ASSESSMENT IN LEARNING 2

Module 1 Maria Cecilia Carnaje-Sualog, PhDc

Overview of Assessment

A. Domains of Learning

1. Cognitive 

The cognitive domain involves knowledge and the development of intellectual

skills. This includes the recall or recognition of specific facts, procedural patterns,
and concepts that serve in the development of intellectual abilities and skills.
There are six major categories, which are listed in order below, starting from the
simplest behavior to the most complex. The categories can be thought of as
degrees of difficulties. That is, the first one must be mastered before the next one
can take place.
Examples: Recite a policy. Quote prices from
Knowledge: Recall of data. memory to a customer. Knows the safety rules.

Key Words: defines, describes, identifies, knows,

labels, lists, matches, names, outlines, recalls,
recognizes, reproduces, selects, states.
Comprehension: Understand Examples: Rewrites the principles of test writing.
the meaning, translation, Explain in one’s own words the steps for
interpolation, and performing a complex task. Translates an
interpretation of instructions equation into a computer spreadsheet.
and problems. State a
problem in one's own words. Key words: comprehends, converts, defends,
distinguishes, estimates, explains, extends,
generalizes, gives examples, infers, interprets,
paraphrases, predicts, rewrites, summarizes,
translates.
Application: Use a concept Examples: Use a manual to calculate an
in a new situation or employee’s vacation time. Apply laws of statistics
unprompted use of an to evaluate the reliability of a written test.
abstraction. Applies what
was learned in the Key Words: applies, changes, computes,
classroom into novel constructs, demonstrates, discovers, manipulates,
situations in the workplace. modifies, operates, predicts, prepares, produces,
relates, shows, solves, uses.
Analysis: Separates material Examples: Troubleshoot a piece of equipment by
or concepts into component using logical deduction. Recognize logical
parts so that its fallacies in reasoning. Gathers information from a
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Module 1 Maria Cecilia Carnaje-Sualog, PhDc

organizational structure may department and selects the required tasks for
be understood. training.
Distinguishes between facts
and inferences.  Keywords: analyzes, breaks down, compares,
contrasts, diagrams, deconstructs, differentiates,
discriminates, distinguishes, identifies, illustrates,
infers, outlines, relates, selects, separates.
Synthesis: Builds a structure Examples: Write a company operations or
or pattern from diverse process manual. Design a machine to perform a
elements. Put parts together specific task. Integrates training from several
to form a whole, with sources to solve a problem. Revises and process
emphasis on creating a new to improve the outcome.
meaning or structure.
Keywords: categorizes, combines, compiles,
composes, creates, devises, designs, explains,
generates, modifies, organizes, plans, rearranges,
reconstructs, relates, reorganizes, revises,
rewrites, summarizes, tells, writes.
Evaluation: Make judgments Examples: Select the most effective solution. Hire
about the value of ideas or the most qualified candidate. Explain and justify a
materials. new budget.

Keywords: appraises, compares, concludes,

contrasts, criticizes, critiques, defends, describes,
discriminates, evaluates, explains, interprets,
justifies, relates, summarizes, supports.

2. Affective 

This domain includes the manner in which we deal with things emotionally, such
as feelings, values, appreciation, enthusiasms, motivations, and attitudes. The five
major categories listed in order are:
Examples: Listen to others with respect. Listen for
Receiving phenomena: and remember the name of newly introduced
Awareness, willingness to people.
hear, selected attention.
Keywords: asks, chooses, describes, follows,
gives, holds, identifies, locates, names, points to,
selects, sits, erects, replies, uses.
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Responding to phenomena: Examples:  Participates in class discussions. 

Active participation on the Gives a presentation. Questions new ideals,
part of the learners. Attends concepts, models, etc. in order to fully understand
and reacts to a particular them. Know the safety rules and practices them.
phenomenon.  Learning
outcomes may emphasize Keywords: answers, assists, aids, complies,
compliance in responding, conforms, discusses, greets, helps, labels,
willingness to respond, or performs, practices, presents, reads, recites,
satisfaction in responding reports, selects, tells, writes.
(motivation). 
Valuing: The worth or value Examples:  Demonstrates belief in the democratic
a person attaches to a process. Is sensitive towards individual and
particular object, cultural differences (value diversity). Shows the
phenomenon, or ability to solve problems. Proposes a plan to
behavior. This ranges from social improvement and follows through with
simple acceptance to the commitment. Informs management on matters
more complex state of that one feels strongly about.
commitment. Valuing is
based on the internalization Keywords: completes, demonstrates,
of a set of specified values, differentiates, explains, follows, forms, initiates,
while clues to these values invites, joins, justifies, proposes, reads, reports,
are expressed in the selects, shares, studies, works.
learner’s overt behavior and
are often identifiable. 
Organization: Organizes Examples:  Recognizes the need for balance
values into priorities by between freedom and responsible
contrasting different values, behavior. Accepts responsibility for one’s
resolving conflicts between behavior. Explains the role of systematic planning
them, and creating an in solving problems. Accepts professional ethical
unique value system.  The standards. Creates a life plan in harmony with
emphasis is on comparing, abilities, interests, and beliefs. Prioritizes time
relating, and synthesizing effectively to meet the needs of the organization,
values.  family, and self.

Keywords: adheres, alters, arranges, combines,

compares, completes, defends, explains,
formulates, generalizes, identifies, integrates,
modifies, orders, organizes, prepares, relates,
synthesizes.
Internalizing values Examples:  Shows self-reliance when working
(characterization): Has a independently. Cooperates in group
value system that controls activities (displays teamwork). Uses an objective
their behavior. The behavior approach in problem solving.  Displays a
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Module 1 Maria Cecilia Carnaje-Sualog, PhDc

is pervasive, consistent, professional commitment to ethical  practice on a

predictable, and most daily basis. Revises judgments and changes
importantly, characteristic of behavior in light of new evidence. Values people
the learner. Instructional for what they are, not how they look.
objectives are concerned
with the student's general Keywords: acts, discriminates, displays,
patterns of adjustment influences, listens, modifies, performs, practices,
(personal, social, emotional). proposes, qualifies, questions, revises, serves,
solves, verifies.

3. Psychomotor 

The psychomotor domain includes physical movement, coordination, and use of

the motor-skill areas. Development of these skills requires practice and is
measured in terms of speed, precision, distance, procedures, or techniques in
execution. The seven major categories listed in order are:
Examples:  Detects non-verbal communication
Perception: The ability to cues. Estimate where a ball will land after it is
use sensory cues to guide thrown and then moving to the correct location to
motor activity.  This ranges catch the ball. Adjusts heat of stove to correct
from sensory stimulation, temperature by smell and taste of food. Adjusts
through cue selection, to the height of the forks on a forklift by comparing
translation. where the forks are in relation to the pallet.

Keywords: chooses, describes, detects,

differentiates, distinguishes, identifies, isolates,
relates, selects.
Set: Readiness to act. It Examples:  Knows and acts upon a sequence of
includes mental, physical, steps in a manufacturing process.  Recognize
and emotional sets. These one’s abilities and limitations. Shows desire to
three sets are dispositions learn a new process (motivation). NOTE: This
that predetermine a person’s subdivision of Psychomotor is closely related with
response to different the "Responding to phenomena" subdivision of
situations (sometimes called the Affective domain.
mindsets).
Keywords: begins, displays, explains, moves,
proceeds, reacts, shows, states, volunteers.
Guided response: The early Examples:  Performs a mathematical equation as
stages in learning a complex demonstrated. Follows instructions to build a
skill that includes imitation model. Responds hand-signals of instructor while
and trial and error. learning to operate a forklift.
Adequacy of performance is
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achieved by practicing.
Keywords: copies, traces, follows, react,
reproduce, responds
Mechanism: This is the Examples:  Use a personal computer. Repair a
intermediate stage in leaking faucet. Drive a car.
learning a complex
skill. Learned responses Keywords: assembles, calibrates, constructs,
have become habitual and dismantles, displays, fastens, fixes, grinds, heats,
the movements can be manipulates, measures, mends, mixes, organizes,
performed with some sketches.
confidence and proficiency. 
Complex Overt Response: Examples:  Maneuvers a car into a tight parallel
The skillful performance of parking spot. Operates a computer quickly and
motor acts that involve accurately. Displays competence while playing
complex movement the piano.
patterns. Proficiency is
indicated by a quick, Keywords: assembles, builds, calibrates,
accurate, and highly constructs, dismantles, displays, fastens, fixes,
coordinated performance, grinds, heats, manipulates, measures, mends,
requiring a minimum of mixes, organizes, sketches. NOTE: The key
energy. This category words are the same as Mechanism, but will have
includes performing without adverbs or adjectives that indicate that the
hesitation, and automatic performance is quicker, better, more accurate,
performance. For example, etc.
players are often utter
sounds of satisfaction or
expletives as soon as they
hit a tennis ball or throw a
football, because they can
tell by the feel of the act
what the result will produce.
Adaptation: Skills are well Examples:  Responds effectively to unexpected
developed and the individual experiences.  Modifies instruction to meet the
can modify movement needs of the learners. Perform a task with a
patterns to fit special machine that it was not originally intended to do
requirements. (machine is not damaged and there is no danger
in performing the new task).

Keywords: adapts, alters, changes, rearranges,

reorganizes, revises, varies.
Origination: Creating new Examples:  Constructs a new theory. Develops a
movement patterns to fit a new and comprehensive training programming.
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particular situation or Creates a new gymnastic routine.

specific problem.  Learning
outcomes emphasize Keywords: arranges, builds, combines,
creativity based upon highly composes, constructs, creates, designs, initiate,
developed skills. makes, originates.

As mentioned earlier, the committee did not produce a compilation for the
psychomotor domain model, but others have. The one discussed above is by
Simpson (1972). There are two other popular versions:

R.H. Dave's (1970):

 Imitation: Observing and patterning behavior after someone else.

Performance may be of low quality. Example: Copying a work of art.
 Manipulation: Being able to perform certain actions by following
instructions and practicing. Example: Creating work on one's own, after
taking lessons, or reading about it.
 Precision: Refining, becoming more exact. Few errors are apparent.
Example: Working and reworking something, so it will be "just right."
 Articulation: Coordinating a series of actions, achieving harmony and
internal consistency. Example: Producing a video that involves music,
drama, color, sound, etc.
 Naturalization: Having high level performance become natural, without
needing to think much about it. Examples: Michael Jordan playing
basketball, Nancy Lopez hitting a golf ball, etc.

B. Review of Traditional Assessment

Techniques

1. Multiple Choice
In testing, multiple-choice is the most widely
used selection type test, perhaps because
these questions can be used to test such a
wide range of instructional objectives, are
easy to conduct and score, and are less
prone to bias and subjectivity (Laprise,
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Module 1 Maria Cecilia Carnaje-Sualog, PhDc

2012). One major weakness of multiple-

choice tests besides inviting students to
guess at the correct answer is the ease with
which they can be structured to require only
recognition or recall of
information (Parmenter, 2009). Test
designers should strive for questions that
require application of knowledge as well as
recall, aiming higher in Bloom’s Taxonomy.
For example, higher-level multiple-choice
questions can be based on interpretation of
data presented in charts, graphs, maps, or
other formats (Laprise, 2012; Shank, 2006).
Multiple-choice questions consist of two
parts:  a stem and alternatives (A. Abu-
Dawwas, 2014). See the table below for a
complete description of these
elements (Shank, 2006).
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Module 1 Maria Cecilia Carnaje-Sualog, PhDc

Dissection of a
multiple choice
question
Comm
Descri on
Part
ption Proble
ms
1. Descri Conf


Stem bes using

the: or
ambi
 ques guou
tion s
to be langu
answ age
ered,  Inad
 inco equa
mple te
te instru
state ction
ment s
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Module 1 Maria Cecilia Carnaje-Sualog, PhDc

Dissection of a
multiple choice
question
Comm
Descri on
Part
ption Proble
ms
to be
com
plete
d,
 decis
ion
to be
mad
e, or
 probl
em
or
situa
tion
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Module 1 Maria Cecilia Carnaje-Sualog, PhDc

Dissection of a
multiple choice
question
Comm
Descri on
Part
ption Proble
ms
to be
resol
ved
2. The  Conf
Altern alterna using
atives tives or
from ambi
which guou
the s
langu
learner
age
selects
 No
the clear
correct right
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Module 1 Maria Cecilia Carnaje-Sualog, PhDc

Dissection of a
multiple choice
question
Comm
Descri on
Part
ption Proble
ms
answ
er
 Poorl
y
writte
answe
n or
r(s) impla
usibl
e
distra
ctors

All questions in a multiple-choice test

should stand independently, so avoid using
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Module 1 Maria Cecilia Carnaje-Sualog, PhDc

questions that depend on knowing the

answers to other questions on the test.
Also, check to see if information given in
some items provides clues to the answers
of others. Below are some helpful tips on
building the stem and alternatives (A. Abu-
Dawwas, 2014).
Constructing the Stem
Strategies to try: The "stem" of the item,
which poses a problem or states a
question, should be written first. The basic
rule for stem writing is that students should
be able to understand the question without
reading it several times or having to read all
the options.
 Write the stem as a single, clearly stated
problem. Direct questions are best, but
completion statements may be used to
avoid awkward phrasing (Laprise, 2012).
 If you do use a completion statement,
place the blank at the end of the stem,
never within it.
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Module 1 Maria Cecilia Carnaje-Sualog, PhDc

 State the question as briefly as possible.

In higher-level questions, the stem will
normally be longer than in lower-level
questions, but still strive for brevity.
 Include as much of the item in the stem
as possible, to keep alternative responses
brief.
 If possible, state the question in positive
form because students often misread
negatively phrased questions (McAllister
& Guidice, 2012).
 If you must write a negative item,
emphasize the negative. It should be
CAPITALIZED or bolded to call attention
to it.
 Avoid double negatives (e.g., "Which of
these is not the least important
characteristic of the Soviet economy?").
 Avoid mutually inclusive and mutually
exclusive answers as much as possible.
 Remember that stems are used for
testing, not teaching; two-sentence stems
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Module 1 Maria Cecilia Carnaje-Sualog, PhDc

that convey information first and then ask

for responses violate good practice.
 Group questions with the same directions
together and provide clear
instructions (Shank, 2006).
 Use clear, precise, unambiguous
language, void of highly technical
language or jargon unless these are part
of the assessment.
Constructing the Alternatives
Multiple-choice questions normally have
four or five alternatives to make it difficult
for students to guess the correct answer.
Only one alternative should be
unequivocally correct; "distractors" should
be unequivocally wrong. If you write items
in which more than one answer is correct
and the student must pick out all the correct
responses, each item is essentially a set of
true-false questions (Hassmén & Hunt,
1994). Other tips for writing alternatives:
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Module 1 Maria Cecilia Carnaje-Sualog, PhDc

Strategies to try: Keep these ideas in mind

as you write distractors for multiple choice
exams.
 Students should be able to select the right
response without having to sort out
complexities that have nothing to do with
knowing the correct answer (McAllister &
Guidice, 2012). For example, referencing
irrelevant regionally or culturally specific
information (non course-related) in the
stem places students without that
knowledge at a disadvantage.
 Use the alternative "none of these" only
for exams in which there are absolutely
correct answers, like math tests. If you do
use it, it should be the correct response
about 25% of the time in four-alternative
tests. (Use this alternative in questions
requiring mathematical computations, to
prevent students from working backward
from the alternatives to determine the
correct answer.)
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 Avoid clues that give away the correct

answer:
o grammatical mismatches between stem

and alternatives
o key words that appear only in the stem

and correct response

o correct alternatives stated in textbook

language and distractors in everyday

language
o absolute terms (always, never, all) in

distractors
o two distractors that have the same

meaning
o longer written alternatives indicate a

correct answer
o do not give the answer away in the

wording of another question

 Try to write items with equal numbers of
alternatives so students do not have to
continually adjust to a new pattern.
 Keep the number of alternatives at five or
less. (The more alternatives used, the
lower the probability of getting the correct
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answer by guessing. Beyond five

alternatives, however, confusion and poor
alternatives are likely.)
 Never use trick questions--they have no
legitimate testing function.
 Ensure that the alternative answers all
relate to the question in some way.
 Avoid distractors that combine distractors
(“b and c”), “all of the above,” and “none
of the above.”
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2. Short-Answer Tests
Essay and short answer items encourage
students to strive toward understanding a
concept as an integrated whole, permit
students to demonstrate achievement of
such higher level objectives as analyzing
given conditions and critical thinking, allow
expression of both breadth and depth of
learning, and encourage originality,
creativity, and divergent thinking (Jordan,
2012).
Strategies to try: Short-answer items can
take a variety of forms: definitions,
descriptions, short essays, or mixtures of
the three. Short essays can require
students to apply their knowledge to a
specific situation. Gronlund (1998) and
Nitko (2001) also identified several tips for
constructing short-answer items:
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 Provide clear, unambiguous directions for

the expected answer.
 Avoid lengthy questions. Make them as
simple and direct as possible.
 Make sure that there is a definite correct
answer.
 Be precise.
 If you choose a fill-in-the-gaps type
question, make sure that there are not too
many gaps.
 With the directions, list the number of
points each question is worth; for longer
questions with higher scores, the worth of
each section should be clear.
3. Matching Tests
Matching questions are a type of multiple-
choice question, and the same principles
apply to writing them. In a matching test,
the student is presented with two related
lists of words or phrases and must match
those in one column with those in a longer
column of alternative responses. It is
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extremely difficult to write matching items

that test higher-order learning. The
connections students make between two
concepts may reflect only a barely
understood association rather than a full
appreciation of the relationship. Matching
tests are appropriate in only a limited
number of situations, and they are difficult
to construct since parallel information is
required (Azer, 2003).
Strategies to try: Matching items are
generally quite brief and are especially
suitable for who, what, when,
and where questions. They can, however,
be used to have students discriminate
among and apply concepts. They permit
efficient use of space and are easy to score
accurately and quickly. Gronlund (1998)
and Nitko (2001) identified several tips for
constructing matching tests:
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 Use only homogeneous material in a set

of matching items (i.e., dates and places
should not be in the same set).
 Use the more involved expressions in the
first column and keep responses short
and simple.
 Supply directions that clearly state the
basis for the matching, indicating whether
a response can be used more than once,
and stating where the answer should be
placed.
 Make sure there is only one correct
response for each stem (although a
response may be used as the correct
answer for more than one stem).
 Avoid giving inadvertent grammatical
clues to the correct response.
 Arrange items in the response column in
some logical order—alphabetical,
numerical, chronological—so that
students can find them easily.
 Avoid breaking a set of items (stems and
responses) over two pages.
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 Use no more than 15 items in one set.

 Provide more responses than stems to
make process-of-elimination guessing
less effective.
 Number each stem for ease in later
discussions.
 Use capital letters for the response signs
rather than lower-case letters.
4. True/False
True/false tests are relatively easy to
prepare since each item comes directly
from the content. They offer the instructor
the opportunity to write questions that cover
more content than most other item types
since students can respond to many
quickly.
True/false items, however, may not give a
valid estimate of the students' knowledge
since half can be answered correctly simply
by chance. True/false tests are poor
instruments for diagnosing student
strengths and weaknesses and are
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generally considered to be "tricky" by

students. Since true/false questions tend to
be either extremely easy or extremely
difficult, they do not discriminate between
students of varying ability as well as other
types of questions do (McAllister & Guidice,
2012).
Strategies to try: When constructing
true/false items, consider the following
(Gronlund, 1998; Nitko, 2001):
 Keep statements brief and language as
simple and clear as possible.
 Use a relatively large number of items (75
or more when the entire test is T/F).
 Avoid verbatim statements from the text.
 Avoid negative statements, especially
double negatives.
 Make sure statements are entirely true or
entirely false. Partially or marginally true
or false statements cause unnecessary
ambiguity.
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 Avoid using two or more ideas in a

question.
 Avoid words like 'all', 'always' or 'never'.
Such words tend to tip students off to the
correct answers.
 Use more false than true items, but not
more than 15% more. False items tend to
discriminate more than true items.
 Avoid broad general statements.
5. Essay Tests
Many instructors consider essay questions
the ideal form of testing since essays seem
to require more effort from the student than
other types of questions. Students cannot
answer an essay question by simply
recognizing the correct answer, nor can
they study for an essay exam by only
memorizing factual material. Essay
questions can test complex thought
processes, critical thinking, and problem-
solving skills, and require students to use
proper construction and style to
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communicate in sentences and

paragraphs--a skill undergraduates need to
exercise more frequently. However, essay
questions that require no more than a
regurgitation of facts do not measure
higher-order learning (McAllister & Guidice,
2012). Essay exams also place limitations
on the amount of material that can be
sampled in the test, a fact that may cause
students to complain (sometimes
legitimately): "I knew a lot more about the
subject than the test showed," or "Your test
didn't reflect the material we covered."
Essay tests also provide students more
opportunity for bluffing, rambling, and
"snowing" than do limited-choice tests.
They favor students who possess good
writing skills and neatness and are pitfalls
for students who tend to go off on tangents
or misunderstand the main point of the
question. The main disadvantage, however,
is that essay items are very difficult and
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time-consuming to score and potentially

subject to biased and unreliable scoring.
As you plan for essay exams, define the
type of learning you expect to measure. For
example, do you expect students to be able
to construct a reasoned argument from
evidence, to analyze weaknesses in
competing arguments, to select the best
course of action in a new situation, or some
combination of all these competencies?
The best essay questions are based on the
cognitive skills underlying the content rather
than on the content alone.
Strategies to try: To test problem-solving
skills, you must clearly communicate the
format and method for solving the problems
to students. Without clues about how to
proceed, students may adopt a plausible
but incorrect approach, even if they knew
how to solve the problem correctly. If you're
interested in testing students' writing skills,
you need to stipulate the kinds of skills they
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must demonstrate and provide some test

time for thinking and composing a well-
crafted answer (otherwise, the effects of
time pressure and test anxiety will usually
result in poor writing) (Azer, 2003).
 Distinguish between questions that
require objectively verifiable answers and
those that ask students to express their
opinions, attitudes, or creativity. The latter
are more difficult to construct and
evaluate because it is more difficult to
specify grading criteria (such questions,
therefore, tend to be less valid measures
of performance). Take-home tests and
other out-of-class writing assignments
may be more appropriate for
demonstrating these kinds of skills.
 Do not allow students to select which
essay questions to answer (e.g., "choose
two out of five"). It is not possible to
compose five equivalent questions, and
students will usually choose the weaker
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questions, thereby reducing the exam's

reliability.
 Write an outline of your best
approximation of the correct answer with
all of its sections in place. This outline, in
concert with a well-developed rubric
(including expected answer length, its
form and structure, any special elements,
etc.) is a strong tool for grading purposes.
 Be sure to make the grading rubric
available to students before the exam.
Students perform better on written work
when instructors provide clear instructions
and expectations.
 Make essay questions comprehensive
rather than focused on small units of
content.
 Require students to demonstrate a
command of background information by
asking them to provide supporting
evidence for claims and assertions.
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Innovative Test Assessments

There are ways to add variation to the
traditional assessment format. Both the
examples below provide a way to involve
students in the creation of the exam they
will take. This is an empowering act that
allows students to take an active role in
building their own
assessments (Sluijsmans, Brand-Gruwel,
van Merriënboer, & Bastiaens, 2002;
Stefani, 1998) and reflect on their own
learning (Baty, 2006).
Participatory Exams
Participatory exams are based on
“students’ active participation in all phases
of the exam process” (Shen, Bieber, & Hiltz,
2005, p. 95). The participatory examination
process includes students writing an exam
question, answering an exam question, and
grading/justifying their peer’s exam
question (the one they created) using
guidelines from the course instructor.
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Another student or instructor then grades

the exam questions (optionally). The
instructor then assigns a final course grade
incorporating the student’s input. Finally, a
student may dispute their final grade with
the course instructor if the grade was
perceived as unfair. A unique feature of this
assessment method is that all steps of this
process (questions, answers, grades, and
disputes) are posted online for all students
to view/read.
Collaborative Exams
Swan, Shen, and Hiltz (2006) introduce an
assessment form that has many parallels to
participatory exams, called the collaborative
exam. Collaborative exams feature small
groups of students (usually around 3-5) that
create, answer, and grade questions (those
they created) using a rubric. Finally, the
instructor, after reading the student-
suggested grade and justification, assigns a
final grade. Like the participatory exam, the
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collaborative exam is also highly visible,

with questions, answers, and feedback
available for all students to see. Both of
these exam formats include the same
series of steps; the one notable difference
between the collaborative and the
participatory exam is that there is more
student teamwork and cooperation with the
collaborative exam, whereas the
participatory exam is largely an individual
endeavor (Papinczak et al., 2012).
Below is a diagram showing the difference
between tradition, participatory, and
collaborative exams (Shen et al., 2005).
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D. Table of Specifications (TOS)

Table of specification is a chart that
provides graphic representations of the
content of a course or curriculum elements
and the educational objectives. • Table of
specifications is a two –way chart which
describes the topics to be covered in a test
and the number of items or points which will
be associated with each topic.

BENEFITS:
1. Clarify Learning outcomes
2.Ensure content coverage
3.Matching methods of instruction
4.Help in Assessment plan and blue print
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5.Evaluation of the program

THINGS SHOULD BE TAKEN INTO
ACCOUNT WHEN BUILDING A TABLE
OF SPECIFICATION
1-course learning outcomes/objective .
2-topics covered in class.
3-amount of time spent on those topics .
4-methods of instruction .
5-assessment plan .

CONSTRUCTING THE TABLE OF

SPECIFICATIONS
1. Table is guided by the content of the
curriculum
2.Followed by learning outcomes/objectives
3.Followed by Bloom’s taxonomy and its
level and weightage keeping in mind the
content and learning outcomes
4.Followed by methods of instruction
matching with content, learning outcomes,
weightage and time spent on the topic.
Percentage should work back to 100%
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5.Finally assessment plan in added keeping

in mind content, learning outcomes,
weightage and time spent on instruction.

WHAT MAKES A GOOD TEST?

An employment test is considered "good" if
the following can be said about it:
 The test measures what it claims to
measure consistently or reliably. This
means that if a person were to take the
test again, the person would get
a similar test score.
 The test measures what it claims to
measure. For example, a test of mental
ability does in fact measure mental
ability, and not some other
characteristic.
 The test is job-relevant. In other words,
the test measures one or more
characteristics that are important to the
job.
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 By using the test, more effective

employment decisions can be made
about individuals. For example, an
arithmetic test may help you to select
qualified workers for a job that requires
knowledge of arithmetic operations

E. Validity
Validity is the most important issue in
selecting a test. Validity refers to what
characteristic the test measures and how
well the test measures that characteristic.
 Validity tells you if the characteristic
being measured by a test is related to
job qualifications and requirements.
 Validity gives meaning to the test
scores. Validity evidence indicates that
there is linkage between test
performance and job performance. It
can tell you what you may conclude or
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predict about someone from his or her

score on the test. If a test has been
demonstrated to be a valid predictor of
performance on a specific job, you can
conclude that persons scoring high on
the test are more likely to perform well
on the job than persons who score low
on the test, all else being equal.
 Validity also describes the degree to
which you can make specific
conclusions or predictions about people
based on their test scores. In other
words, it indicates the usefulness of the
test.
Principle of Assessment: Use only
assessment procedures and instruments
that have been demonstrated to be valid for
the specific purpose for which they are
being used.
It is important to understand the differences
between reliability and validity. Validity will
tell you how good a test is for a particular
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situation; reliability will tell you how

trustworthy a score on that test will be. You
cannot draw valid conclusions from a test
score unless you are sure that the test is
reliable. Even when a test is reliable, it may
not be valid. You should be careful that any
test you select is both reliable and valid for
your situation.

A test's validity is established in reference

to a specific purpose; the test may not be
valid for different purposes. For example,
the test you use to make valid predictions
about someone's technical proficiency on
the job may not be valid for predicting his or
her leadership skills or absenteeism rate.
This leads to the next principle of
assessment.
Similarly, a test's validity is established in
reference to specific groups. These groups
are called the reference groups. The test
may not be valid for different groups. For
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example, a test designed to predict the

performance of managers in situations
requiring problem solving may not allow you
to make valid or meaningful predictions
about the performance of clerical
employees. If, for example, the kind of
problem-solving ability required for the two
positions is different, or the reading level of
the test is not suitable for clerical
applicants, the test results may be valid for
managers, but not for clerical employees.

Test developers have the responsibility of

describing the reference groups used to
develop the test. The manual should
describe the groups for whom the test is
valid, and the interpretation of scores for
individuals belonging to each of these
groups. You must determine if the test can
be used appropriately with the particular
type of people you want to test. This group
of people is called your target population or
target group.
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Principle of Assessment: Use

assessment tools that are appropriate for
the target population.
Your target group and the reference group
do not have to match on all factors; they
must be sufficiently similar so that the test
will yield meaningful scores for your group.
For example, a writing ability test developed
for use with college seniors may be
appropriate for measuring the writing ability
of white-collar professionals or managers,
even though these groups do not have
identical characteristics. In determining the
appropriateness of a test for your target
groups, consider factors such as
occupation, reading level, cultural
differences, and language barriers.

Recall that the Uniform Guidelines require

assessment tools to have adequate
supporting evidence for the conclusions you
reach with them in the event adverse
impact occurs. A valid personnel tool is one
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that measures an important characteristic of

the job you are interested in. Use of valid
tools will, on average, enable you to make
better employment-related decisions. Both
from business-efficiency and legal
viewpoints, it is essential to only use tests
that are valid for your intended use.

In order to be certain an employment test is

useful and valid, evidence must be
collected relating the test to a job. The
process of establishing the job relatedness
of a test is called validation.

METHODS FOR CONDUCTING

VALIDATION STUDIES
The Uniform Guidelines discuss the
following three methods of conducting
validation studies. The Guidelines describe
conditions under which each type of
validation strategy is appropriate. They do
not express a preference for any one
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strategy to demonstrate the job-relatedness

of a test.
 Criterion-related validation requires
demonstration of a correlation or other
statistical relationship between test
performance and job performance. In
other words, individuals who score high
on the test tend to perform better on the
job than those who score low on the
test. If the criterion is obtained at the
same time the test is given, it is called
concurrent validity; if the criterion is
obtained at a later time, it is called
predictive validity.
 Content-related validation requires a
demonstration that the content of the
test represents important job-related
behaviors. In other words, test items
should be relevant to and measure
directly important requirements and
qualifications for the job.
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 Construct-related validation requires
a demonstration that the test measures
the construct or characteristic it claims
to measure, and that this characteristic
is important to successful performance
on the job.

F. Reliability
Reliability refers to how dependably or
consistently a test measures a
characteristic. If a person takes the test
again, will he or she get a similar test score,
or a much different score? A test that yields
similar scores for a person who repeats the
test is said to measure a characteristic
reliably.
How do we account for an individual who
does not get exactly the same test score
every time he or she takes the test? Some
possible reasons are the following:
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 Test taker's temporary psychological

or physical state. Test performance
can be influenced by a person's
psychological or physical state at the
time of testing. For example, differing
levels of anxiety, fatigue, or motivation
may affect the applicant's test results.
 Environmental factors. Differences in
the testing environment, such as room
temperature, lighting, noise, or even the
test administrator, can influence an
individual's test performance.
 Test form. Many tests have more than
one version or form. Items differ on each
form, but each form is supposed to
measure the same thing. Different forms
of a test are known as parallel forms or
alternate forms. These forms are
designed to have similar measurement
characteristics, but they contain different
items. Because the forms are not
exactly the same, a test taker might do
better on one form than on another.
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 Multiple raters. In certain tests, scoring

is determined by a rater's judgments of
the test taker's performance or
responses. Differences in training,
experience, and frame of reference
among raters can produce different test
scores for the test taker.
These factors are sources of chance or
random measurement error in the
assessment process. If there were no
random errors of measurement, the
individual would get the same test
score, the individual's "true" score, each
time. The degree to which test scores
are unaffected by measurement errors
is an indication of the reliability of the
test.

Reliable assessment tools produce

dependable, repeatable, and
consistent information about people.
In order to meaningfully interpret test
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scores and make useful employment or

career-related decisions, you need
reliable tools. This brings us to the next
principle of assessment

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