallic solids are held together by a “sea” of

collectively shared electrons.

Ionic solids are sets of cations and anions mutually

attracted to one another.

Covalent-network solids are joined by an

extensive network of covalent bonds.

Molecular solids are discrete molecules held

together by weak forces

Other Types of Solid:

Polymers contain long chains of atoms connected by covalent bonds; the chains can
be connected to other chains by weak forces. These molecules have different properties
than small molecules or metallic or ionic compounds.

Nanomaterials are crystalline compounds with the crystals on the order of 1–100 nm;
this gives them very different properties than larger crystalline materials.

One Organization of Solids

Solids with a regular repeating pattern of atoms are

crystalline.

Amorphous solids are characterized by a distinct lack of

order in the arrangement of atoms.

Since crystalline solids have a regular pattern, they are of

more interest to most chemists.
Packing in solids

Packing efficiency in crystalline solids is the percentage of space occupied by a

given arrangement.
The less empty space in the packing of atoms or molecules in a solid, the higher
the packing efficiency.
The higher the packing efficiency, the higher the density of a solid.

Packing of atoms into solids can be modeled

with marbles.
Large gaps between aligned rows indicates a
lower packing efficiency, 78.5%.
Smaller gaps between offset rows indicates a
higher packing efficiency, 90.7%.

Two ways to maximize packing efficiency.

The second layer of atoms will stack offset to

the first layer of atoms to give about 74%
packing efficiency.
The third layer can stack directly above the
atoms in the first layer - hexagonal
close-packing (hcp).
The third layer can stack directly above the
hollows in the first layer - cubic close-packing
(ccp).

Close Packing
Unit Cell

Three types of cubic unit cells

simple cubic (sc) containing 1/8 each of 8 corner atoms
body-centered cubic (bcc) containing one additional atom within, and
face-centered cubic (fcc) with an additional 1/2 each of 6 atoms along the faces.

Not every part of an atom on a lattice point is completely within

that unit cell. One can determine how many atoms are within
each unit cell.

Eight cubes meet at a corner, therefore only 1/8 of that corner

atom is within any one unit cell meeting there.

Two cubes meet at a face, therefore only 1/2 of that face atom
is within any one unit cell meeting there.

A body-centered atom is entirely within the unit cell.

Calculations of Packing Efficiency

Coordination Number
Coordination number is the number of atoms immediately adjacent to any given atom.

Simple cubic has a coordination number of 6.

Body-centered cubic has a coordination number of 8.
Close-packed structures (ccp and hcp) have a coordination number of 12.
 - As coordination numbers increase, each atom in the lattice interacts with more
neighbor atoms.
- The attractive forces for these interactions hold the crystal together.
- Close-packed structure, with a coordination number of 12, is one of the most
common crystal structures.
- Metallic solids are closed pack solids

Properties of metals can be explained by bonding in metals.

Metals are:
- Malleable - worked into useful shapes or foils.
- Ductile - pulled into wires
- Good conductors of heat and electricity.

Models of Metallic Bonding

The bonding in metals cannot be explained in terms of ionic or covalent bonding.
- There is little electronegativity difference from element to element so metals and
alloys do not form ionic bonds.
- The outermost subshells are not filled, so a large number of covalent bonds
would be needed to satisfy the octet rule.
The sea of electrons model is the first and simplest qualitative explanation of metallic
bonding.
- The valence electrons are delocalized and move freely throughout the solid.
- Explains malleability, ductility, and conductivity properties of metals.

Metallic Bonding
• One can think of a metal as a group of cations suspended in a sea of electrons.

The electrical and thermal conductivity, ductility, and malleability of metals is explained
by this model.

- When a force is applied to a metal, the positively charged cores respond to the
stress, deforming the metal.
- The free flow of electrons maintains the bonding throughout the process.

Band Theory - is a quantitative model of bonding in solids.

- The wave functions of the valence electrons interact with each other.
- Bonding molecular orbitals result from constructive interference.
- Antibonding molecular orbitals result from destructive interference.
The number of molecular orbitals formed equals the number of atomic orbitals involved.
- For every bonding molecular orbital formed, one antibonding molecular orbital is
also formed.
- For odd number of bonding atoms, a nonbonding molecular orbital is formed.
 - The molecular orbitals formed belong to the entire set of atoms
Energies of the molecular orbitals are related to the energy of the original atomic
orbitals.
- Bonding molecular orbitals are lower energy.
- Antibonding molecular orbitals are higher energy.

As the number of atoms in a chain increases, the energy gap between the bonding
orbitals and between the antibonding orbitals disappears, resulting in a continuous band
of energy. The approach seen here only takes into account s-orbital population.
- Most metals have d and p orbitals to consider.
- Their MO diagrams lead to more bands that better explain

As the number of atoms

increases, the number of
bonding and antibonding
molecular orbitals increases.
The energy spacing between
molecular orbitals
decreases.
For large numbers of atoms,
the energy levels merge to
form a continuous band of
allowed energies.

- Electrons fill the lowest energy band first.

- The energy difference between the filled and empty bands determines the
electrical properties of the bulk material.
- The band populated by valence electrons is the valence band.
- The empty band above the valence band is the conduction band.
- The energy difference between the valence and conduction band is the bandgap.
 - Current flows when electrons move from the valence band to the conduction
band.
- Conductors have small band gaps. A very small amount of energy is required to
move electrons to the conduction band.
- Insulators have large band gaps. A large amount of energy is required to move
electrons to the conduction band.
- Semiconductors have band gap intermediate of conductors and insulators.

Alloys

Alloys are materials that contain more than one element and have the characteristic
properties of metals. It is an important means employed to change the properties of
certain metals.
Types of Alloys

Substitutional alloys: A second element takes the place of a metal atom.

Interstitial alloys: A second element fills a space in the lattice of metal atoms.
Heterogeneous alloys: components not dispersed uniformly

Ionic Solid
- Ionic solids – held together by ionic bond (anion + cation)
- The cation is the smaller ion in the crystal.
- The coordination number is the number of each ion is the number of neighboring
ion with opposite charge. • Loosely packed solids compared to metallic solid.
- Coordination number can be maximum of 8.
- In ionic solids, the lattice comprises alternately charged ions.
- Ionic solids have very high melting and boiling points.
- Most favorable structures have cation– anion distances as close as possible, but
the anion–anion and cation– cation distances are maximized.
- Three common structures for 1:1 salts: ØCsCl structure ØNaCl (rock salt)
structure Øzinc blende (ZnS) structure
MODULE 8: CHEMISTRY OF THE ENVIRONMENT

Earth’s Atmosphere

Note:
- The temperature of the atmosphere varies with altitude.
- When gas molecules are cool, they are sluggish and do not take up as much
space. With the same number of molecules in less space, both air density and air
pressure are higher.
- When gas molecules are warm, they move vigorously and take up more space.
Air density and air pressure are lower.

- Air from the troposphere and stratosphere rarely mix.

Troposphere - Just above the surface of the earth, the temperature decreases with
increasing altitude.
- Minimum of 215K at 10km
- Howling wind and soft breezes, rain, and sunny skies (weather occur in this
region.
- Tropopause - an altitude that defines the upper limit of the troposphere (where jet
aircraft typically fly.
- It contains around 80% of the mass of the atmosphere.
- Notice that in the troposphere warmer air is beneath cooler air. What do you think
the consequence of this is? This condition is unstable. The warm air near the
surface rises and cool air higher in the troposphere sinks. So air in the
troposphere does a lot of mixing. This mixing causes the temperature gradient to
vary with time and place. The rising and sinking of air in the troposphere means
that all of the planet’s weather takes place in the troposphere.
Stratosphere - region after the tropopause from 10km to 50km
- Air temperature increases with altitude reaching maximum of 275K at 50km
- Above it are mesosphere and thermosphere.
- The temperature extremes that form the boundaries between adjacent regions
are denoted by the suffix - pause.
- The boundaries are extremely important because gasses mix across them
relatively slowly.
- When you go from the surface of the earth and work your way up, the air
pressure gradually decreases.
- Here you find a few unusually high clouds called nacreous clouds, the ozone
layer, and even a few aircraft. The highest flying commercial aircraft we have,
 such as the Concorde, can fly in the lower parts of the stratosphere, as high as
11.4 miles (60,000 feet). The record for any jet aircraft is 23.4 miles (123,520
feet) and was set in 1977 by a Soviet pilot. The temperature in the stratosphere
gets warmer as you go up due to the absorption of ultraviolet radiation in the
ozone layer.
- The direct heat source for the stratosphere is the Sun. Air in the stratosphere is
stable because warmer, less dense air sits over cooler, denser air. As a result,
there is little mixing of air within the layer.
- The ozone layer is found within the stratosphere between 15 to 30 km (9 to 19
miles) altitude. The thickness of the ozone layer varies by the season and also by
latitude. The ozone layer is extremely important because ozone gas in the
stratosphere absorbs most of the Sun’s harmful ultraviolet (UV) radiation.
Because of this, the ozone layer protects life on Earth. High-energy UV light
penetrates cells and damages DNA, leading to cell death (which we know as a
bad sunburn). Organisms on Earth are not adapted to heavy UV exposure, which
kills or damages them. Without the ozone layer to reflect UVC and UVB radiation,
most complex life on Earth would not survive long.
Mesosphere - the layer of the atmosphere above the stratopause
- Temperatures in the mesosphere decrease with altitude. Because there are few
gas molecules in the mesosphere to absorb the Sun’s radiation, the heat source
is the stratosphere below. The mesosphere is extremely cold, especially at its
top, about −90 degrees C (−130 degrees F).
- The air in the mesosphere has extremely low density: 99.9 percent of the mass
of the atmosphere is below the mesosphere. As a result, air pressure is very low.
- A person traveling through the mesosphere would experience severe burns from
ultraviolet light since the ozone layer which provides UV protection is in the
stratosphere below.
- There would be almost no oxygen for breathing.
- Stranger yet, an unprotected traveler’s blood would boil at normal body
temperature because the pressure is so low.

Thermosphere - the layer of the atmosphere above the mesopause

- the density of molecules is so low in the thermosphere that one gas molecule
can go about 1 km before it collides with another molecule.
- Since so little energy is transferred, the air feels very cold.
- Within the thermosphere is the ionosphere. The ionosphere gets its name from
the solar radiation that ionizes gas molecules to create a positively charged ion
and one or more negatively charged electrons. The freed electrons travel within
the ionosphere as electric currents. Because of the free ions, the ionosphere has
many interesting characteristics. At night, radio waves bounce off the ionosphere
and back to Earth. This is why you can often pick up an AM radio station far from
its source at night.

Magnetosphere - The Van Allen radiation belts are two doughnut-shaped zones of
highly charged particles that are located beyond the atmosphere
- The particles originate in solar flares and fly to Earth on the solar wind. Once
trapped by Earth’s magnetic field, they follow along the field’s magnetic lines of
force. These lines extend from above the equator to the North Pole and also to
the South Pole then return to the equator.
- When massive solar storms cause the Van Allen belts to become overloaded with
particles, the result is the most spectacular feature of the ionosphere—the
nighttime aurora. The particles spiral along magnetic field lines toward the poles.
The charged particles energize oxygen and nitrogen gas molecules, causing
them to light up. Each gas emits a particular color of light.
Exosphere - the outermost layer of the atmosphere
- There is no real outer limit to the exosphere, the outermost layer of the
atmosphere; the gas molecules finally become so scarce that at some point there
are no more. Beyond the atmosphere is the solar wind.
- The solar wind is made of high-speed particles, mostly protons and electrons,
traveling rapidly outward from the Sun.

Photochemical Smog
- Smog is a mixture of fog and smoke which occurs in some busy industrial cities.

Two types of Smog:

1. Classical Smog - produced by the combustion or burning of fossil fuels like coal,
petrol or gasoline etc., and caused by a mixture of smoke and sulfur dioxide
(SO2) present in air.
- Also known as london smog
- It is reducing in nature
- It occurs in cold, humid climate
- Major constituents are smoke, fog and SO2.
- It occurs both during the day and at night
2. Photochemical Smog - produced when ultraviolet light from the sun reacts with
nitrogen oxide (NOx) and volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in the atmosphere.
- It s also referred to as “summer smog” or “los angeles smog”
- It is an oxidizing smog ad visible brown haze
- It only happens in the presence of sunlight
- Major constituents are hydrocarbons, O3, PAN and NO2
- It is most prominent during the morning and afternoon.
- Formation of photochemical smog is influenced by weather condition such
as:
Warm sunny days
Gentle winds
Lower level inversion (thermal inversion)
Combustion of hydrocarbon and nitrogenoxide
- Sources are:
Volcanic eruption
Forest fire
Automobiles
Industry
Powerplant
 - Reactions of photochemical smog:
Nitrogen and Oxygen combine in the combustion process to form nitric
oxide
Nitric oxide oxidized in the atmosphere to form nitrogen dioxide
Sunlight breaks down nitrogen dioxide into nitric oxide and an oxigen
radical
The oxygen radical combines with molecular oxygen to form ozone
Ozone is the main component of chemical smog
Nitric Oxide can remove O3 by reacting with it to form NO2 and O2

Acid Rain
- Acid rain or acid deposition occurs when sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides react
in the atmosphere with H2O, O2 and other chemicals to form various acidic
compounds such as HNO3 and H2SO4
- The acids fall to the ground from the atmosphere in wet or dry forms. This can
include rain, snow, fog, hail or even dust.
Forms of Acid deposition
1. Wet deposition - when acidic materials falls from the atmosphere to the ground in
wet form (rain, snow, sleet, hail or fog, then it’s called wet deposition.
2. Dry Deposition - in dry form like dust and ashes

Acid rain is measured through ph

Pure water : ph 7
Normal Rain Water: ph 5.4-5.6
Acid rain water: ph 4.2-4.4

Reactions:
Effects of Acid rain

- Acid in the air react with calcium carbonate of marble and makes yellow in color
- Damages statues monuments, stones, and metals
- Acid rain decreases the pH level of water. Low pH level kills fishes, their eggs
and fish food organisms.
- Acid rain damages high altitude forests. Limiting the soil of essential nutrients
available to them.

Sources of Air Pollution

Classification:

1. Man made
a. Industrial - industry (Carbon Monoxide, Sulfur Dioxide, Nitrogen Dioxide,
Particulate Matters), powerplant (Carbon Monoxide, Sulfur Dioxide,
Nitrogen Dioxide, Hydrogen Fluoride)
b. Traffic - ships(Sulfur Dioxide, Nitrogen Dioxide, Carbon Dioxide Particulate
Matters), buses (Carbon Dioxide, Benzene, Volatile Organic Compounds,
Lead), plane (Nitrogen Dioxide, Carbon Dioxide, Volatile Organic
Compounds, Particulate Matters)
c. Domestic - insecticides (Ammonia, Nitrogen Dioxide, Volatile Organic
Compounds
2. Natural
a. Volcanic Eruption (Water, Sulfur Dioxide, Hydrogen Sulfide, Hydrogen Chloride)
b. Forest Fire (Carbon Monoxide, Hydrocarbon, Smoke, Fly Ash and Soot, Lead)

Effects:
Photochemical smog
Lung cancer
Acid rain

Global Warming
- Is a climatological phenomenon in which the global temperature is rising because
of increasing concentration of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere
- The solar radiation is directly reflected towards space by clouds and the layers of
the atmosphere
- The remainder of the energy is absorbed by ocean, atmosphere, and the earth
surface
MODULE 10: SOIL CHEMISTRY

Soil Pollution

Soil is the uppermost layer of the earth’s surface. Soil pollution is the addition of
substances called pollutants to the soil. Weathering of the earth’s crusts by different
processes leads to the formation of soil that accumulates over the centuries. The soil is
the home for a large part of bacterial biodiversity and other microscopic and
macroscopic living organisms.
Soil pollution refers to anything that causes contamination of soil and degrades
the soil quality. It occurs when the pollutants causing the pollution reduce the quality of
the soil and convert the soil inhabitable for microorganisms and macro organisms living
in the soil.
Soil contamination or soil pollution can occur either because of human activities
or because of natural processes. However, mostly it is due to human activities. The soil
contamination can occur due to the presence of chemicals such as pesticides,
herbicides, ammonia, petroleum hydrocarbons, lead, nitrate, mercury, naphthalene, etc
in an excess amount.
The primary cause of soil pollution is a lack of awareness in general people.
Thus, due to many different human activities such as the overuse of pesticides the soil
will lose its fertility. Moreover, the presence of excess chemicals will increase the
alkalinity or acidity of soil thus degrading the soil quality. This will in turn cause soil
erosion. This soil erosion refers to soil pollution.

Types of Soil Pollutants:

● Heavy metals (such as lead and mercury, at excessively high amounts) in the soil
can make it very poisonous to humans.
● PAHs (polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons) are a class of organic chemicals where
only carbon and hydrogen atoms are present.
● Coke (coal) production, automobile emissions, cigarette smoke, and shale oil
extraction are all sources of PAHs in the soil.
● Industrial Waste Soil contamination can come from the dumping of industrial
waste into soils.
● Pesticides are chemicals (or chemical mixes) that are used to kill or prevent
pests from reproducing.
Causes of soil pollution
a. Dumping of wastes that do not breakdown
b. Use of chemical substances used in agriculture
c. Chemical Waste from industry
d. Deforestation that causes soil errosion

Effects
a. Crops grown i polluted soil carry toxic substances and metals
b. Solid wastes make unfit for growing plants
c. Ingestion of wastes
d. The harmful substances go deep and pollute the underground water

How to reduce:
a. Do not dump waste that cannot be broken down by natural process into the soil
b. Use eco-friendly items
c. Do not use harmful pesticides and insecticides
d. Plants should be grown in empty lands
e. Segregate wastes
MODULE 10: CHEMISTRY OF WATER

Distribution of Water on Earth

Most of Earth’s water is saltwater in the oceans. Freshwater is water that
contains little or no dissolved salt. Most freshwater is frozen in ice caps and glaciers.
Glaciers cover the peaks of some tall mountains. For example, the Cascades Mountains
in North America and the Alps Mountains in Europe are capped with ice. Ice caps cover
vast areas of Antarctica and Greenland. Chunks of ice frequently break off ice caps.
They form icebergs that float in the oceans.

Only a tiny fraction of Earth’s fresh

water is in the liquid state. Most
liquid freshwater is under the
ground in layers of rock. Of
freshwater on the surface, the
majority exists in lakes and soil.
What percentage of fresh water on
the surface is found in living things?

Water can remain in a particular

location for a long time. This is
known as a reservoir. Reservoirs
for water include oceans, glaciers,
ponds, or even the atmosphere. A
water molecule may pass through a
reservoir very quickly or may remain
for much longer. The amount of
time a molecule stays in a reservoir
is known as its residence time. The residence time of water in the ocean is 3,200
years. Of course, not every molecule stays that long. That number is an average for all
molecules.
Water Pollution in the Philippines

Water pollution is a major problem in the Philippines. According to Water

Environment Partnership in Asia (WEPA), 32 percent of the Philippines’ land mass —
approximately 96,000 square kilometers — is used for agriculture. The primary crops
are palay (rice), corn, sugar cane, fruit, root crops, vegetables and trees (for rubber).
Increased population, urbanization, agriculture and industrialization have all reduced the
quality of water in the Philippines.
According to WEPA, water pollution’s effects cost the Philippines approximately
$1.3 billion annually. The government continues to try to clean up the problem,
implementing fines to polluters as well as environmental taxes, but many problems have
not been addressed. According to government monitoring data, up to 58 percent of the
groundwater tested was contaminated with coliform, and approximately one third of
illnesses monitored during a five-year period were caused by water-borne sources. In
addition to this, during the dry season, many areas experience water shortages.

Sources of Water Pollution:

1. Industrial: The metal varies according to industry — lead, mercury, chromium,
cadmium and cyanide.
2. Agricultural: Organic — decayed plants, dead animals, livestock manure, soil runoff;
and non-organic — pesticides and fertilizers.
3. Domestic sewage: Contains pathogens that threaten human health and life.
4. Other sources: Oil, mine or chemical spills and illegal dumping in or near water.