REGIONAL PLANNING

Unit I
Geography and regional planning Concept of planning region Framework of regional
planning Approaches to regional planning analysis

Unit II
Types of regions Methods of regional delineation - Regional hierarchy Growth pole and
growth centre

Unit III
Regional planning in India (appraisal of five year planning) Development programmes in
India (Command area, Drought prone, metropolitan, river valley, tribal and hill area projects)

Unit IV
Indicators of regional development regional imbalances and inequalities in India Regional
allocation of resources in India

Unit V
Town planning (Basic concepts, need and functions) Urban Planning classical theories
(Concentric zone, Sector, Multiple nuclie models) Metropolitan Planning in India
 UNIT I
Introducyion - Geography and regional planningNeed - Concept of planning region
Framework of regional planning Approaches to regional planning analysis

Introduction

The concept of region originated in the 50th Century B.C., when Heridiotus made an attempt
to divide the world into regions. The modem regional consciousness and thinking in terms of
areas and regions instead of places and points began only in the beginning of the present
century. "Geography of France" of Dela Blache (1903) is a monumental work concerning
regionalisation and regional development in economic literature. Prior to the second decade of
the twentieth century the concept of "true
region" based on the philosophy of "environmental determinism" gained currency in the west.
The determinist understanding of the character of a region formed the basis of the Fortunately
concept of regional delimitation Kurbar, Semeney - Tyanstanskiy and others, further elaborated
the same concept.
The deterministic philosophy, which emphasizes differences in the level and pattern of
development in terms of the variance in the nature of physical constraints gradually, gave way
to subjective notion because of and the technological and
institutional changes. This led to arbitrary exercises in regionalisation and reaction to it resulted
in the emergence of neo-determinism. The philosophy of neo determinism underlines the fact
that regionalisation is to be viewed as a method of discovering objective regions independent
of the consciousness of a researcher. It is believed to be possible to do away with subjectivity
and complete automation of regionalisation exercise with the help of unbiased data and
appropriate statistical technique. Fallacy of such a viewpoint came to surface when
Kolosovskiy9 demonstrated major objectives as opposed to 13-region scheme of Gosplan.
Discovery of objective regions is in fact only an aspect of a comprehensive process of region
alienation. After the second world war, a phenomenal and dramatic rise in the regional
consciousness led to the holding of conferences on regionalisation, setting up of permanent
bodies for regionalisation and publication of a plethora of literature in the forms of books,
articles and bulletins. This also resulted in the application of more sophisticated techniques for
identifying various types of regions.

Regional Planning has emerged as distinct discipline in recent past but the concept of region
is a field of investigation that has still long way to go before the same could effectively be
employed for planning purposes. Regions have been considered differently by different
researchers belonging to various disciplines. And while doing so these researchers tended
to conceive regions in context to concepts pertaining to their own' disciplines. An idea of
this variation in thinking and conceptualisation of regions can be had by looking at what a
sample of thinkers have to say in this regard.

Region and Regional Planning

 ere physical conditions are
homogeneous, is considered as region". Aronvici (3) defines region as "a geographical
area or areas which a given civilization standard of a people seems to require for the
fulfilment of its aspirations through material resources". Herbertson (21) opines a region as
"a complex of land, water, air, plant,, animal, and man, regarded in the spatial relationship

No matter which concept of region is considered for discussion in general, one has to define
a definite physical boundary in each case. In practice the whole problem of regionalization
boils down to determination of boundary of the region. This task of determination of
boundary in a given situation is called regional delineation.

Regional Planning encompasses even larger area when compared to city planning; Number
of cities might be covered when considering a region but rural area remains at the core for
which planning is to be done. Along with rural areas many lower level towns in addition to
the villages witnessing transformation to towns also adds up to area for which regional
plans are made. Regional plans can cut across the boundaries of different states.

Need of regional planning

Integrating a much
regional planning;
Planning for integration of rural area and the overall balanced development of the region.
Fulfilling the needs of a backward region and providing higher order services for relatively
developed areas. Strategies are formulated carefully to keep the goods and resources
available to all the places as per their requirements.

Regional planning also helps in reducing the conflicts and competition for resources
between cities in a region. Developing small towns or satellite towns helps in relieving the
stress from higher order town thus increasing efficiency.

Regional plans takes into account the economic, spatial and environmental goals and tries
to address national level issues. Integrated development and critical analysis of functional
linkages is one of the key to achieve the desired growth.

Unlike city planning where land use plans are prepared regional planning lays emphasis on
policy for the region. Policies are them elaborated and objectives are formed which differ
from area to area within the region.

Regional plans are a must when cities start to influence development even in far places
which might end up in under-utilization and wastage of resources without proper planning.

Polices have a larger and longer impact on the overall growth of region and might conflict
with the land use plan or plan prepared for a specific city; Generally a new body is formed
 which takes up the work of coordinating between all the individual departments working
in the region especially with the development authorities and local bodies.

Allocation of funds for different activities and different areas can also be taken up by the
regional planning board/authority. Government intervention such as implementing a new
scheme or policy for a region can also boost the growth perspectives and aide the policy
prepared by regional board.

Reduced disparities help directly and indirectly by reducing forced migration, reducing trip
lengths, providing better and more job opportunities in nearby areas, having the required
services instead of letting them emerging randomly. A special economic zone (SEZ) are
also established to support the growth of a region and attract investments.

Geography and Regional Planning

Extensive urban and suburban growth has characterized much of the latter half of
the 20th century. Accordingly, urban geography and urban and regional planning have grown
as key areas of geography, with geographers contributing significantly to the broader planning
field. At the dawn of the 21st century, as urban areas become increasingly congested and
populated, the need for planners will only grow.
Regional planning focuses on the spatial organization of activities and land use
activities, infrastructure and across a larger area of land than an individual city or town.
Regional planning is a sub-field of urban planning as it relates land use practices on a broader
scale. Regional planning also studies the processes and forces that effect change in different
regions, including population growth and distribution, ethnic makeup, political movements,
and industrial patterns. Regional planners focus both on the unique or distinctive characteristics
of individual regions and on the similarities that exist between many regions.

complex use of urban and rural land necessary for successful planning and for providing
possible solutions to problems arising from conflicting land uses within regions. The powerful
tools of geography namely GIS, cartography, and remote sensing further bolster the

Ideally, planners are able to prepare master plans that will benefit the economy and
social fabric of neighbourhoods, communities, cities, and regions. They work to make cities
efficient, but attractive places to live and work by considering zoning regulations, traffic flows,
building density, hydrology, population distribution, and recreational needs. To gain these
skills, planners study population geography, transportation, social service, utilities, and solid-
waste disposal systems.
Some planners concentrate almost exclusively on transportation planning. Traffic
congestion and its associated noise and air pollution has become a major problem in
many cities, especially since people have resisted most mass transit initiatives and insisted on
private automobiles as their preferred means of transportation. This puts a tremendous strain
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developed spatial analysis skills, geographers can assist in this planning endeavour.
II. Concept of Planning Region
A planning region is a segment of territory (space) over which economic decisions

order to attain economic development. Planning regions may be administrative or political

regions such as state, district or the block because such regions are better in management and
collecting statistical data. Hence, the entire country is a planning region for national plans, state
is the planning region for state plans and districts or blocks are the planning regions for micro-
regional plans.
For proper implementation and realization of plan objectives, a planning region
should have fairly homogeneous economic, to zoographical and socio-cultural structure. It
should be large enough to contain a range of resources provide it economic viability. It should
also internally cohesive and geographically a contagion area unit. Its resource endowment
should be that a satisfactory level of product combination consumption and exchange is
feasible. It should have some nodal points to regulate the flows.

One of the most formidable problems of regional planning is the adoption of the
suitable concept of region and the demarcation of planning regions. There are various types of
regions in a country and we can have as many sets of regions as the criteria adopted for the
purpose of regionalisation. The concept of a planning region must be such as to be useful as
operational concept for demarcating planning regions and for implementing regional plans. Of
the various types of regions, the functional regions appear to be most suitable for regional
planning. But there are certain difficulties in adopting this concept in underdeveloped
countries. Firstly, in such countries central or metropolitan regions/places are quite few and
most of the areas are marginal or non-regional areas. Hence, while adopting the concept of
functional regions and demarcating planning regions every care will have to be taken that such
areas are not left out. Secondly, under-developed economies are dual economies with few
monetised sectors and market-oriented centres and the rest of the country being non-monetised
and barter-based. While in the case of the former functional regions can well serve the purposes
of regional planning in the case of the latter any search for functional regions are meaningless.
In view of these difficulties in underdeveloped countries, planning regions will have to be so
demarcated as will take care of both developed and less developed parts. As regards the size of
such regions, it will have to be determined with reference to the problem to be dealt with. For
the problem or problems of development will have to be tackled at the most appropriate level.
And hence, we will have to resort to regional planning at different spatial levels. Such an
approach will ensure the full development of the potentialities of even the smallest unit in the
planning region and narrowing down of the areal differences in economic development within
that region. When considering regions for planning we have a set of different types of
functional regions, macro regions and micro-regions forming a hierarchy and corresponding to
each type and hierarchy we can have a regional plan. For example, we have regions of the first
order, macro-functional regions which correspond, in the case of India, to states. Then we have
regions of the second order, meso-functional regions, which are metropolitan or river valley
regions. Thirdly, within these regions, there are regions of the third order, micro functional
regions, which correspond to the administrative areas of a State. Lastly, we have the locality
as the area of planning, micro area, which is the fourth order region and comprise a village or
a group of villages or a town. Corresponding to these hierarchical regions we can have four
tiers of regional plans in a country like India. They are:
i. Macro-regional planning,
ii. Meso-regional planning,
iii. Micro-regional plans,
iv. Local planning.
The problem of the concept, choice and demarcating planning regions is a complex
one and assumes great analytical as well as practical significance. The demarcation of regions
itself must be considered an analytical variable. The planning authorities have to choose the
concept of region and also the methods and indices of the demarcation of regions. Following
are some of the attempts made the scholars to divide India into planning regions,
V. Nath (1965):
V. Nath prepared a scheme of Resource Development Regions and Division of
India based at the homogeneity in physical factors, and agricultural land use and cropping
pattern. Although the regions cut across the state boundaries, the division is kept within the
state limit.
Thus, the entire country has been divided into 15 main and 48 sub regions. These
major resource development regions include (1) Western Himalaya, (2) Eastern Himalaya, (3)
Lower Ganga Plain, (4) Middle Ganga Plain, (5) L Upper Ganga Plain, (6) Trans-Ganga Plain,
(7) Eastern Plateaus and Hills, (8) Central Plateaus and; I Hills, (9) Western Plateaus and Hills,
(10) Southern Plateaus and Hills, (11) Eastern Coastal Plains and Hills, (12) Western Coastal
Plains and Ghats, (13) Gujarat Plains and Hills, (14) Western Arid Region, and (15) Island
Region.
L.S. Bhat and V.L.S. Prakasa Rao (1964):
Bhat and Rao proposed a regional framework for resource development.
Delineation was done with the help of qualitative maps of distribution of important natural
resources. The major regions cut across the state boundaries. However, administrative
convenience was not ignored. The scheme included 7 major and 51 minor regions. Seven major
regions include: (1) South India, (2) Western India, (3) Eastern Central India, (4) North-Eastern
India, (5) Middle Ganga Plain, (6) North-Western India, and (7) Northern India.
NATMO:
Under the directorship of Professor S.P. Chatterji (1966), the National Atlas
Organisation proposed a 4-tier scheme of economic regions. In this scheme macro regions
constitute a group of states delineated with reference to the factors like population, politico-
historical considerations, economic ties, agricultural output, and complementary character of
natural resources.
P. Sen Gupta:
Following the Soviet concept of economic regions and production specialisation,
P. Sen Gupta (1968) presented a framework of economic regions of different order. She started
with the discovery of planning units of the lowest order and then grouped and regrouped them
to achieve planning regions at meson and macro levels. In her scheme of economic regions,
Sen Gupta gave much importance to natural regions and used modality, production
specialization and utilization of power resources as bases of delineation. Her 7 macro regions
include: (1) North Eastern Region, (2) Eastern Region, (3) Northern Central Region, (4) Central
Region, (5) North-Western Region, (6) Western Region, and (7) Southern Region. These are
further divided into 42 meson regions.
Town and Country Planning Organisation:
In 1968, the Town and Country Planning Organisation suggested a scheme of
planning regions delineated on the principle of economic viability, self-sufficiency and
ecological balance at the macro and meson levels. The emphasis of the scheme was to introduce
regional factor in economic development.
This approach would complement the macro planning at the national level, with a
component of regional policies, aimed at reducing regional disparities in the development. The
macro- regionalization sought to link a set of areas, rich in one type of resources with areas
having complementary resources or even resource poor areas, so that the benefits of economic
activity in the former may flow into the latter.
These planning regions cut across the State boundaries, but do not completely
ignore the basic administrative units. The 13 macro- regions proposed under the scheme
include: (1)South Peninsular (Kerala and Tamil Nadu), (2)Central Peninsular (Karnataka, Goa,
Andhra Pradesh (3) Western Peninsular (western Maharashtra coastal and interior districts),
(4) Central Decca (eastern Maharashtra, central and southern Madhya Pradesh), (5) Eastern
Peninsular (Orissa, Jharkhand north-eastern Andhra Pradesh and Chatting (6) Gujarat
(Gujarat), (7) Western Rajasthan, ( Aravalli Region (Eastern Rajasthan and wasted Madhya
Pradesh), (9) Jammu, Kashmir and Lad (10) Trans Indo-Genetic Plains and Hills (Pune
Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, West Uttar Pradesh and Uttaranchal), (11) Ganga-Yamuna Plains
(central and eastern Uttar Pradesh, and northern Madhya Pradesh), (12) Lower Ganga Plains
(Bihar and West Bengal Plains), and (13) North-Eastern Region (A Sam and north-eastern
states including Sikkim and north Bengal).

III. Framework of Regional Planning

Why a framework for regional planning?
Within the world of development planning, expressions that have become popular
over the last decades are comprehensive and integrated rural development, area development,
basic needs, and a unified approach. The reasons for the increasing use of such expressions are
that national and sectoral plans, if available at all, seldom provide a structure sufficiently
detailed for the coordination and mutual adjustment of local plans and projects, and that too
little attention has been paid to the needs and ideas of the local population. As a result, it has
been difficult to mobilize the social potentials at the regional and local levels.
At the time this Framework was being prepared, regional planning as an instrument
in planned development was receiving considerable attention. Meanwhile, this attention has
shifted to a lower level of planning, such as block level, village, target group, and household
planning. It has shifted from the macro, functional, 'top-down' approach (mainly directed
towards economic growth) to the micro, territorial, integrated, 'bottom-up' approach focused
on basic needs, equity, and popular participation. There seems to be a danger that these two
approaches are seen as alternatives instead of approaches that should be complementary. It is
still an open question what mixture of these approaches should be. But whatever it is, there will
remain the need for a level in planned development where the approaches not only meet but
are also merged.
Within the system of multilateral planning, regional planning can perform a vital
function in providing this level. It can link the development potentials emerging in local plans
and initiatives to the policies and resources of the national level. It can create a structure within
which the various local activities can be coordinated into a development process that is
beneficial to all.
The sophistication of regional planning must be adapted to the available data base
and to the coordination and management capacities of the existing administrative system. If,
however, regional planning is to become an effective bridge between national and sectoral
planning and local initiatives, regional plans must have an internal logic. This means that they
must indicate the relation between objectives and allocated resources and between the
identified projects, programs, or regionalized sector plans, including their coordinated
implementation and the organization thereof.
The very nature of regional plans means that they have to be prepared by
multidisciplinary teams working in an interdisciplinary way. Past experiences have made clear
that it is a time-consuming and costly affair to bring experts from different disciplines together
to prepare, in a concerted effort, a regional plan. The following problems arise:
Team members are often not aware of the pertinent information they have to provide
for the planning purpose.
Team members do not clearly formulate the type of information they need from other-
disciplines, nor specify at what moment in the planning period this information has to
be available.
Team members often collect material and draw up their reports as if they were engaged
in a specialized study for their own discipline.
This want of comprehension can lead to:
Misunderstanding between team members;
Loss of time, because one team member has to wait for information from others;
Collection of material that is neither necessary nor relevant for the regional plan,
resulting in an unbalanced and costly set of data.
In this way, the preparation of regional plans becomes an unnecessarily expensive
and prolonged affair. If it is to become an effective tool for integrated rural development,
regional planning must be performed efficiently, and in a reasonably short period.
As stated earlier, regional or spatial dimension of the problem of economic
planning and development was overlooked for a long time. Correspondingly there had been a
lack of conceptual and theoretical framework within which policy formulations and strategies
could be attempted. With the realisation of the significance of reginal planning attempts have
been made to build up theoretical frameworks with which practical solutions to regional
imbalances can be sought. The pioneering work was done by such thinkers as Von Thunen,
Weber, Losch and Christaller when they postulated location theories. Similarly, contemporary
thinkers like Isard, Garrison, Berry and others have done the empirical research. Trade theories
were also interpreted to offer solutions to the problem of reginal imbalances. But these studies
contribute more to the formulation of sub-theories of regional planning and development than
to the formulation of a general theory of regional planning. Three reasons are responsible for
the failure to develop a general theory:
i. lack of required data, especially at the regional levels,
ii. lack of understanding of the process of regional growth;
iii. and lack of knowledge and availability of methodology in handling the various variables.
It is widely held that the theoretical base for regional planning is derived mainly
from the locational and trade theories. In fact, the two theories are closely related. The
interrelationship between the "pure" Theory of International Trade, i.e. the comparative costs
doctrine and the Location Theory has been widely recognised. Even the assertions to the effect
that the International Trade Theory is only a part of a General Location Theory, as, for example,
made by Bertil Ohlin, have been accepted by the authorities on International Trade Theory.
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occasionally been identified as a type of location theory as for example by Ohlin. This is correct
in a formal sense, since it is one of the major goals of the theory of Foreign Trade to explain
"international division of labour" or in other words, the geographical location of various lines
of production. Location theorists have also brought out the same point when they assert that
trade and location are the two sides of the same coin and that
1) location cannot be explained without at the same time accounting for trade and
2) trade cannot be explained without simultaneous determination of locations".
Marshall was so much impressed by the trade aspect of growth that he said, "the
causes which determine the economic progress of nations belong to the study of International
Trade". It is now widely accepted that there is no fundamental difference between the
international and interregional trade, even from the viewpoint of factor mobility. With the
advent of the location theory introducing the dimension of space has elapsed the distinction
between the two in toto. Interregional trade and international trade are today regarded as the
two sides of the same coin. Besides, disparities in respect of different nations of the world are
also present in respect of different regions within a country and of different sub-regions within
a region. Hence the theory which explains the trade and economic activity among the nations
can well be extended to explain the trade and economic activity among the regions of a nation.
The question that is posed before and answered by the pure theory of International trade in
respect of trade among nations is similar to that which can be asked in respect of interregional
trade : Which region should specialise in the production of which commodity? the theory of
comparative costs as applied to interregional trade thus holds key to the problems of backward
regions of a nation and the disparities between the regions of that nation. With the development
of the means of transport and communications interregional linkages are established through
the interregional flows of commodities and thus the regions are able to exchange their natural
advantages as well as comparative advantages with each other whereby all trading regions
benefit. This free and unfettered trade among regions based on the principle of comparative
costs paves the way for narrowing down the disparities among them through Factor Prices
equalisation. The free movements of labour and capital (in the form of goods) between the
regions leads to equalisation of factor prices interregional. Such equalisation of prices of factors
amounts to the equalisation of standard of living and incomes between trading regions. And
thus, regional disparities are reduced. Thus, the trade theory as a strategy of economic
development in general and regional economic development in particular leads to efficient
location of trade, industry and economic activity among regions, narrowing down of regional
disparities among them and contributes to the overall development of the economy as a whole.
But the theory did not receive universal acclamation. It has been criticised by various thinkers
both on theoretical basis as well as empirical grounds. Of course, there are several vindications
and supporters of the theory. It is vindicated in case of trade relations between equal and
unequal partners by Bhardvaj's study of Indo-U.S. trade. Similarly, Moroney and Walker have
also tested it empirically by applying it to regional situation. The theory is, however, based on
the assumptions which are far from reality and hence it is doubtful whether growing trading
relations among regions have beneficial effects on them, as claimed by the theory. Similarly,
historically the factor-price equalisation tendency has been belied. In spite of tremendous
growth in the means of transport and communications and the growth of interregional linkages
through commodity flows the regional disparities, international and interregional, have not
been narrowed down. Myrdal has argued that because of the cumulative nature of circular
causation internal inequalities between trading partners might, in fact, increase. He has
categorically stated that free trade accentuates the differences in the levels of development
between the regions. "If left to take its natural course, the economic process will be cumulative
instead of equilibrating and it will then most often tend to create inequalities and not equality,
and to increase existing inequalities; trade is an important element 20 in the cumulative
process." Specially in backward regions, the 'back setting' effect is much stronger than the
'spread effect' which is a function of the relative level of development. Myrdal has quoted two
conclusions from disparities are much wider in the poorer countries than in the richer ones, and
2) while the regional inequalities have been diminishing in the richer countries of Western
Europe, the tendency has been opposite in the poorer countries. Further Leontief's paradox has
exposed the incapacity of the trade theory to explain the situation of the developed world. It
amounts to saying that the inherent assumption of Hecksher-Ohlin theorem, that there is similar
production function for the same commodity in two different regions is wrong. Thus, all this
criticism of the trade theory has brought out its failure to explain the existing situations of the
developed and developing regions, and has led to the searching re-examination of its basic
tenets.

IV. Approaches to Regional Planning

Analysis Total Vs Selective Approach:
The approach to regional planning can be either 'total' or 'selective'. In the total
regional planning approach, an attempt is made to develop all regions of an economy, while in
the selective approach the attention is concentrated on the development of some regions only.
However, this differentiation between the 'total 'and 'selective' approaches is possible only in
the context of an economy where no national planning exists. In most of the underdeveloped
countries, there is some sort of planning for all regions, at least in the overall framework of a
national plan.
Under these circumstances, it is better to define the total regional planning
approach as the one which aims at equal development rates for all regions of the economy by
providing equal investment in all of them. The selective regional planning approach will then
be one that aims at unequal development rates for the different regions of the economy by
providing unequal investments in them. When we talk of equal investment, we mean
equal investment in relation to the size of the region (size can be determined in relation to either
area or population or both). Thus, if region 1 is double the size of region 2, it receives
investment twice as much compared with region 2. This is necessary, for otherwise equal
investment will, in fact, imply unequal investments, as is fairly obvious. For example, if regions
1 and 2 receive the same investment, it clearly amounts to discrimination in favour of region
2. As for the choice between the total regional planning approach and the selective regional
planning approach, it is easy to see that the resources required by the former in terms of funds,
physical resources, entrepreneurial and managerial skills, technical capabilities, etc., will be
beyond the reach of an underdeveloped country. Therefore, an underdeveloped country has, of
necessity, to rely on the selective approach in its regional planning strategy. Under such an
approach it will devote more resources to the development of some regions and less resource
to the development of others. The advantages of selective approach are many:
Different kind of regions for different purposes can be designated
A loose delineation of regional boundaries can be adopted so that they can be changed
whenever required (this introduces an element of flexibility in planning process)
The regional effort can be largely dropped when the purpose has beenlargely
accomplished.
Fewer planning personnel and organization resources are required, and the available
ones can be shifted from region to region as situation changes.
According to Perloff (economist at University of California), the selection of region for special
attention will in general, be guided by the following factors:
The possibility of developing an outstanding untapped resource, even of a limited type,
such as a multipurpose river basin development.
The solution to a severe and nationally threatening problem, such as an extremely
depressed area, a culturally backward area not in the national mainstream, or an area
threatening to break away politically.
A combination of both significant potentials and tough problems, such as planning of
major metropolitan regions.
Though the adoption of the selective approach, a country can concentrate more on the lagging
regions and help them develop at a faster rate than other regions. As a consequence of this
policy, employment opportunities will expand in backward regions, per capita income will
increase and the incentive to migrate to prosperous regions will decline. This will also be the
advantage to the prosperous region in long run.
Bottom-up Vs Top-down Approach:
If "development" is to lead to poverty reduction then the "poor" are the central
concern. They must be given priority in any development effort. But the history of development
denotes that Truman, a former US president, "broke the ground" of development with aid to
the underdeveloped areas with top-down thinking. Consequently, over the last fifty years, more
than $ 2 trillion has been allocated to the poor in global south, yet it has failed to bring
sustainable economic growth and poverty reduction.
The failure of the West's top-down planning has led some post-development
thinkers to write the "obituary" of development. Some post-development scholars even claim
that development should be abandoned as it does more harm than good.
 Undoubtedly, the top-down approach has had some successes too, like reducing
mortality rate, vaccination campaigns and combating potentially disastrous diseases at a global
level. We have also seen how developing states like South Korea and Taiwan can achieve
economic development with the magic formula from Bretton Woods institutions along with top-
down government market intervention. But these initiatives have been unsuccessful in most
developing countries.
Bottom-up approaches like microfinance and NGO-based development initiatives
have been working very well over the years, and they are used widely across the developing
nations to fight against extreme poverty. Bottom-up approaches emphasise the participation of
the local community in development initiatives so that they can select their own goals and the
means of achieving them. They also ensure community ownership, and commitment and
accountability to the development project as it seeks development from below. On the other
hand, top-down approaches are considered as development planned by experts at the top, who
also lead the process. They provide little opportunity for people's participation in the total
development efforts, who are thus marginalised.
Top-down innovators think that they have the solution to poverty by framing it as
an "engineering problem" that can be solved, while at the same time believing that as outsiders
they possess the knowledge to provide a solution with a "Big Push." Top-down planners look
for solutions rather than focus on specific problems of the poor. They keep trying to achieve
the same objectives using the same plan year after year, even though they failed several times.
Top-down planners often want to achieve that which is beyond their capacity rather than that
which they can achieve. Some goals, such as universal primary school enrolment and universal
access to water and sanitation, were set before adopting MDGs, but nobody has been held
accountable for these missed goals.
The failure of "Structural Adjustment Programmes" (SAP) illustrates the weakness
of top-down approaches. Ivory Coast experienced "one of the worst and longest depressions in
its economic history" as a result of a Structural Adjustment loan which led to anarchy in the
country. The gap between rich and poor increased in the countries that accepted SAP, with
women faring particularly badly in male dominated market economies in Africa and Caribbean.
Development projects must be initiated with the participation of the poor as bottom-up
approaches ensure that the projects are cost effective, sustainable and replicable. The success
of development programmes largely depends on the acceptance by the local people and their
willingness to participate in them. Most of the people in the developing countries are out of the
formal economic sector. They make their living through self-employment both in rural and
urban areas because of limited employment opportunities in the formal economy.
Rather than being a street vendor, petty trader, or small shop owner they could change their
lives. In order to facilitate that the bottom-up microfinance approach provides small financial
capital -- which they struggle to get from formal economic institutions like banks. The
economy, as a result of top-down planning, creates opportunities, but they are not equitable
and poor people do not benefit.
However, bottom-up efforts also have some limitations. Sometimes development
projects with bottom-up approaches are dominated by the elite. They underscore the need for
an "enabling institutional environment" for the sustainability of bottom-up community-based
initiatives. Bottom-up development in the form of "alternative development" does not generate
a "coherent body of theory" because of its dispersed nature. The participatory bottom-up
approach is successful in small-scale local community projects while big projects like road
construction, tertiary education and other national projects need more complex technology and
decisions where participation with direct control by local people is virtually impossible.
Bottom-up institutions like NGOs have become major channels of development co-operation,
and in some countries the resources of NGOs, domestic and international, exceed those at the
disposal of government. Bangladesh is possibly one of the best examples where NGOs have
achieved tremendous progress in changing the lives of the poor.
Another bottom-up effort to eradicate poverty is microfinance, which has proved
to be particularly applicable in developing countries. Over the years, faith-based organisations
have contributed significantly to change the lives of poor with their widespread network across
the globe. From the bottom they have been fighting against poverty in silence in the midst of
secular development dominance. Religion and development are no longer separate spheres.
Two different development approaches have been analysed, but they are not a panacea for the
solution of poverty. Both of them have strengths and shortcomings. Top-down approaches are
not always synonymous with failure, nor are bottom-up approaches always successful. Top-
down efforts of development failed to bring changes in the lives of poor compared to the time
and money spent over the decades. While, on the other hand, bottom-up institutions like NGOs
and civil society organisations are not successful in all parts of the world.
In Africa, lack of power and restrictions from state machineries hindered the
emergence of NGOs like Brac. NGOs' position as "favourite child" of the donor organisations
has weakened over the years because of disillusionment in their performance as they are losing
their roots.
Development is multidimensional, having social, political or economic aspects.
Hence, development efforts should be carried out in all sections of the society for greater
benefit. In order to do this, we need to use both top-down and bottom-up approaches to promote
interaction and dialogue among all levels. National consensus, strategic direction, facilitation,
coordination, providing framework and tools for local initiatives, mobilising natural resources
and capacity building can be achieved by the top-down approaches while bottom-up
approaches are crucial for specifying poverty, ensuring ownership and commitment, mobilising
local assets and knowledge, and promoting local innovation in order to achieve holistic
development.
The debate on development continues while the poor and third world states at the
bottom cannot wait for any solidarity or consensus which will bring a unanimous effort.
Attaining MDGs, tackling climate change, and possible financial downturns are major
challenges coming ahead for the developing nations. They are required to bargain and negotiate
at the global level for mutual benefit, ensuring accountability, and reducing risk and
vulnerability. At the same time, the citizens, NGOs, and civil society organisations at the
bottom need to coordinate with the states, utilising their potentialities and capabilities.
In the new era of development, "state" is back again as it has proved to be successful in
development of the economy as well as building foundations for the success of liberalisation
and market forces in China and India. All it needed was an "inclusive we" for the
transformation of lives of millions poor people. This "we" includes both top-down and bottom-
up approaches together. Given this situation, it is not possible to ascertain which one is more
effective than the other because of their inter-dependence and the complex nature of
development.

Suggested Rediangs
S.M. Raffiullah. 1967. Regionalization in Geography. The Geographer. Aligarh Muslim
University. Vol. XIV. P-55.
S. Isard. 1956. Location and Space Economy. MIT and Willey Network. P-21,22.
Amitabh Kundu. 1980. Measurement of Urban Process - A Study in Regionalization. Popular
Praskshan. Bombay. P-8.
V.V. Pokhshevskiy. 1957. On the Soviet Concept of economic Regionalization. Progress in
Geography. Vol-7. Edward Arnold. London. P-9.
Amitabh Kundu. Measurement of Urban Process - A Study in Regionalization. Op. Cit. P-9.
L.D. Stamp, 1962. The delimitation of Planning Region. National Geography. Vol-5.

Unit II
Types of regions Methods of regional delineation - Regional hierarchy Growth pole and
growth centre with case study

Types of Regions
It will be convenient to begin with a brief description of various types of regions that have
been thought of in available literature on this subject. These can be grouped as below;
(1) Homogeneous regions
(2) Nodal regions
(3) Functional regions
(4) Administrative regions
(5) Urban regions
Programming regions
(5)
These regions have been defined in past by authors in this field but the definitions are not all
alike. Sane of these definitions are reported below for illustration.

Homogenous Regions
Bouge and Beale attempted to draw up homogeneous regions on the basis of broad
geographical areas of specialization. They have conceived homogeneity of region primarily in
terms of agriculture. Botkin considered homogeneous regions on the basis of per capita income
levels. This criteria may be empirically appropriate, if applied dynamically,' rather than
statistically. D.C. North has suggested that unifying cohesive force behind a region is
dominance of its economy by an export base. Gajda R.T opines that couplete homogeneity is
unworkable, theoretically undesirable, and in fact unobtainable excepir-in reference to large
homogeneous regions. This is so when large urban centres always tend to introduce
heterogeneity.

Nodal Region
The second category of regions considered for
The nodal region is a system working within the region itself containing its sensi+ive variables.
Nodal regions emphasise the interdependence of different components within the region rather
than inter-regional relationships between homogeneous regions. Since the functional linkages
between spatial units are limited by space, nodal regions usually take explicit account of the
distance factor as revealed, in gravity potential models.
The nodal region is determined by the distance factor and time scale parameters. To this extent,
they are more realistic, and some analysts, have argued that nodal regions are the real regions
of the earth, to be contrasted with the more stereotyped subjective maps of homogeneous
regions.. The nodal regions theory has certain limitations and few gaps unexplained. For
instance, it is very difficult to assume a regional system where outside
force could be considered as given or neutral. Moreover the supply of investment goods in less
deveoped regions will tend to be inelastic and the theory requires modifications in such cases
to take account of the import of investment of goods.
In working out nodal regions, Nystuen J D and M F Daay* used telephone calls and shopping
trips, as basic data. Data on telephone calls and shopping trips indicate indirect linkages of
flows, within a given region.

Functional Regions
Functional regions are associated with its basic economic activity. The hand book of census
categorises towns and cities into various functional regions. They include service centres,
industrial centres and commercial centres. One may classify towns and cities in India into one
of the above categories, if one is interested to make a categorisation of functional regions.
Functional regions can be further sub-divided into sub-functional regions and sub-sub
functional regions as one desires in context to regional planning.
One approach to delineating functional regions is represented by the work of Coats and Hunt.
They mapped all journey to-work interactions using arrows to indicate the strength and
directions of flows; then subjectively set functional region boundaries on the criterion of
minimising interactions taking place across boundaries. Russett recommended factor analysis
to matrix containing standardised measures of the flow on association between places,
functional groupings being indicated by the resulting factor loading pattern. A different
approach to similar data as mentioned above_ is presented in the work of Brams. A functional
region, therefore may be identified by assigning a priori, the characteristic feature, such as,
commercial, industrial and service classes of workers.

Administrative Regions
This includes, all such administrative areas that has been decided by Indian Union by the Act
of legislature. The administrative regions refer to States, Districts, Talukas, Blocks and
Villages. In the recent past area development authorities have
administrative regions. At state level, State Planning Boards are made operative -which take
care of both the spatial and economic planning. At district level, district planning boards are
set up, who have been entrusted with the task of performing district level implementation of
schemes that are even related to land use plan. At taluka level, area development authorities
are established for promoting talukas.

I. Types of Regions
Region:
For any region to develop, planning is a must. But the same nature of plan and
planning cannot be applied to all regions since every place is not homogenous in terms of
physical, economic, social, cultural, political and other dimensions. Hence, different regions
require different sets of plans. But before framing and formulating plans, what a region is, must
be decided on and defined.
A region which forms the basis of geographical studies cannot be defined in one
single definition. However, some criteria can be had for examining the identification of
similarities between certain features and landscapes. This can be said to be the primary base
for identifying a section of area as a region. Thus, since the features and components are diverse
in nature, so are the criteria and definitions of this concept. The discipline of Geography deals
with the natural and human components over space and time and therefore a region is the
primary unit of geographical analysis. Thus, no single criteria can be uniformly applied to even
identify this unit if space.
However, when scientific or selected features are adapted to formulate this space,
then it can be said that a region is analysed. On a natural basis, the earth has a diversity of
features which naturally form boundaries of landscapes. This is the primary basis of
identification as a specific unit as observed in space. For example, mountainous region, coastal
region and so on. Further, on the basis of requirement, classifications can be further conducted
for natural regions.
This criterion can be extended to the inclusion of the cultural elements which form
the cultural landscape. Thus, the classification includes both the physical and human elements.
Further, its functions are identified and then the classification becomes further modified. For
example, a mountainous region as a whole in a physical region but when it is observed from
the human point of view, then specific parts such as river valleys can be observed to be more
suitable for human activities. Thus, function leads to a distinct demarcation which is different
from the existing physical landscape. Further, on the basis of objective of planning, both the
elements become important for identification.
Thus, it can be clearly observed that some homogeneity is responsible for the
creation of a region as a specific unit of identification. Thus, definitions can be multiple,
ranging from one to multiple criteria. Thus, very conveniently a region can be observed as a
unit of space that can either be identified or has been carved out of some specific criteria. On
these concerns, multiple definitions and classifications exist for a region. These are indicative
of the significance attached to parameters that form the base if any classification. A region can
also have in itself further sub-units or regions themselves which can be identified on the basis
of different criteria. This leads to the conclusion that it is the criteria which actually defines
what a region is. As a basic element of space, it includes the physical space on which functions
take place and form the nature of interactions as well as the shape and structure of the region.
This leads to multiple analyses which are dependent on the purpose of creating a region. For
example, planning regions include mainly economic concerns such as income and poverty
which can become the basis of classification for this segment in space. Even at the world level,
the classification into developed and developing countries can be observed as the basic division
of the world as one kind of region. Thus, in this context, the natural landscape shifts to the
background and the patterns generated by human activities gain dominance. However, within
this, the natural features can form distinct units such as most habitable, moderately and least
habitable. Thus, it can be observed that it is the purpose that actually defines what a region is.
Types of Region:
Homogenous Region: They are formal regions and if the basis of homogeneity is
topography, rainfall, climate or other geo-physical char
homogeneity is more relevant for
planning. The structure of employment, the occupational pattern, the net migration, the
density of population, the resource and industrial structure, if similar in a space, the
regions become homogeneous in economic sense. The greater the economic similarities,
the greater the interest the economists will have in homogeneous regions. Internal
differences in a region are unimportant. Sometimes, however, a clear-cut homogeneous
region may have, as many differences in sub-regions as to make them quite
Pradesh are clear-
cut homogeneous regions but in topography the hilly districts of Uttar Pradesh have nothing in
common with the districts of the plains. Eastern and Western districts are also different but
Uttar Pradesh remains a homogeneous region in administrative terms. Thus, a homogeneous
economic region can have differing physical characteristics. Homogeneous region on
economic or political criterion may have a lot of heterogeneity from several other stand points.
A region being a collectivity of people is a sociological phenomenon and thus a region goes
parallel to the concept of community also. A homogeneous region is therefore a homogeneous
problem-bound entity
Polarized / Nodal / Heterogeneous /Functional Regions: Polarized or nodal regions look to
a centre-a large town usually-for service. Its influence extends beyond the area of the city.
The villages are dependent upon it for services and marketing. There is little concern for
uniformity
when a polarized or nodal region is taken. Cohesiveness is due to internal flows, contacts and
interdependencies. The city region need not correspond to the administrative region because
hinterland of several clear-cut regions may be served by a city. (For example, even the persons
of Gwalior may visit Delhi for buying some consumer durables of high value. A capital city
may attract customers form several districts around the capital city). A nodal region will have
heterogeneous economy around it. Regional economists are more concerned with what happens
within a nodal region and spatial dimension of the nodal region assume importance. Population
and industries agglomerate and there are core regions with higher per capita income generation
through higher production of goods and services. Within regions there are dominant cities or
nodes to which flows of inputs, goods, people and traffic gravitate. Within the cities there are
nuclei that form business and social centres and which are discernible at a glance from an intra-
metropolitan
large, then there will be great pull effects of the centre. However, as the distance increases, the
costs of overcoming frictions will rise and the people of different areas will look for a different
nodal point. Each region will have one or more dominant nodes and it will be interesting to
find and record as to which interior areas form the areas of influence of one or the other
node. Nodal regions provide an understanding of the functional relationship between
settlements, which fill up the space. Big, medium, small and tiny settlements dot the space and
because of their intra-regional differentiation, flows emanate. These heterogeneous units in
rural and urban areas are functionally related because each settlement cannot have all the
functions and facilities. All functions require a particular threshold population and other
facilities (each settlement cannot have a college; or, unless there is electricity there cannot be
cinema hall; or a bank branch will require not only critical minimum deposit-credit ratio). The
size of the settlement and the hierarchy of functions are mutually determining. Lower and
higher order functions can naturally be found in the same order hierarchy of the settlements.
Thus, between hamlets and metropolitan cities there are lower and higher order functions in all
types of services (from one-man post office to head post office; from primary school to
Institutions of higher learning and so on). Since not all settlements can afford to sustain all
types of functions, they depend upon other settlements / areas for meeting their needs of
services and goods and thus functional linkages develop. Markets of various orders exist.
Nothing can be bought unless something is sold and thus all exchanges are ultimately barter,
unless supported by grants, donations and subsidies. Functional; linkages are revealed by the
flows of men, materials and money. Such linkages result in the emergence of the dominant
nodes-focal points, which attract and provide all types of flows. In a hierarchy of settlement,
we find several nodal points which receive and provide flows and functions. Each node has
some settlements to support and receive and provide flows and functions. Each node has some
settlements to support and receive sustenance e.g., a city receives its food items from the
villages; while the villages receive goods of the secondary sector from the urban nodes. (Nodal
points are always urban centres). Thus, a nodal region is composed of heterogeneous units
which are closely inter related with each other functionally. Functional linkages give unity to
nodal region and a certain amount of functional coherence/utility/ interdependence is always
present. Nodes attract labour while the hinterland becomes the labour catchment area if the
hinterland cannot provide jobs to the people. In some respects, the boundary of a nodal region
may extend far and beyond for some facility e.g. Bombay attracts persons from distant places
in Uttar Pradesh and Bihar because the persons can find employment in Bombay. Similarly,
even the rural areas of Punjab attract labour from Chhattisgarh region of Madhya Pradesh or
from Eastern Uttar Pradesh or Bihar because highly paying (comparatively speaking)
employment can be found in Punjab during agricultural operations. All functional linkages
keep in changing in nature and volume. While economic activities are scattered in a
homogeneous region, they are concentrated in or around specific foci of activities. Inter
dependence is a rule in heterogeneous region and thus nodal region is Heterogeneous region.
The demand and supply conditions at different points / settlement in the heterogeneous region
differ and that is the reason for interdependence. Around a node (a focal point in space) revolve
not only economic but political and cultural activities also. Yet, it can be said that all activities
become weak with the distance and ultimately terminate also. The forces of distance weaken
the linkages of all types, unless it is the linkage of all areas of the country with capital of the
nation. The size of a nodal region shall depend upon the efficiency of means
of communications and transportation and all those facilities, which give rise to localization of
industries/activities at a certain place. An improvement in transportation, communications
finance, accommodation, and other facilities will widen the radius of influence and the
hinterland will get enlarged and the node will get further strengthened. In a sense there is an
element of homogeneity in a nodal region! A nodal region is homogeneous in that it combines
areas dependent in some trade of functional sense on a specific centre (Meyers). There are a
number of possible sets of nodal regions depending on the level of activity one is specifying.
(Smaller node for vegetables: bigger node for (automobiles). All nodes have their own
periphery but different nodes have interdependence with other nodes outside their region.
Formal Regions and Functional Region: A formal region is homogeneous with reference to
some geo-physical characteristic such as topography, climate of vegetation. This is physical
formal region. Later on, there was a shift from this narrow approach to a broader approach
and economic, social and political criteria were also applied. An industrial or agricultural or
plantation region is a formal economic region; or a state governed by a particular party is a
formal political region.
As against this, the functional region is concerned with interdependence. This is a
geographical area in which there is economic interdependence. The nodal regions are
functional regions between which there are flows of men, material and money. In practice, the
formal and functional regions very rarely overlap neatly, and often vary markedly. We have to

the planning region (formal or functional) which is administratively viable. All regions are
geographical regions because they exist on space and all regions are economic regions because
people cannot remain alive without being economically active.
Planning Regions: Planning regions depend upon the type of multi-level planning in the
country. A very small country will naturally have one level planning. Markedly different geo-
physical or agro-climate areas may be chosen as planning region for special cases e.g.,
developing a mining or plantation or power grid region. A planning region in a multi-level
setup requires regional plan, which is a spatial plan for the systematic location of functions and
facilities in relation to human settlements so that people may use them to their maximum
advantages. In fact, more important than reducing the regional disparities is the task of ensuring
that backward region and rural areas have basic minimum needs. Planning region for different
activities can be different and a regional plan will be locational in character for that
activity/function. For comprehensive planning, there has to be a national plan and then a state
plan and finally district/block plans. Since a planning region is a sub-national area demarcated
for the purpose of translating national objectives into regional programs and policies, and since
plan formulation and implementation need administrative machinery, administrative regions
are generally accepted as planning regions. This may not be wholly correct, as administrative
boundaries may be inconsistent with regional boundaries, derived from economic criteria.
However, in some cases a planning region can be small, say a city but a village cannot be (and,
probably not even a cluster of villages) a planning region unless the objective is too limited.
The hierarchy of planning region would be (I) national level (ii) macro level (iii) state level
(iv) meso level (v) and micro level. A planning region is (or should be) large enough to
enable substantial changes in the distribution of population and employment to take place
within its boundaries, yet small enough for its planning problems to be tackled effectively.
It should have a viable resource base, a manpower base, and internal
homogeneity/cohesiveness. It should be such that satisfactory levels of mutually satisfying
levels of production, exchange, and consumption levels obtained. Boudeville defines a

planning region in the following words:

Klassen defines it as follows:

must be able to apply its own industry with the necessary labour, should have a homogeneous
economic structure, contain at least one growth point and have a common approach to and
awareness of its problems. In short, a planning region should be defined according to the
purpose of
Ideally a planning region should have adequate resources to establish a
satisfactory pattern of savings, capital formation, investment, production, employment, income
generation and consumption pattern. It means that the area should be economically viable. This
usually is not the case. The States of East India are rich in natural resources and
logistics/infrastructure support. Unless the aid comes from the centre, these states cannot be
viable states as planning regions. As the things stand at present, these states are not capable of
being self-sufficient at higher levels of economic activity and are not able even to grow at a
reasonable growth rate of income, comparable to some of the developed states of the country.
Thus, planning regions are spatial units of different sizes (city, block, district or state)
depending upon the objectives in view and the problems to be tackled. In rare cases only, a
planning region extends beyond a state.

II. Methods of Regional

Delineation Delineation of Formal
regions:
Regional delineation is the first step in the preparation of any regional development
plan to ensure tentative operational area of planning. Within the planning region the frame of
all regional studies could be undertaken and development envisaged.
 Delineation of formal regions involves the grouping together of local units which
have similar characteristics according to certain clearly defined criteria and which differ
significantly from the units outside the region on the basis of certain chosen criteria.
The criteria can be unemployment rates, activity rate, migration trends, per capita
income etc.
The characteristics should differ significantly from units outside the region.
Two techniques for delineation of formal regions are detailed below.
The delineation depends on the development objectives.
Variables for delineation of formal region (homogeneous):
Land use characteristics
Demographic characteristics
Transport infrastructure
Social service and public utilities
Socio-economic structures
Methods for Delineation of formal regions:
A. Weighted index number methods
B. Factor analysis
A. The Weighted Index Number Method
The study area is divided into several localities varying according to unemployment
rates and per capita income levels.
The aim is to isolate the main problem region; i.e. the area of economic malaise.
Weights are assigned to each criteria and when taken together and weighted, one of the
region can be isolated.

B. The Factor Analysis method

Used for delineating economic health regions.
Smith identified 14 industrial criteria on a local employment exchange area base and
14 socio-economic criteria on a local authority base.
Many of these criteria are interdependent. The factor analysis method can be used to
isolate these factors and to group areas on the basis of factor loadings.
ustrial factors,
-economic factors.
These factors help in delineating economic health regions.
Delineation of Functional Regions:
This method involves the grouping together of units which display a considerable
degree of interdependence.
 Two basic approaches:
(A) Flow analysis- based on actual observations of what people do.
(B) Gravitational analysis- based on theoretical observations of what they might do.
The two approaches are explained below in detail.

A. Flow Analysis Method

Builds up flows on the basis of the direction and intensity flows between the dominant
centre and surrounding satellites.
Flows may be of several types: economic (road, rail, shopping or commuting); social
(such as flow of students or patients); political (flow of govt. expenditure); information
(newspapers, telephone calls), etc.
Graph theory: measures the relationship (economic, social, etc) between selected group
of centres on the basis of flows between the centres. The no.of telephone calls is the
usual flow criteria.
The flows are plotted in matrix form, from which primary and secondary flows into and
out of each centre can be identified.
B. Gravitational Analysis Method
It is concerned with the theoretical forces of attraction between centres rather than the
actual flows.
This model assumes that the interaction between two centres is directly proportional to

variables like population, employment, income, expenditure

and retail turnover.

opportunities.
By calculating the potential for the centres, lines illustrating relative attractiveness,
spheres of influence of various centres can be plotted on a map.
From such lines, functional regions can be identified.

III. Regional hierarchy

In multi-level planning there is certain hierarchy of regions. We can classify it in
many ways depending on chosen criterion/criteria. One such classification on size criterion is
here.
Macro Regions:
Macro region is naturally bigger. Macro region can be a state of even a group of
states, if the states of a country are not big enough. A Macro-major region can be a zone in a
country, which may comprise of a few States. For example, in India there are East, West, North,

developing cooperation and mutual counselling. In a sense macro regions are second in
hierarchy, next to the national level. It is also possible that a physical macro region may
comprise parts of different states of a country or project planning purposes. (e.g., big river
valley projects, an electric grid of different states, and, for the purpose of a particular activity
(facility) planning) the macro region will be parts of different states. State boundaries are not
respected in the sense that the macro region may transcend or cut-across administrative
boundaries of the states of a country. A macro region may not be uniform or homogeneous in
all respects. It may have homogeneity in one respect (physical complementarity) and may have
heterogeneity in other respect (administrative boundaries). A macro region should have a
common resource base and specialization in that resource base, so that production activities
can develop on the principle of comparative advantage based on territorial division of labour
(India has been divided into 11 to 20 macro regions-agro-climate or resource regions). The
planning Commission of India would have just 5 zonal councils- Eastern, Northern, Central,
Western and Southern comprising of certain states but beyond this there is no macro-
regionalization in India. These so-called macro regions of India have to have interstate
cooperation in the matter of utilization of river water and electricity grids etc.
Meso Regions:

Bundelkhand Region, Baghelkahand Region, Mahakoshal region is usually a sub-division of a

state, comprising of several districts. There should be some identifiable affinity in the area
which may even facilitate planning. It can be cultural or administrative region and it will be
even better if it is a homogeneous physical region
Micro Regions:
In multi-level planning, district is the micro region. It becomes the lowest territorial
unit of planning in the hierarchy of planning regions. The most important reason why district
is the most viable micro region for planning is the existence of database and compact
administration. This is the area, which is viable for plan formulation with administration for
plan implementation and monitoring. A metropolitan area can be one micro region and the area
of influence can be another micro region. A nodal point is also a micro region, though in many
cases micro regions are basically rural areas, which may have a number of minor nodes without
any organizational hierarchy influencing the entire area. The basic characteristic of a
microregion is its smallness. There can be some specific micro regions such as belts of
extraction of mineral or a reclaimed area, or a not-so-big command area of an irrigational
project.
Micro Minor Region:
This is the region which is associated with, what is called, the grass-root planning.
A micro-minor region can be a block for which also data exists now and for which there may
be a plan. (So far as the quality of data is concerned, there is hardly any activity, or sector, or
region or field for which data is not cooked by the vested interest groups: but, that is another
story). The block level plan is integrated with the national plan, through the district and state
level plans. A block level plan is not surgically cut portion of the district plan, which has its
own logic and linkage. At block level, most of the officers will be more concerned with the
implementation of the plans than formulating the plans. At block level, the main exercise will
be to take into account of the physical and human resources and to find out the prime moving
activities which will enable the block people to make best use of the development potential of
the block to meet the basic needs of the people. Minimum needs can be satisfied with the
production of basic goods with the help of low entropy local resources. Yet it cannot be said
developed regions. In fact, planning of the development of the transport, communication,
banking, education, medical and many service facilities has got to be done at the national level.
At the panchayat level, basic goods and services can be arranged through the efforts of the local
people. Many activities can be so planned that they improve the socio-economic conditions of
the people without being the part of the national plan. Several activities can be undertaken with
the cooperation of the local people, with minimum of financial and real resource support from
outside e.g., development of dairying, animal husbandry, pisciculture, poultry, soil
conservation measures, optimization of the cropping pattern,
The most important test of micro-minor planning is that the people need not look
towards the centre for it. Now days, a lot of
is proxy for the use of modern inputs in agriculture. Much of the run-off water goes waste and
the infiltration rate is also low. If this water can be harvested, not only the run-off water can be
stored, but sub-soil water reserves can also become rich. Micro-minor watershed development
program probably will be the most important program for a country like India. The optimum
land use planning can start from the micro-minor area only.

IV. Growth pole and growth centre with case study

This is one of the earliest growth theories based on the principle of deliberate

According to Francis Perroux, growth does not appear everywhere at the same time, it occurs
in poles, centres and points with variable intensity. It spreads with different channel with
variable terminal effects on the economy as a whole. The growth pole concept was further
expanded to geographical space by Bouldeville.
While planning for an economy because not all sectors have the same propensity
(natural tendency) of growth, some sectors can be identifies and focused upon as growth centre
and these are those sectors which should be dominant, propulsive and should have multiplier
effect to impact the economy as a whole. The growth centre of Perroux was based on the
concept of functional linkage because without functional interaction spread of growth along
different channels is not possible and nor will result in multiplier and propulsive effect. This
implies growth centres, which can be propulsive of for the economy as a whole and can act as
engine of growth, cannot be identified in absolute terms. The growth centre is economy specific
in nature e.g. despite its market presence, scale of operation, levels of innovation biotech
sectors & firms like Biocon may not be the best choice of growth centre in India which retains
its agrarian character as a whole.
Similarly in early phases of planning ignoring agri and encouraging large capital
intensive industries alone like steel plants, power plants may not have been the best choice for
overall development of Indian economy. In India, given its predominance of agri with more
than 80% of population directly or indirectl
landscape, agro based industries are probably a better choice as growth centre because agri has
a strong functional linkage in objectives like rural dev, food security, local resource
availability, employment potential for the unskilled labourers and for trade that is still
dominated by agri and allied products.
This idea has relevance in planning because according to this theory, all sectors and all
d consequence of growth may
not spread and impact with same intensity.
Evaluation:

focusing on some industries and some locations.

growth models across the developing world such as
Mehalnobis model in 2nd FYP of India.

and Core Periphery Theory of Thomas Friedman.

ification and selection of growth pole. If an independent or arbitrary
decision is made, the resource base may not be sustainable.

and generalise the

universally applicable to the developing world.

where development is no longer solely measured in terms of economic parameters. Hence

growth centre can now be identified not only on the basis of economic factors but also in terms

sponsible
for disparities in development. However disparities are not so much because of concept but
more because of faulty implementation of concept in the absence of existing functional
linkages with the hinterland and the associated economy.
of appropriate span over which to judge success or failure- say 16 to 25 years
may be too long in any social order and political system. In fact, an elected government
would like to have positive results within four or five years before the commencement of
the new election. Relevance in India:

growth poles have remained islands of development and have not resulted in spread of benefits.
The reasons are:
India is largely an agrarian economy and the traditional industralisation based model

Given the territorial size of country and the diversity o

to focus on only one growth centre which has national relevance.
R. P. Singh suggested a 5 level hierarchy in the types of growth poles & growth
centres to address developmental objectives, right through the village level to urban industrial
centres. Growth Foci, Service centres, Growth Points, Growth Centre, growth centre at national
level.
decentralisation and dispersion of development across the large country like India.
Growth centre:
The concept of growth poles has usually taken the form emphasizing geographic
locations which are called Growth Centers. Growth centers are related to the concept of
agglomeration. (Some places, by virtue of their favoured location relative to sources of
materials, markets, labour and so on are economically more attractive and thus form natural
growth poles and expand faster than other areas. These growth pole are usually urban-industrial
complexes and offer economies of agglomeration.)

François Perroux's Concept of A Growth Pole

François Perroux introduced the idea of economic Growth Poles in 1949. He and
others have written about the concept extensively and yet, despite this or perhaps because of
this, there is no consensus as to what it means. There is considerable intuitive appeal of the
concept and so it has had influence on policy makers. The policy makers presumed that
economists could supply the technical analysis needed to make sense of the policies based upon
the concept of growth poles.
The intuitive notion of growth poles would identify a growth pole as an industry or
perhaps a group of firms with an industry. At an extreme a growth pole might be a single firm
or it might be a group of industries. Perroux, however, defined growth poles in terms of what
he called abstract economic space. Perroux conceived of abstract economic space to be of three
types:
an economic plan
a field of force or influences
a homogeneous aggregate
Perroux specifically denied that abstract economic space could correspond to a
geographic area such as a city or region. For Perroux the aspect of dominance was important
for growth poles. A firm or industry A is said to be dominant over B if the flow of goods and
services from A to B is a greater proportion of A's output than the flow from B to A is of B's
output. A large firm or industry that has a high degree of interaction with others and is dominant
in that interaction is said to be propulsive. The process of development of a propulsive firm or
industry is called polarization.
Perroux and other writers on growth poles try to base the concept on the notions of
external economies, agglomeration and linkages. An external economy exits if a change in the
output of one firm or one industry affects costs in other firms. External economies of scale may
be negative, as in the case of pollutions costs, or they may be positive, as in the case of the
development of integrated circuit technology in the electronics industry.
Linkage is a concept developed in regional economics. Linkages may be forward
or backward. If a growth in production in one industry stimulates production in the industries
supplying it then that industry has backward linkages. For example, the steel industry has
backward linkages to the iron ore mining industry, the coke and coal industries and the
transportation industry involved in transporting those inputs to the steel industry. A forward
linkage when the availability of the output of an industry make possible the production of
industries using that output. For example, the plastic producing industry makes it feasable for
businesses requiring plastic to begin operation.
The French economist, J-R. Bourdeville made a study of the steel industry of the
Brazilian state of Minas Gerais as a growth pole. Despite Perroux's denial that growth poles
are geographic many of the applications of the concept are for geographic regions. These
applications often are enlightening. For example, the regional economy of Paris can be
considered to be a growth pole. The case of Paris shows that effect of polarization on the
surrounding geographic area is not always positive. The attraction of Paris has been so great
that it has been extremely difficult to promote any economic development in the area outside
of the Paris region. French planning literature refers to this as the phenomenon of Paris and the
French Desert.
In the U.S. the concept of growth poles has usually taken the form emphasizing
geographic location which are called Growth Centers. Growth centers are related to the concept
of agglomeration. In many ways the American work on growth centers is virtually independent
of Perroux and the French literature on growth poles.
Albert Hirschman uses the term polarization to refer to the negative impact of a
growth pole on surrounding regions. Trickling down is the term he uses for the positive impact
of a growth pole or growth center on adjacent regions. Gunnar Myrdal, the Swedish economist,
use the terms backwash and spread for the same concepts as Hirschman's polarization and
trickling down.
The American economist, John R. Friedman, has developed a concept that is related
but distinct from the ideas of growth poles and growth centers. It is called the matter of the
center versus the periphery. Friedman developed this idea in analyzing the relationship of the
interior regions of Venezuela to the coastal regions. Others have extended the concept to the
relationship of the North Atlantic center of Westerm Europe and North America to Latin
America, Africa and Southeast Asia.
Altogether the concept of growth poles has been of only marginal importance in
analyzing regional economic problems. Nevertheless the idea of growth poles has had a major
role in formulating regional policy.
Case Study: The concept of growth centres has been advanced to cover rural settlements as
well, and a number of micro-regional studies advocating integrated area development focussed
around rural growth centres have also been undertaken. The National Institute of Community
Development initiated a study on rural growth centres in Miryalguda Taluq (smallest viable
administrative unit in a district) in Andhra Pradesh with a view to (i) developing methods for
identifying growth centres and their hinterlands in our rural areas; and (ii) preparing a plan
based on growth centres for an integrated development of the immediate study area (Sen,
Wanamali et al, 1971). This study discloses that even in such small administrative units a
discrete three-tier hierarchy of service centres based on functional characteristics is discernible.
In order to organise and integrate the economic space of this taluqa the study has proposed the
establishment of two high level service centres (one located outside the Taluq but within the
District) linked to the individual villages through a chain of 4 middle order service centres and
15 lowest order service centres called "central villages". Based on this hierarchy of service
centres a perspective plan for the development of Miryalguda Taluq has been proposed. This
is no doubt a pioneering study, for it has for the first time explored the possibility of using the
growth centre concept at such a micro level. However, some of the important problems which
are likely to emerge in Miryalguda Taluq as a result of new developmental inputs have not
been touched upon. A certain degree of intermediate level urbanization is likely to be generated
with the growing agricultural prosperity of the Taluq consequent upon the introduction of canal
irrigation. These new urban centres are also likely to function as market towns to serve as an
outlet for the agricultural surpluses of the area. The perspective plan for Miryalguda as given
in this study does not provide for this. There is also a reference in this study to development of
"self-sufficient" villages which are located outside the influence of service centres. One would
associate these self-sufficient villages with subsistence economy and as non-central function
settlements. To include them in the higher level of K-4 system of hierarchy is methodologically
unsound. Despite these drawbacks one cannot overlook the fact that this study on Miryalguda
does provide a perspective for spatial integration at micro level through a nested system of
central places.

References
Blij H. J. De, 1971: Geography: Regions and Concepts, John Wiley and Sons. Claval P.l,
1998: An Introduction to Regional Geography, Blackwell Publishers, Oxford and
Massachusetts.
Friedmann J. and Alonso W. (1975): Regional Policy - Readings in Theory and Applications,
MIT Press, Massachusetts.
Gore C. G., 1984: Regions in Question: Space, Development Theory and Regional Policy,
Methuen, London.
Gore C. G., Köhler G., Reich U-P. and Ziesemer T., 1996: Questioning Development;
Essays on the Theory, Policies and Practice of Development Intervention, Metropolis-
Verlag, Marburg..
Haynes J., 2008: Development Studies, Polity Short Introduction Series
https://www.takshilaonline.com/geography-mains/growth-centres-and-growth-poles-
upsc-geography-paper-1-unit-9-regional-planning/
https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1068/a010005?journalCode=epna
Urban Growth Theories and Settlement Systems of India (book)

Unit III
Regional planning in India (appraisal of five-year planning) Development programmes in
India (Command area, Drought prone, Metropolitan, River Valley, tribal and hill area projects)

I. Regional planning in India (appraisal of five-year planning)

Initially the regional approach to planning was not accepted by the Planning
Commission and consequently we find scant reference to it in the first two Five Year Plans.
The concept of regional planning and balanced regional development as understood by the
Commission then merely implied "a judicious location of new industrial units with due
emphasis on balanced regional development as a vital step in the direction of wider diffusion
of employment opportunities. (Planning Commission 1952: 20). It is in the Third Five Year
Plan (1961-66) that the Planning Commission approved the regional approach to planning and
commended this approach to the planning of large industries which will serve as focal points
of development for areas far beyond their immediate environs. It also stressed the need for
integrated rural urban development because of the need to strengthen "economic
interdependence between town and the surrounding rural areas" (Planning Commission, 1961
: 689). It is also in the Third Five Year Plan that the key role of urbanisation in stimulating
social and economic transformation has been realised and the need to plan the urban centres
stressed (Planning Commission, 1961). Consequent upon this increasing emphasis on urban
development, master plans have been prepared for 322 towns/cities and their immediate region
in the country as a whole. These master plans have been prepared by the Departments of Town
Planning of the respective states and therefore lack a national focus. Even at the State level an
integrated approach for a co-ordinated development of these towns is totally absent. As for
instance in the State of Andhra Pradesh master plans of its three most important towns
Hyderabad, Vijayawada and Visakhapatnam, have not been formulated as part of the overall
urban system of the State. Despite this major drawback these master plans are a distinct advance
over the previous plans as they treat the city and their immediate rural hinterlands as integral
units for purposes of urban planning. While the need for regional and metropolitan planning
has been greatly emphasised in the Fourth Five Year Plan, it is the Fifth Plan which examines
the problem in the national perspective and suggests the formulation of a national policy of
urbanisation to minimise the pressure of urbanisation on metropolitan cities by promoting "the
development of smaller towns and new urban centres". This focus on urbanisation at the
national level has led to the formulation and enunciation of a National Urbanisation Policy by
the Town and Country Planning Organisation of the Government of India. The National
Urbanisation Policy attempts to draw a framework for spatial planning as part of the strategy
of national economic planning (Town and Country Planning Organisation, 1974: 17). The
Town and Country Planning Organisation of India sets out the following five principal aims of
the National Urbanisation Policy:
(1) Evolving a spatial pattern of economic development based on regional planning and
location of a hierarchy of human settlements.
(2) Securing the optimum distribution of population between rural and urban settlements within
each region and also among the towns of various sizes.
(3) Securing the distribution of economic activities in small and medium towns and in new
growth centres (to achieve) the desired population distribution and maximum economic
growth.
(4) Controlling and where necessary, arresting the further growth of economic activities by
dispersal of economic activities, legislative measures and establishment of new counter
magnets in the region .
(5) Providing minimum level of services for improving the quality of life in rural and urban
areas and gradually reducing differences between the rural and urban life. (Town and Country
Planning Organisation, 1974:17)
This is a welcome document in the sense that it clearly establishes the need to view
the urban and metropolitan development problems in the national perspective. Despite a
reference in this document that a "system of cities" ought to be developed for a successful
spatial planning the document fails to highlight the pivotal role of settlement nodes to organise
and integrate the regional economy at the macro, meso and micro levels. The document further
fails: (i) to identify the existing system of metropolitan cities, (ii) to explain the organisation
of territorial system around these metropolitan nodes, and (iii) to explain the connectivity
between the nodal and functional system. The document further overlooks the level of
development of the national economy when it suggests that "towns and cities with a population
ranging between 50,000 and 250,000 having developed infrastructure and necessary conditions
for self-sustaining growth should be designated as growth centres" (Towns and Country
Planning Organisation, 1974.27). The document shows unawareness of the dynamic role which
the growth centres should play in transmitting impulses of growth, diffusing innovations, and
transforming the regional economy through the cyclical movement of the nodal exchange
system when it restricts the definition of growth centres to those settlements which have the
favourable climate "for the development of industries" (Chandrasekhara, 1972).

II. Development programmes in India

Command Area Development and Water Management (CADWM) Programme:
In all five-year plans, considerable importance was given to the creation of
additional irrigation potential. However, the potential actually utilized was much below. The
irrigation potential created over the years in major and medium works was not been fully
utilised and the gap between the potential created over the years in major and medium works
was not been fully utilised and the gap between the potential created and the actual utilisation
was widening. This non-utilization occurred mainly because there was a delay in construction
of the field channels and drains. Lack of involvement of farmers is also an important constraint.
In 1974-75, the Government of India launched the Command Area Development programme
to bridge / narrow the gap between irrigation potential created and actually utilized in major
and medium irrigation schemes. This scheme was supposed to develop adequate delivery of
the irrigation water up to the fields. A Command Area Development Authority was established
to maximize the productivity in the irrigation command areas through an integrated approach
with the following components: (i) Construction of field channels and field drains, (ii) Land
shaping wherever necessary, (iii) Introduction of rotational supply of water to ensure equitable
and assured distribution to individual farm holdings.
But the CAD Programme was not particularly successful because of three constraints: (i) The
water supply at the outlet was unreliable, (ii) The available technology was could not be
adopted properly, (iii)Farmers particularly did not participate in the scheme.
Initially, 60 major and medium irrigation projects were taken up under the CAD
Programme, covering a Culturable Command Area (CCA) of about 15.00 million hectares.
From 1974-75 till now 314 projects with a CCA of 28.95 Million ha have been included under
the programme. After inclusion of new projects, deletion of completed projects and clubbing
of some projects, there are now 136 projects under implementation. The programme was
restructured and renamed as Command Area Development & Water Management (CADWM)
Programme w.e.f. 1-4-2004. The scheme is now being implemented as a State sector scheme
during the XI Five Year Plan (2008-09 to 2011-12).
The National Water Policy, 2002 stresses on participatory approach in water
resources management. It has been recognized that participation of beneficiaries in water
resource management will help considerably in proper upkeep of irrigation system and optimal
utilization of irrigation water. The participation of farmers in the management of irrigation
would promote responsibility for operation and maintenance and collection of water charges
from the areas under the jurisdiction of Water Users' Association (WUAs). A one-time
functional grant is provided to the registered WUAs under the programme. Minimum
contribution of 10 per cent for beneficiaries has been made mandatory in the cost of
construction of field channels, full package OFD works, reclamation of water logged areas and
one-time functional grant to WUAs.
The evaluation made in the past has revealed that the CAD Programme made
positive impact on various important indicators, like increase in the irrigated area, productivity
and production, irrigation efficiency etc. Despite efforts for efficient irrigation water
management, the problem of water logging has surfaced in many irrigated commands. Under
the component on reclamation of water logged areas, 482 schemes of nine States, namely,
Bihar, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Jammu & Kashmir, Karnataka, Kerala, Maharashtra, Odisha
and Uttar Pradesh have been approved for reclamation of 63,566 ha. of water logged area. Out
of this, an area of about 50,249 ha. has been reported to be reclaimed by these States up to
March 2009.
Drought Prone Areas Programme (DPAP):
Drought Prone Areas Programme (DPAP) is the earliest area development
programme launched by the Central Government in 1973-74 to tackle the special problems
faced by those fragile areas, which are constantly affected by severe drought conditions. These
areas are characterized by large human and cattle populations which are continuously putting
heavy pressure on the already degraded natural resources for food, fodder and fuel. The major
problems are continuous depletion of vegetative cover, increase in soil erosion and fall in
ground water levels due to continuous exploitation without any effort to recharge the
underground aquifers.
Though the programme had a positive impact in terms of creating durable public
assets, its overall impact in effectively containing the adverse effects of drought was not found
to be very encouraging. In addition, many of the States had also been demanding inclusion of
additional areas under the programme. With a view to identifying the infirmities in the
programme and also for considering the case for inclusion of additional areas under the
programme, a High-Level Technical Committee was constituted in April 1993 to critically
review the contents, methodology and implementation processes of all area development
programmes and suggest suitable measures for improvement. The Committee in its Report
submitted in April 1994 had attributed the unsatisfactory performance of the programmes to
the following major factors:
Implementation of programme activities over vast areas in a sectoral and dispersed
manner
Inadequate allocations to the programme and programme expenditures thinly spread
over large problem areas
Programme implemented through government agencies with least or no participation
of the local people.
Taking up of a vast array of activities, which were neither properly integrated nor
necessarily related to the objectives of the programme.
 Based on the recommendations of the Hanumantha Rao Committee,
comprehensive Guidelines for Watershed Development, commonly applicable to Drought
Prone Areas Programme, Desert Development Programme and Integrated Wastelands
Development Programme were issued in October 1994 and were made applicable with effect
from 1.4.1995. Subsequently, based on the feedback received from States, Project
Implementation Agencies and others concerned, the Guidelines were revised in September
2001.
Objectives: The basic objective of the programme is to minimize the adverse effects of drought
on the production of crops and livestock and productivity of land, water and human resources
thereby ultimately leading to the drought proofing of the affected areas. The programme aims
at promoting overall economic development and improving the socio-economic condition of
the resource poor and disadvantaged sections inhabiting the programme areas through creation,
widening and equitable distribution of the resource base and increased employment
opportunities. The objectives of the programme are being addressed in general by taking up
development works through watershed approach for land development, water resource
development and afforestation/pasture development. The recent impact studies sponsored by
the Ministry have revealed that with the implementation of watershed projects under Drought
Prone Areas Programme, the overall productivity of land and the water table have increased
and there has been a significant impact in checking soil erosion by water and wind. The
programme has also helped in overall economic development in the project areas.
Strategy: The common Guidelines for Watershed Development provide for a uniform strategy
in the implementation of all area development programmes. The main features of this strategy
are: (i) Area development programmes to be implemented exclusively on watershed basis,
(ii) Programme activities to be confined to the identified watershed of about 500 hectares and
to be executed on a project basis spanning a period of four to five years. (iii) Watershed project
to be, as far as possible, co-terminus with village boundary, (iv) Direct participation of the
people in planning and development of watershed areas and maintenance of assets in the post
project period, (v) Panchayati Raj Institutions have the right to monitor and review the
programme at district, block and village levels. They can also function as Project
Implementation Agencies if they so desire, (vi) Voluntary agencies to be given effective role
in the implementation of the programme particularly in motivating people, community
organisation and training.
Coverage: The Drought Prone Areas Programme was in operation in 627 blocks of 96 districts
in 13 States during 1994-95. On the recommendation of the Hanumatha Rao Committee, 384
new blocks were brought into the purview of this programme and 64 were transferred from
DPAP to DDP. Consequently, coverage of the programme was extended to 947 blocks of 164
districts in 13 States. With the reorganization of States, districts and blocks, at present the
programme is under implementation in 972 blocks of 182 districts in 16 States. The States
where DPAP is under implementation along with the number of Districts, Blocks and area are
indicated in the table below:
Funding Pattern: Until March, 1999 the funds were shared on 50:50 basis between the
Central Government and the State Governments. However, with effect from 1st April,
1999, the funding is shared on 75:25 basis between the Centre and State Government. For
completion of ongoing projects that were sanctioned prior to April 1999, the old funding
pattern will continue. The projects of 500 ha. are sanctioned under the programme. Until
March, 2000 following cost norms were adopted under DPAP for various eco-systems.
However, with effect from 1.4.2000, uniform cost norms @ Rs.6000/- per ha. have been
introduced. These norms are applicable to projects sanctioned during and after 2000-2001. In
respect of earlier projects sanctioned up to 1999-2000, the pre-revised cost norms will be
applicable.
Physical Performance: Under DPAP,
18803 watershed development projects
covering an area of 94.01 lakh hectares
with a total cost of about Rs.4804.20
crore were sanctioned up to 31.3.2004. As
on 31.12.2004, out of these, the entire
central share of about 4803 projects has
been released and thus these projects are
deemed to have been completed. During
2004-
2005, 2550 new projects have been sanctioned and these are to be implemented under the
Guidelines for Hariyali. These projects shall cover an area of 12.75 lakh hectare, and the total
cost for these projects is Rs.765.00 crore involving Central share of Rs.573.75 crore. The Table
at Annexure-XXX indicates the number of DPAP projects sanctioned since 1995-96.
Financial Performance: Year-wise Central funds released under the programme since 1995-
96 has been indicated below:

Metropolitan:
India has the second largest urban p opulation in the world and by 2050, around
Given this
scenario, the present infrastructure and amenities in cities and towns are not adequate to address
the expanding urbanization process. Several initiatives were launched by the government to
promote urban infrastructure in the country. Major initiative is the twin effort of Smart Cities
Mission and the AMRUT scheme.
The Smart Cities Mission: The Smart Cities Mission is a major urban renewal program
launched by the Government to develop and upgrade living conditions and infrastructure in
selected 100 cities all over the country. Objective of the programme is to modernize cities
by providing core infrastructure and give a decent quality of life to its citizens, a clean

and
launched on 25th of June 2016 and in the first phase, 20 cities will get funding for converting
them into smart cities. In the next two years, the remaining cities will also participate in the
project. Ministry of Urban Development is the anchoring agency for the implementation of the
project.
The main focus of the project is the area-based development of cities by
transforming existing areas through retrofitting and redevelopment. Another component of the
smart cities project is the development of new areas or greenfield areas. Similarly, adoption of
Smart Solutions with the use technology, information and data are expected to improve
infrastructure and services under the project.
Financing of smart cities mission: Financing of the mission will be collaboratively done by
the Centre, state and local bodies. Fund from the private sector will be invited and Public
Private Partnerships will support the project financially. The most vital contribution will be
provided by the centre as it will provide Rs. 48,000 crores over five years i.e. on an average
n, an equal amount will be
made by the State/ULBs. Altogether nearly one lakh crore rupees from government sources
will be available for Smart Cities Project. For the implementation of the project each city should
form a dedicated Special Purpose Vehicle (SPV).
Atal Mission for Rejuvenation and Urban Transformation (AMRUT) Project: Atal
Mission for Rejuvenation and Urban Transformation (AMRUT) along with smart cities
were jointly planned and launched by the government to transform urban living conditions
through infrastructure upgradation. AMRUT is aimed at transforming 500 cities and towns
into efficient urban living spaces over a period of five years. Ministry of Urban
Development has selected the five hundred cities with the help of state governments.
A project-oriented development approach is adopted under the scheme in contrast
to the area-based approach of Smart Cities Mission. The Cabinet approved Rs 50,000 crore for
this mission which is to be spent over a period five years. This is a centrally sponsored scheme
with 80% budgetary support from the Centre. Mission of AMRUT is to
Ensure that every household has access to a tap with assured supply of water and a
sewerage connection;
Increase the amenity value of cities by developing greenery and well-maintained open
spaces (e.g. parks); and
Reduce pollution by switching to public transport or constructing facilities for non-
motorized transport (e.g. walking and cycling).
Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana (Urban) or Housing for All by 2022 Mission:
Housing for All

2022. It provides central assistance to States and UTs for constructing houses to all eligible
sections by concentrating on urban slums and economically weaker sections. Hence, slum
rehabilitation and affordable housing to Economically Weaker Sections are the major features
of the project. The programme has following components:
Slum rehabilitation of Slum Dwellers with participation of private developers using
land as a resource;
Promotion of Affordable Housing for weaker section through credit linked subsidy;
Affordable housing in partnership with Public & Private sectors and
Subsidy for beneficiary-led individual house construction or enhancement.
Heritage City Development and Augmentation Yojana (HRIDAY): The HRIDAY scheme
is launched for the holistic development of heritage cities. It aims to preserve and revitalize
the unique character of heritage cities in India. For the first phase of the programme Rs.
500 crores is allocated with full funding by the central government. Twelve cities including
Ajmer, Amaravati, Amritsar etc are identified for the project.
Jawaharlal Nehru National Urban Renewal Mission: JNNURM was launched in 2005 as
the flagship scheme for urban development. The programme had two components viz.,
Basic Services for Urban poor (BSUP) and Integrated Housing and Slum Development
Programme (IHSDP). Civic amenities were improved under the programme including
urban transportation. The programme aimed at integrated development of slums through
projects for providing shelter, basic services and other related civic amenities.
Urban transportation: Several initiatives were taken to enhance public transport system
including the Bus Rapid Transit Systems (BRTS) approved for 11 cities under the
Jawaharlal Nehru National Urban Renewal Mission (JNNURM). The transportation system
will be equipped with Intelligent Transport System (ITS) and Metro Rail Projects.
Swachh Bharat Mission (SBM): A major associated urban development programme is

management of municipal solid waste in 4041 statutory towns/ cities in the country by 2019.
Besides the above initiatives, several associated development programmes like industrial
corridors, NHDP, Jawaharlal Nehru National Urban Renewal Mission, National Urban
Livelihood Mission etc., aims to add infrastructure and other amenities to the urban areas.
River Valley Project:
Water is essential for sustenance of all forms of life on earth. It is not evenly distributed all
over the world and even its availability at the same locations is not uniform over the year. The
River valley projects which are constructed to meet several objectives simultaneously or tackle
various problems associated with river valleys in an integrated manner. The basic motive
behind the construction of multipurpose river valley projects in India is to meet the critical
requirements of irrigation for agriculture, electricity for industries and flood control.
Multipurpose River-Valley Projects in India
Almatti Dam: It is a hydroelectric project constructed on the river Krishna.
Baspa Hydro-Electric Project: It is the first Independent Power Producer (IPP) project after
the Government of India liberalized the power policy by inviting private sector
participation in
trict of Himachal
Pradesh. It is the largest private hydroelectric project and has been built by Jaypee group. It is
located on Baspa River, a tributary of the Satluj.
Beas Project: It is a joint venture of the governments of Punjab, Haryana and Rajasthan. It
consists of two units: (i) Beas-Sutlej Link and (ii) Beas Dam at Pong. The project links the
Beas and the Sutlej rivers in Punjab through 38.4 km of hills and valleys. The waters of the
Beas were poured into the mighty Sutlej river on July 10, 1977 at the first-ever man-made
confluence of the two major rivers at Slapper in Himachal in a mighty bid to augment the water
resources of the Gobind Sagar Lake of the Bhakra-complex. This completed the Rs 380- crore
dream which was realised in a period of only 12 years.
Bhadra Reservoir Project: It is constructed across the river Bhadra which is in Karnataka.
Bhakra-Nangal: Project (Himachal Pradesh) Largest multipurpose project in India and the
highest straight gravity dam in the world (225.5 m high) on the river Sutlej.
Chambal Valley Project: It is a joint undertaking by the Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh
governments. The Rana Pratap Dam at Bhata, 48 km from Kotah, was inaugurated on Feb
9, 1970. The project comprises construction of two other dams: Gandhi Sagar Dam in
Madhya Pradesh and Jawahar Sagar (Kotah) Dam in Rajasthan.
Chamera Hydro-Electric Project: The 540 MW Chamera hydro-electric project on the Ravi
river in Himachal Pradesh was implemented with Canadian credit offer of about Rs 335
crore. Chukha Project: The 336 MW project is the most prestigious and largest in Bhutan.
It has been completely built by India. The dam has been constructed on Wang Chu River.
The project Damodar Valley Project (West Bengal and Bihar): Principal object of this
multipurpose scheme is to control the flowing of the Damodar which is notorious for its
vagaries and destructiveness. It is designed on the lines of the Tennessee Valley Authority
(T.V.A.) in U.S.A.
Dul-Hasti Hydro-Electric Project: The Rs. 1263 crore project is being built on river Chenab
in Jammu and Kashmir. The foundation of the project was laid in September 1984. The
project will consist of a power plant of 390 MW capacities. The power house will be
located underground.
Dhauliganga Project: The Rs. 600 crore, 280 MW project is to be located on Dhauliganga
River in Uttaranchal.
Farakka Barrage: The basic aim of the Farakka Barrage is to preserve and maintain
Calcutta port and to improve the navigability of the Hooghly river. It consists of a barrage
across the Ganga at Farakka, another barrage at Jangipur across the Bhagirthi, a 39-km
long feeder canal taking off from the right bank of the Ganga at Farakka and tailing into the
Bhagirathi below the Jangipur barrage, and a road-cum-rail bridge have already been
completed. Specially, the object of Farakka is to use about 40,000 cusecs of water out of
the water stored in the dam to flush the Calcutta port which is getting silted up.
Gandak Project (Bihar and U.P): This is a joint venture of India and Nepal as per
agreement signed between the two governments on Dec 4, 1959. Bihar and Uttar Pradesh
are the participating Indian States. Nepal would also derive irrigation and power benefits
from this project.
Hirakud Project (Odisha): It is the first of a chain of three Dams planned for harnessing the
Mahanadi.
Idukki Hydro-Electric Project: It is a giant hydro-electric project of Kerala and one of the
biggest in the country, constructed with Canadian assistance with an installed capacity of
390 MW in the first stage and 780 MW in the second stage. The project envisages to
harness Periyar waters, has three major dams, the 169 m high Idukki arch dam across
Periyar river, 138 m high Cheruthoni Dam across the tributary of Cheruthoni river and 99.9
m high Kulamavu Dam.
Jayakwadi Dam (Maharashtra): The 10-km-long Jayakwadi dam on the Godavari is

Kalpong Hydro-Electric Project: This is the first hydel power plant of Andaman and
Nicobar Islands. The 5.25 MW project was commissioned on July 1, 2001. It is located
near Kalara village of Diglipur Tehsil in North Andaman and has been built by National
Hydel Power Corporation.
Kakrapara Project: It is situated on the Tapti near Kakrapara, 80 km upstream of Surat. The
project is financed by the Gujarat Government.
Koel Karo Project: The project envisages construction of earthen dam across river south
Koel at Basia in Bihar and another dam over north Karo at Lohajimi. The capacity will be
710 MW. Kol Project: The 600 MW project is to be located on the Satluj, 6 km upstream of
the Dehar Power House on the Beas-Satluj link project in Mandi district, Himachal
Pradesh. Besides generating power, the dam will also serve as a check dam for the 1,050-
MW Bhakra Dam and prolong its life by at least 10 years.
Kosi Project: This project will serve Bihar and Nepal. The Kosi rises in Nepal, passes
through Bihar and joins the Ganges. The river is subject to heavy floods. Two dams are to
be built across it.
Nagarjunasagar Project: This Project is a venture of Andhra Pradesh for utilizing water of
the Krishna River. The Nagarjunasagar Dam was inaugurated on Aug 4, 1967. It is situated
near Nandikonda village in Miryalguda Taluk of Nalgonda district.
Nathpa-Jhakri Hydro-Electric Project: -electric project, it is located at
Nathpa Jhakri in Himachal Pradesh. It is built on Satluj River. The first of the six 250 MW
units was commissioned on December 30, 2002. The project is being executed by Satluj Jal
Nigam (formerly Nathpa Jhakri Power Corporation).
Parambikulam Aliyar Project: It is a joint venture of Tamil Nadu and Kerala States. It
envisages construction of seven inter-connected reservoirs by harnessing rivers including
two major rivers viz., Parambikulam on the western slopes of Annamalai Hills and Aliyar
on the eastern slopes.
Parappalar Dam: The Rs 1-crore Parappalar Dam with a storage capacity of 167 million
cubic feet near Oddenchatram, about 75 km from Madurai in Palni taluk (Tamil Nadu), was
inaugurated on August 30, 1976.
Parvati Valley Project: It is the first inter-State hydel power project of India. Gujarat,
Rajasthan, Haryana and Delhi have joined hands with Himachal Pradesh to set up the
project. The 2050 MW project will be built near Kullu, on Parvati river, a tributary of Beas.
Periyar Valley Scheme (Kerala): The scheme envisages the construction of a masonry
barrage 210.92 metres long across the river Periyar near Alwaye, in Ernakulam district.
Rajasthan Canal Project: It is a bold venture of bringing irrigation to a desert area. The
project, which uses water from the Pong dam, consists of 215-km long Rajasthan feeder
canal (with the first 178 km in Punjab and Haryana and the remaining 37 km in Rajasthan)
and the 467-km long Rajasthan main canal lying entirely in Rajasthan.
Ramganga River Project: This Project in Uttaranchal envisages construction of a dam
across the river Ramganga, one of the major tributaries of the Ganga at 3.2 km upstream of
Kalagarh in Garhwal district. RANJIT SAGAR DAM PROJECT Formerly known as Thein
dam, it was dedicated to the nation on March 4, 2001. It is built on the Ravi River near
Thein village in Punjab. Total installed capacity is 600 MW.
Rihand Project (Mirzapur District U.P): This project has been completed by the U.P.
Government and comprises the construction of a concrete gravity dam across the Rihand
River in Mirzapur District (U.P.) and a Power House at Pipri and necessary transmission
lines. Gobind Ballabh Pant Sagar is a part of this project.
 est Hydro Power Project: It is ringtone project that is
situated in Kazan in the Spiti Valley in Himachal Pradesh. The project has helped
transform the entire cold mountain desert into a lush greenbelt.
Salal Project: It has been built on River Chenab in Jammu and Kashmir. The first stage was
completed on February 9, 1989 and marked the beginning of the harnessing of hydro power
potential of river Chenab. At present the capacity of the powerhouse is 345 MW. With the
completion of the second stage the capacity will double.
Sankosh Hydel-Power Project: India and Bhutan have signed an agreement for building of
a gigantic Sankosh hydel power project. It will be one among the ten largest projects in
Asia. The project is to be constructed near Kerabari in Gaylegphug district of Bhutan on
Sankosh River. It will include a 600 metre-long and 239 metre high dam and a reservoir
with a catchment area of 10,525 sq km. It is estimated to cost around Rs 2000 crore. Once
completed, the project will generate 1,525 MW of power and help irrigate eight lakh
hectares of land.
Sanjay Vidyut (Hydel) Project:
MW project is located near Bhaba Nagar in Kinnaur district of Himachal Pradesh. It
harnesses the water of the Bhaba Khud, a tributary of the Satluj.
Sardar Sarovar Project: It is one of the largest river valley schemes in the country. The
project envisages construction of 163-metre-high cement concrete dam at Navagam in
Gujarat. This will create irrigation potential of 1.79 million hectares and generate 1450
MW of power. Sawalkote Hydro Project: The 600 MW project in Jammu & Kashmir is
being built by a Norwegian consortium.
Sharavati Project (Karnataka): It is located 400 km from Bangalore near the Gersoppa falls;

American collaboration.
Srisailarn Project: It is a massive power project, 110 km away from Nagarjunasagar in the
upper reaches of the river Krishna.
Subarnarekha Project: It is Rs 130-crore multipurpose project, which would, when
completed, provide assured irrigation to 7,06,000 acres to the chronically drought-prone
areas of Orissa and Bihar.
Tehri Dam Project: T
constructed on river Bhagirithi, a tributary of Ganga in Tehri district of Uttaranchal. The
height of the earth and rockfill dam is 260.5 m, making it the highest dam in the country.
Once fully operational, the project will produce 1000 MW electricity.
Tungabhadra Project (Andhra And Karnataka): It is a joint undertaking by the
governments of Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka. The project comprises a dam across the
Tungabhadra River near Mallapuram.
Ukai Project: It is a power project of Gujarat equipped with power generating sets
manufactured by Bharat Heavy Electricals Limited was inaugurated on October 12, 1977.
It
rk.
Tribal and Hill area projects:
The mountain ranges and hill areas of India have a crucial role to play in
determining the climate and physiography of the country and are prime determinants of socio-
economic development of plain areas as the rivers have their genesis here and the protection
and climatic control, they provide have enabled India to sustain its position as an economic
power. Keeping in view the increasing population pressure in the hill areas and the need to
preserve their fragile ecology, the Central Government has been allocating Special Central
Assistance to these areas through the Hill Areas Development Programme/Western Ghats
Development Programme which have been in operation from the Fifth Five Year Plan in
designated hill areas. Under these programmes, Special Central Assistance is given to
designated hill areas in order to supplement the efforts of the State Governments in the
development of these ecologically fragile areas. Areas under HADP were identified in 1965 by
a Committee of the National Development Council (NDC) while WGDP areas were
recommended in 1972 by the High-Level Committee set up for the purpose. Designated Hill
areas included: a) Two hill districts of Assam-North Cachar and Karbi Anglong. b) Eight hill
districts of Uttar Pradesh Dehradun, Pauri Garhwal, Tehri Garwhal, Chamoli, Uttar Kashi,
Nainital, Almora and Pithoragarh c) Major part of Darjeeling District of West Bengal. d)
Nilgiris District of Tamil Nadu. e) One hundred and thirty two talukas of WGDP comprising
of Western Ghats in Maharashtra (51 talukas), Karnataka (28 talukas) Tamil Nadu (23 talukas),
Kerala (27 talukas) and Goa (3 talukas).
Consequent on the creation of the State of Uttaranchal and its categorization as a
Special Category State, the Hill Areas Development Programme is no longer in operation in
the erstwhile hill districts of Uttar Pradesh. Further, the Western Ghats Development
Programme is currently being implemented in 171 talukas of Western Ghats viz. Maharashtra
(63 taluka), Karnataka (40 talukas), Kerala (32 talukas), Tamil Nadu (33 talukas) and Goa (3
talukas) as some of the original talukas have been sub-divided.
Objectives
Hill Areas Development Programme: The approach and strategy of the programme have
evolved through the Plans. The programmes implemented during the Fifth Plan period were
mainly beneficiary oriented. During the Sixth Plan, though the emphasis shifted to
ecodevelopment, the general tenor of HADP remained substantially the same as that of normal
State Plan following the same sectoral approach. The Seventh Plan laid particular emphasis on
the development of ecology and environment, namely eco-restoration, eco-preservation and
eco-development. The aim was to evolve plans and programmes which would stimulate socio-
economic growth, development of infrastructure and promotion of ecology of the areas covered
by HADP. During the Eighth Plan, the approach was substantially the same as that in the
Seventh Plan with special focus on involvement of the people and meeting their basic needs
through improved management of their land and water resources. The measures outlined
towards this end include (i) an energy policy which would reduce pressure on forests and
provide alternate sources of energy, (ii) afforestation of denuded forest land with species which
can provide both fuel and fodder, (iii) provision of adequate and safe drinking water by
development of gravitational sources of water, (iv) emphasis on improvement of health
facilities including infrastructural facilities in primary health institutions, (v) development of
skilled manpower, (vi) evolving a proper land use pattern keeping the socio-economic and
ecological parameters in view, (vii) development of horticulture and plantation crops, (viii)
improvement of livestock, (ix) development of industries such as electronics which do not
pollute the atmosphere and lead to high value addition, (x) development of network of transport
and communication facilities with emphasis on feeder paths and roads; and (xi) evolution of
appropriate technology and scientific inputs which would suit local conditions and harness
local resources.
In the Ninth Plan, the main objectives of the Programme were eco preservation and
eco-restoration. All development schemes were to be planned within this framework with
emphasis on preservation of bio-diversity and rejuvenation of the hill ecology. Traditional
practices were to be dovetailed with appropriate technology to serve the needs of the people of
these areas. Traditional knowledge was to be used as the starting point for introduction of
modern science and technology. Schemes were to be rooted in the existing cultural system so
that they were easily acceptable and would provide maximum benefit to the people. The
strategy for the programme has been centred on the sub-plan approach under which a separate
Sub-plan for the hill areas in the concerned State was prepared indicating the flow of funds
from the State Plan and Special Central Assistance (SCA) so that convergence could be
achieved and duplication avoided. Thus, the State Governments prepare a sub-plan showing
the flow of funds from different sources. Funding under HADP is used somewhat on the lines
of a mini State Plan i.e. the Special Central Assistance is used to fund critical gaps in diverse
sectors. During the Tenth Plan, for the hill areas of Assam and West Bengal the multi- sectoral
approach followed in the previous plans has continued but with increasing emphasis on
watershed development and ecological restoration/preservation.
Western Ghats Development Programme: During the Fifth Five Year Plan, the emphasis of
the Programme was on the economic well-being of the population in hill areas and
exploitation of the resources of the hilly region. The main programmes during the Fifth
Five Year Plan consisted of activities in the areas of horticulture, plantation, afforestation,
minor irrigation, animal husbandry and tourism. The Sixth Plan stressed the need for a
balance in emphasis between beneficiary oriented and infrastructural development
schemes, keeping in view the vital importance of ecological restoration and conservation.
During the Sixth Plan the Watershed Development Programme was taken up on a pilot
basis.
Apart from the shift in the emphasis from beneficiary-oriented schemes to eco-conservation
and eco-development, a notable step initiated by the Planning Commission during the Sixth
Plan was the involvement of universities and research institutions located in the Western Ghats
region in the programme. The general approach under WGDP during the Eighth Five Year Plan
was a continuation of the strategy adopted in the Seventh Five Year Plan, which was to take
up integrated development on compact watershed basis keeping in view the over-riding
priorities of eco-development and eco-restoration as well as the basic needs of the people like
food, fodder, fuel and safe drinking water. In operational terms, integrated development of
watershed approach envisages the following sequence of actions: a) Identification and
delineation of macro and micro watersheds in the entire WGDP areas in the State by a
competent research organization. b) Prioritisation of all the identified and delineated
watersheds on the basis of suitable criteria adopted by the State Government. c) A preliminary
or base-line survey of the watersheds taken up for development to determine the micro or mini
watersheds to be taken up for development in each macro or major watershed, and the nature
of development programmes which need to be undertaken in each such area, keeping in view
its development potential, the needs of the local people and the financial allocations available.
d) Preparation of an integrated development plan for each macro/micro watershed covering all
relevant activities, such as, soil-conservation, agriculture, afforestation, fuel and fodder
development, minor irrigation, animal husbandry and sericulture. e) Making necessary
administrative and institutional arrangements for the implementation, monitoring and review
of the integrated development programme for each watershed taken up for development. The
thrust of the WGDP was on sustainable development of the areas covered under the programme
during Seventh and the Eighth Five Year Plans. During Ninth Plan WGDP operated on the
following principles: i) Maintenance of ecological balance essential for the life support system.
ii) Preservation of genetic diversity. iii) Restoration of ecological damage caused by human
interaction. iv) Creation of awareness among the people and educating them on the far-reaching
implications of ecological degradation and securing their active participation for the eco-
development schemes. During the Tenth Five Year Plan, the main objectives of this programme
have been eco-preservation and eco-restoration with emphasis on preservation of bio-diversity
and rejuvenation of the hill ecology. The programme also focuses on the needs and
implementation of the strategies for conservation of biodiversity and sustainable livelihood.
Watershed based development has been basic thrust area of the programme along with a
participatory approach to ensure efficiency, transparency and accountability during the Tenth
Five Year Plan period. The main aim of the watershed approach is to ensure a holistic view of
water and land resources and to prevent further degradation of these ecologically fragile areas.
However, the development of the people of these hilly areas in consonance with the fragility
of their habitat, demands an approach which is more than just watershed development.
Attention is given to economic activities which are sustainable, use of technologies which will
reduce the burden of the people both in economic and household situations and ensure means
of livelihood for the inhabitants with minimal disturbance to the ecology. Thus, the approach
is a watershed plus approach an approach which gives as much emphasis to ecology as to
economic development. In December, 2002 common guidelines for implementing Hill Areas
Development Programme (HADP) and Western Ghats Development Programme (WGDP)
were issued. However, for implementation of Watershed Development projects, the State
Governments have to follow the Common Approach/ Principles for Watershed Development
issued by the Department of Agriculture & Cooperation, Ministry of Agriculture, Government
of India in 2000.

Tribal Areas: Tribal people are among the most disadvantaged section of the society, they are
subjected to multiple disability. Historically tribal people were confined to the most
inhospitable areas of the country, they were pushed to such places by the more advancing
raiders from northwest. Although during British period they were kept in relative isolation in
some parts like the Nagas were hardly interfered in their internal affairs, at the same time tribal
people in central and western India were exposed to British economy. Their lands were grabbed
by money landers and middleman who used them for their economic benefits. This increasing
land alienation has resulted in what is called the outburst or rebellion during British time itself
we see a number of rebellions like the santhal, oraon, munda, koli, bhel, sanyasi, etc. they all
tried to liberate their lands from the Britishers. However, most of these rebellions were brutally
suppressed.
After independence, constitution of India provided for the upliftment of these
people through various provisions like the sixth schedule for scheduled and Tribal areas in
North eastern states and under 5th schedule for rest of the states, article 29 provides for
protection of languages of any ethnic or tribal groups, equal protection of law and equality
before law under article 14, affirmative action through reservation of jobs and seats through
positive discrimination , PESA act, Forest rights act, 2006, TRIFED for trade of tribal products,
tribal subplans, formation of tribal ministry for tribal welfare, National commission for ST and
tribal advisory councils etc.
However, even after all these protections and positive discriminations there has
been an overall development of tribals especially in centrals and western India. Due to
indiscriminate mining and exploitation of tribals there has been rise of left-wing extremism in
India. In order to evade this problem government must find a solution to the tribal question.
There is ample of laws in India but to non-implementation they often lead to corruption and
leakage. Indian Tribals are lagging with a huge margin in the developmental process as is
revealed from time to time by various research agencies, NGOs, and government. It was
reported by Xaxa committee that root cause behind this lag in socio-economic indicators has
been various loopholes in land acquisition process for development works and mining
activities, by which land is acquired forcibly without commensurate compensation.
Vanbandhu kalyan yojana: VKY is a strategic process. It aims at creating enabling
environment for need based and outcome oriented holistic development of the tribal people.
This process envisages to ensure that all the intended benefits of goods and services under
various programmes/schemes of Central as well as State Governments actually reach the
target groups by convergence of resources through appropriate institutional mechanism.
Integrated Tribal DevelopmentProjects/Agencies (ITDPs/ITDAs): The ITDPs are
generally contiguous areas of the size of a Tehsil or Block or more in which the ST
population is 50% or more of the total. On account of demographic reasons, however
ITDPs. in Assam, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, West Bengal may be smaller or not contiguous.
Andhra Pradesh and Orissa have opted for an Agency model under the Registration of
Societies Act and the ITDPs there are known as ITD Agencies(ITDAs). So far 194
ITDPs/ITDAs have been delineated in the country in the states of Andhra Pradesh, Assam,
Bihar, Gujarat, Himachal Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra,
Manipur, Orissa, Rajasthan, Sikkim, Tamil Nadu, Tripura, Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal and
Union Territories of Andaman & Nicobar Island and daman & Diu. In Jammu and Kashmir
though no ITDP has been delineated yet the areas having ST Population in the State are
treated as covered under the TSP strategy. In eight states having scheduled areas the
ITDPs/ITDAs are generally co terminus with TSP areas. The ITDPs/ITDAs are headed by
Project Officer though they may be designated Project Administrators or Project Directors.
Modified Area Development Approach (MADA) pockets: These are identified pockets of
concentration of ST population containing 50% or more ST population within a total
population of minimum of 10,000. The total number of MADAs identified so far in the
various TSP States is 259. Generally, MADA pockets do not have separate administrative
structures to implement development programmes. The line Departments of the State Govt.
are expected to implement development programmes in MADA pockets under the overall
control of the District authorities.
Bhalla A. S., 1992: Uneven Development in the Third World: A Study of India and
China, Macmillan, London.
Bhat, L.S., 1976: Micro Level Planning in India, K.B. Pub. New Delhi.
Dreze J. and Sen A., 1996: Indian Development: Select Regional Perspectives,
Oxford University Press.
Hall, Peter 1992: Urban and Regional Planning, Routledge, London.
Misra R. P. (ed), 1980: Regional Planning Concepts, Techniques, Policies and Case
Studies, Vikas Publishing, Delhi.
Misra R. P., Sundaram K. V. and Prakasa Rao V. L. S., 1974: Regional Development
Planning in India A New Strategy, Vikas Publishing, Delhi.
Sharma H. S and Chattopadhyaya S., 1998: Sustainable Development: Issues and Case
Studies, Concept Publishing, Delhi
Sundaram K. V., 1980: Decentralised Multilevel Planning: Principles and Practices
(Asian and African Experiences), Concept Publishing, Delhi.
Yugandhar, B. N. and Mukherjee, Amitava (eds.) 1991: Readings in De-centralised
Planning (with special reference to District Planning), 2 vols. Concept Publs. Co., New Delhi.
Misra, R. P. & Misra, K. eds. 1998: Million Cities of India, Sustainable Development
Foundation, New Delhi.
Unit IV
Indicators of regional development regional imbalances and inequalities in India Regional
allocation of resources in India

I. Indicators of Regional Development

It has been seen earlier that measurement of levels of development is an essential
stage in policy formulation and planning. Measurement is the assignment of numbers to the
properties of empirical objects or events in such a way that a one to one correspondence is
maintained between the relation among the properties measured and the characteristics of the
numbers assigned. Regional development can be, and is conceived of in many ways. Inherent
in the way use of the term is some sense of significant variations in the way in which people
produce and consume work, live and play. To record and measure a vast mosaic of variation in
the nation as a whole and in its various parts of regions is no simple undertaking and even the
most sophisticated statistical tools can hardly do full justice to measure comprehensively all
aspects of regional development, as the variables are so vast and divers in nature and some
even escape the limits of quantification. However, a useful starting point is to make a
distinction between the variation that would seen to be associated with the volume of economic
activities and social progress. The most commonly employed measure, really crude indicators
of economic and social welfare of improvement or decline in the average status of families
and the individual are the relative levels of per capita income as it is assumed that economic
health is invariably followed by social progress. However recently it has been argued that per
capita income or any other measure of economic progress as level of production and
consumption are partial measures of development as these do not necessarily measure
variations in the economic structure and list of social health. They touch only tangentially most
of the essential element of development. The analysis of regional development, therefore, poses
the problem of measurement. In early seventies there has come up the social indicators
approach. This approach points out that development goes beyond some aggregate measure of
levels of consumption and production of goods and services. This approach emphasizes that
variable indicating social status should also be included when measuring levels of
development. As such, there is no single criterion on which levels of development can be
assessed therefore, an analysis of regional development proceeds with the selection of suitable
indicators which measures not only differences in economic structure, and production, but also
indicate variation in health, education, housing leisure, social security and a number of other
variables. However, their selection depends on the availability of statistics at appropriate unit
of analysis.

II. Regional Imbalances and Inequalities in

India Theories of Regional Disparity: A Review

Various theories have been developed by regional scientists and economists, which explain the
causes and courses of regional imbalances. As has been suggested earlier Myrdal's theory
(1964) of 'spread' and 'backwash' effects suggests that all activities concentrate at the point of
success because of increasing internal and external economies and the spread effects remain
dominated by backwash effects for a number of years. Consequently, regional imbalances tend
to increase. According to Hirschman (1958), growth once started, tends to concentrate around
the initial starting points because of external economies. The 'trickling down' effects of this
concentration are dominated by the 'polarization' effects in the short run. The trend is reverse
in the long run. Thus divergence in early stages of development converges in later stages. The
self-perpetuation hypothesis of Hughes (1961), which was empirically tested by Booth ,(1964)
suggests that disparities diverge in the process of development. As against it, 'Accordian Effect
hypothesis' of Hanna (1959) suggests convergence. The validity of this hypothesis was tested
by himself.
The more acceptable 'Concentration Cycle hypothesis' developed by Myrdal, Hirschman,
Williamson and Alonso was found to be empirically valid by Williamson and Koropeckyi. This
hypothesis states that regional disparities diverge initially only to converge later on.
It is generally believed that market forces, when left free to operate on their own, take care of
all regions and reduces regional imbalances. There is, in fact, increase in inter-regional
inequality. However, the socialist economies show less intensity of inter-regional inequality.
A reduction in the inter-regional inequality may be achieved only if the utilization of resources
is planned and proper care is taken of the requirements of different regions. The regional growth
model suggested by Harrod and Domar suggests that the tendency of inter-regional imbalance
to converge or not depends upon whether inter-regional flows of capital and labour equilibrate
factor flows or not once there is divergence between the regional growth rates. The centre-
periphery model of Friedman stresses cumulative and self-reinforcing advantages of the initial
location and limited advantages of backward regions are normally insufficient to offset
agglomeration advantages.
From the above analysis one can conclude that three different types of regional development
tendencies tend to emerge once the process of development starts:
i) It goes on diverging,
ii) It moves towards bridging up the gap between regions, and
iii) It diverges in the initial stage only to converge later on.
The third proposition may be true particularly in a developed economy. The second proposition
is hard to be observed in a poor and underdeveloped economy like that of Orissa. Here only
the first derivation appears to be nearer the truth.

Regionalisation Exercises in India

The concept of a 'region' is very elastic. Though a geographical entity, it refers to a real unit
encompassing a village or a cluster of villages and may even extend to a nation or a few nations.
However, for planning exercises economic, social, environmental and administrative regions
are formed by taking into cognizance differences in these traits. For operational planning,
planning regions are carved by taking into account a synthesis of all economic, social,
environmental and administrative considerations. Regionalisation of an economy becomes
necessary for the formulation of development plans and policies that suit diversities of different
regions and help achieve regional balance.
Geographers as well as economists attempted the method of regionalisation in terms of both
geographic and socio-economic parameters. The attempts to classify regions and sub-regions
based upon the homogeneity of geographic structure and climate was made in India by Stamp
in the year 1927. Stamp tried to classify India into 3 major regions and 22 sub-regions.
Pithawala suggested an alternative scheme of physiographic division of India in 1936. Except
these few works, regionalisation had largely been neglected in India during the pre-
independence era. The first major post-independence attempt in this regard was made in 1951
census. During fifties, Prakash Rao, Spate, Nath etc. attempted regionalisation based on
homogeneity of physical and demographic conditions. One of the most useful works for a study
relating to regionalisation of India came from G. Sdasyuk and P. Sengupta in 1968.
They discussed at great length the elements of agricultural regionalisation and formed
agricultural regions comprising river basins. This 'most scientific' approach to the delineation
of planning regions divided India in 7 Macro regions, 42 meso regions and 129 micro-regions.
Similarly, attempts were also made to divide India into various agricultural regions. The
National Atlas of India (1957), the National Council of Applied Economic Research, the Town
and Country Planning Organization and similar government and semi-government
organizations have also attempted for agricultural regionalisation. Attempts by Seng, Throner
and Sharma are noteworthy in regard to agricultural regionalisation. Throner delineated India
into 16 agricultural regions using seven indicators. Chenang-Seng used five criteria -
topographical situation, agricultural water supply, crop system, land tenure system and general
economic development to demarcate India into 16 regions. Two monumental works by Mitra
and Planning Commission made in the year 1964 need a mention in this context. Mitra with
the help of 63 variables divided India into 7 regions, 31 subregions and 89 divisions following
ranking approach. The Planning Commission divided the country into 15 resource development
regions and 61 divisions on the basis of physical conditions, topography, soil, geological
formations, rainfall, cropping pattern and development of irrigation and mineral resources. A
comprehensive regionalisation has been attempted by Pal, Singh, Lahiri, Kundu and Nath based
on the method of ranking. Very recently, modem methods such as composite indices41,
composite synthetic index, simple aggregation of ranking and principal component analysis are
being used for delineating regions. Schwartzburg critically examined the alternative
approaches to mapping of levels of economic development and classified areas in the country
into six types of isolated tribal economy, subsistence peasant economy, incipient
commercialization, advanced commercialization, economic diversification and large scale
organization. Moonis Raza analysed the regional disparities in the levels of development in
India in the context of political economy of the country.
Technique of Classifying Regions:
Mitra used thirty five indicators and attempted to highlight regional disparities based upon a
simple method of assigning and adding up ranks of 48 districts. Nath also used this method to
highlight disparities between different regions based upon the state ranks in India. The rank
ordering method of Mitra and Nath ignores the magnitude of variation between two regions
with respect to any one variable.
Rao used the multiple factor analysis method and with the help of six variables attempted
studying regional disparities in India. Pal applied the method of principal component analysis
to study regional disparities in India. Rao followed the same method. Iyengar, Nanjappa and
Sudarshan53 made use of composite dynamic index of development and measured inter-district
development. They assigned weights to the indicators inversely
proportional to the corresponding coefficient of variation. Dadibhavi made use of the principal
component analysis to analyse inter taluka disparity and backwardness in Karnataka. The inter-
taluka variations in respect of agricultural development were not found to be high. Sundaram
and Rao observed that specific regional policies are needed to guide deliberate action to bring
about a more even economic and social development in different parts of the economy.
Sampath using a similar technique to the co-efficient of variation observed that agricultural
sector significantly increases inequality.
Mishra, Mohanty and Pathak in their study on agricultural development and planning in the
context of micro level planning with particular reference to East Champaran district (Bihar)
found agricultural development in the district to be distinctly unbalanced. They further
observed that the growth of agriculture was positively related with the area, yeild rate and
interaction of the two. The component cropping pattern was found to be in need of planning
for both increasing output as well as decreasing disparities. Srivastava made use of the
composite index to measure regional disparities in agricultural development in Madhya
Pradesh. She found a high degree of concentration of both inputs and outputs in those districts,
which are highly and fairly developed. Mandal found improved farming among the dominating
factors that affect regional imbalances. The area under HYV and distribution of energized
pump sets were found to be significantly influencing imbalances. Imbalances in respect of
agricultural productivity and area sown were not found to be significant. Ghosal and Krishnan
used four sectors namely, Agriculture, Industry, Social and Demography with the help of 61
indicators to study the regional disparity in the Socio-economic sector of the State of Punjab.
They used the simple ranking method for the purpose. Mohanty used the statistical technique
proposed by Iyengar and Sundarshan (1982) with suitable modifications for building sectoral
and composite indices of the development for the thirteen blocks of Keonjhar district of Orissa
for the year 1981-82. Lenka in his study of regional disparity in the development of Small Scale
Industries in Orissa divided the state into four zones in terms of the number of SSIs located in
a district.

Introduction to Regional Imbalances in India:

imbalances may be inter-state or intrastate. Economic development of an economy like India

is possible only when there is balanced economic development of all regions in the country i.e.
of 28 states and 7 union territories. Balanced economic development of different regions does
not mean that rate of development of regions should be uniform. It implies that difference in
the economic development of different regions should be minimised.
Regional imbalances may be: (i) Natural Regional Imbalances: These are the imbalances
in inter regional or intra-regional development due to unequal distribution of natural
resources by the nature. Each region is different from the other region in respect of natural
resources, water capacity, transport etc. (ii) Human Made Regional Imbalances: There may
be some regions where more efforts have been made for development by giving preference
for investment and other development efforts like subsidies, grants etc.
Prof. N.J. Kurion has divided the regions in two categories: (a) Regions situated in the
centre of India; like, Uttar Pradesh, Orissa and Bihar etc. are considered backward regions

as
(b) Regions situated at the periphery of India like Punjab, Gujarat, Karnataka, West Bengal,
Kerala, Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh have developed more. We can also call these

Indicators of Regional Imbalance:

There are a number of factors which have to be studied and understood in detail to understand
the pattern of regional development of the Indian economy. In a country like India socio-
economic indicators are very prominent to reflect the regional imbalances.
Per Capita Income: The most important indicator of regional imbalance in India is per
capita income. The following table shows this per capital income in descending order.

The table clearly indicates that Goa is the state with highest per capita income amongst these
states. Haryana stands second in number with Rs. 78,781. Punjab, Haryana, Maharashtra,
Gujarat and Tamil Nadu have more than average per capita income of India. Bihar has the
lowest per capita income. States of the southern region of India, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh,
Kerala etc. seem to be better developed, than most of the states of northern India. The present
trend of growing income disparity among various states of India has been continuing in recent
years.
Population: State wise analysis of population reveals that maximum population of India is
concentrated in four states i.e. Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan and Uttar Pradesh
(BIMARU). The major task of Population Commission is to bring about a decline in birth rate
in BIMARU states which are the main contributors to population growth in the country. To
step up its efforts, the outlay for the Department of Family Welfare has been increased from
Rs. 6,500 crores in the Eighth Plan to Rs. 15,120 crores in the Ninth Plan.
 Bihar, U.P., Orissa and M.P are four states which have the highest percentage of
population below poverty line. Punjab is a state maintaining the status of lowest percentage of
population living below poverty line because of a strong production base and distribution of
income in Punjab.
Agricultural Production and Agricultural Productivity: While discussing the share of
agricultural production of different states we concentrate on production of food-grains as it
forms the major proportion of agricultural production in India. Share of food-grain
production has been highest in case of Uttar Pradesh. Next stands Punjab although it is
seventh in India with regard to area. Madhya Pradesh is the largest states of Indian area
wise but it stand third in production of food grains:

Agricultural productivity is calculated per hectare of yield of different crops.

Punjab, Uttar Pradesh and Haryana have maximum productivity in rice and wheat. One of the

low. Punjab and Haryana have maximum productivity of wheat. Southern states i.e. Tamil
Nadu, Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka have shown maximum productivity of sugarcane while
Rajasthan has shown the minimum productivity.
Net Domestic Product: The following table shows contribution of few important states to
net domestic product of India.

a isDev
Indi the been
maximum.
total Bihar is a state which contributes the minimum.
Mah
elopment of Factories and Employment: Although Industrial development in has nt of s i.e.
India
at a fair rate but distribution of industries to different states is quite uneven. 15 perce cent
factories in India are located alone in Maharashtra. Also, the credit goes to four state
arashtra, Gujarat, Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh only for having more than 50 per
contribution in respect of factories, industrial production, employment generated by factories
and investment in India. Bihar being rich in mineral wealth and Punjab being an agricultural
state their share in respect of number of factories, output, generated employment and
investment has been very low. It has been observed that states maintaining higher degree of
industrialisation are maintaining higher proportion of industrial workers to total population.
Infrastructure Disparities: Development of infrastructure is the backbone of economic and
social development of any economy.

of existing sources going into production and therefore helps growth, it also helps to attract

disparities in infrastructure Development in India.

The above table reveals few following findings:

Consumption of Power: This indicates level of energy consumption in different states.
Punjab has shown maximum per capita consumption of power which is an indicator of high
level of economic activity in Punjab. Assam, Uttar Pradesh and Bihar have shown the
figures below
National average of 338 kWh, which means unless the industrialisation speeds up in these states
the disparities, cannot be removed. All Forward States are above National average.
Road Transport: Vehicles per thousand persons cannot be treated as an index of
development of whole transport as it does not take into account railways. It is an indicator
of development of road transport. Except in few rich states of India, the development of
road transport has not been satisfactory.
The development of state in terms of Net State Domestic Product (NSDP) and per
capital NSDP should also be taken into account to find out how effectively the transport system
has been created and utilised. That is the reason Orissa has 134.8 kms of road length per 100
sq. kms of area but in terms of NSDP it ranks very low which shows the under-utilisation of
roads.
Telecommunications: Development of Communication system is highest in Punjab. The
poorest state of India is also lowest in development of telecommunication system as it has
below average density of telecommunication i.e. only 0.58 telecom lines per 100 persons.
Rajasthan is near average density of telecommunications out of all other backward states.
Irrigated Area: Besides the production of food grains, the percentage of irrigated area on
gross cropped land also indicates the development of agriculture in the state. Punjab,
Haryana and Uttar Pradesh cover the maximum irrigated area. Kerala is least developed in
this respect.
Combined Infrastructure: It includes the entire above plus social infrastructure like
education, health, banking etc. Punjab has shown tremendous progress in respect of
infrastructure, index being almost double than national index. Kerala has also show
considerable progress (except in irrigation) especially in the field of education.
Intra State Imbalances: There is a growing tendency among most of the advanced states to
concentrate its development activities relatively more towards developed urban and
metropolitan areas of the state while allocating its industrial projects. These can be seen
from the example of West Bengal where 70 percent of new units are located in Hoogly
district. About 86 percent of factories of Maharashtra are located mostly in urban areas.

Causes of Regional Imbalances or Disparities in in India:

Historical Factors: Regional imbalances in India started from its British regime. British
industrialists mostly preferred to concentrate their activities in two states like West Bengal and
Maharashtra and more particularly to three cities like Calcutta, Bombay and Madras and
neglecting the rest of the country to remain backward. The uneven pattern of investment had
resulted in uneven growth of some areas keeping other areas neglected.
Geographical Factors: Geographical factors play an important role in the developmental
activities of a developing economy. Adverse climate and floods are also responsible factors
for poor rate of economic development of different regions of the country which is shown
by low productivity and lack of industrialisation. Natural factors resulted in uneven growth
of different regions of India.
Locational Advantage: Due to some locational advantages, some regions are getting special
favour in respect of site selections of various developmental projects. Regional imbalances
arise due to such locational advantages accrue to some regions and the locational
disadvantages to some other regions.
Inadequacy of Economic Overheads: Economic overheads like transport and
communication facilities, power, technology and insurance etc. are considered very
important for the development of a particular region. Due to adequacy of such economic
overheads, some regions are getting a special favour in respect of settlement of some
developmental projects whereas due to inadequacy of such economic overheads some
regions of the country i.e. North- Eastern region, Himachal Pradesh, Bihar etc. remained
much backward.
Failure of Planning Mechanism: Although balanced growth has been accepted as one of the
major objectives of economic planning in India, since, it did not make much headway in
achieving this object. In fact planning enlarged the disparity among states. In respect of
allocating plan outlay developed states get much favour than less developed states. Due to
such divergent trend, imbalance between the different states in India has been continuously
widening, inspite of framing achievement of regional balance as one of the important
objective of economic planning in the country.
Lack of Growth of Ancillary Industries in Backward States: The Government of India has
been following a decentralised approach for the development of backward regions through
its investment programmes on public sector industrial enterprises located in backward areas
like Rourkela, Barauni, Bhilai etc. But due to lack of growth of ancillary industries in these
areas, these areas remained backward in spite of huge investment by the centre.
Lack of Motivation on the Part of Backward States: Growing regional imbalances in India
have also resulted from lack of motivation on the part of the backward states or industrial
development while the developed states like Maharashtra, Punjab, Haryana, Gujarat, Tamil
Nadu etc. are trying to attain further industrial development, but the backward states have
been showing their interest on political interferences and manipulations instead of
industrial development.
Political Instability: Political instability in the form of instable Government, law and order
problem etc. have been obstructing the flow of investment into these backward regions
besides making flight of capital from these backward states. Thus this political instability
prevailing in some backward regions of the country are standing as a hurdle in the path of
development of these regions.
Measures Taken by Indian Government to Control Regional Imbalances:
It is clear that regional imbalances are threatening the development of a country.
Therefore, it becomes the need of the hour to control it. In India regional disparities are
persisting even in recent years since the very beginning in spite of repeated attempts made from
different corners to contain it.
In order to tackle the problem of regional imbalances and backwardness the Planning
Commission in India has been adopting a three-fold strategy in the following manner:
(i) While transferring resources from the centre to the states, backwardness of the region has
been given due recognition and weightage.
(ii) For the development of backward areas, special area development programmes are being
formulated.
(iii) Necessary measures have been taken for promoting private investment in those backward
regions of the country.
Resource Transfer and Backwardness: While making necessary awards; the Finance
Commission in India has been giving due weightage to backwardness of a state as an
important
criterion for resource transfer from the centre to the states. The following table shows the share
of backward states and special category states in plan outlay and central assistance.

Under the present system of federal fiscal transfer, the transfer of resources from
the centre to the states includes central assistance for state plans. Hon plan transfer as per the
recommendations of the Finance ad-hoc transfer, allocation of funds for centrally sponsored
schemes, allocation of both short term and long-term credit from financial institution etc.
The table clearly shows that since the 1st plan the Government is continuously
giving assistance to these states. Again, there are some peculiar difficulties to solve the problem
of regional imbalance and backwardness/through resource transfers from centre to states.
Again, resources so transferred are not always utilised for the development of backward areas
of such backward states.
ward and
difficult areas to more forward areas and easier programmes. Again, the problem of backward
areas in non-backward states remained more or less unattended.
Special Area Development Programme: In order to develop hilly areas, tribal areas,
drought- prone areas specific plan schemes have been designed with full central assistance.
The Tribal Sub-plans are implemented through 194 Integrated Tribal Development Projects
(ITDP) and 250 modified Area Development (MADP).
In this manner, different special schemes for particular target groups located in the backward
areas are being included for block level planning for attaining integrated rural development and
considerable employment opportunities. All these programmes, IRDP (Integrated Rural
Development Programme) Drought Prone Area Programme (ODAP), Crash Scheme for Rural
Employment (CSRE) etc. have been formulated.
Incentives for Promoting Investment in Backward Regions: In order to fight the problem
of industrial backwardness of some backward regions and also to promote private
investment in backward regions, various fiscal and other incentives have been provided by
the centre, states and other financial institutions under public sector.
These incentives are as follows:
(a) Central Government Incentives: In order to promote investment in the backward
regions, the Government of India has been providing different important incentives.
These incentives include:
(i) Income Tax Concessions: As per this concession scheme, new industrial units settled in
backward areas are allowed a deduction to the extent of 20 percent of their profits for the
computation of its assessable income.
(ii) Tax Holiday: In order to give stimulus to new industries in backward regions, the
Government introduced a system of tax holiday for new industrial units located in
backward regions i.e. in all states in the North eastern region, Jammu and Kashmir,
Himachal Pradesh, Sikkim, Goa and the Union Territories of Andaman and Nicobar
Islands, Daman and Diu.
(iii) Central Investment Subsidy Scheme: The Central Government announced the scheme
of Central Government subsidy which made a provision for subsidy at the flat rate of 10
percent subject to a maximum limit of Rs. 5 lakhs on fixed capital investment like land,
factory, buildings, plant and machinery, subsequently, this rate of subsidy was raised to 15
percent and then 25 percent.
(iv) Transport Subsidy Scheme: In July 1971, this transport subsidy scheme was introduced
for those units established in hilly and remote areas of the country. Under this scheme,
these industrial units were entitled to 50 percent transport subsidy on the expenditure
incurred particularly for movement of raw material and finished goods to and from certain
selected rail heads to the location of these industrial units. This scheme is applicable to
remote and inaccessible areas of Jammu and Kashmir and also in North-Eastern hilly areas.
(v) Promoting New Financial Institutions in Backward Region: In order to accelerate the
pace of industrialisation in backward areas the Government of India has promoted new
financial institutions especially for those areas. The Government has announced the
establishment of Regional Rural Development Bank (RRDB) for the North-Eastern Region.
Later on, this institution was inaugurated in the name and style of North-Eastern
Development Finance Corporation Ltd. NEDFI for the development of North- Eastern
Regions.
Moreover, the Government has established a new Rural Infrastructural
Development Fund (RIDF) within NABARD for the infrastructural development of rural as
well as backward areas.
(vi) Other Measures: The Government has been introducing some other measures for the
development of backward regions. The Government is giving priority to backward areas in
respect of issuing industrial licenses.]The Central Government has again introduced a
scheme for assisting the state Governments to undertake infrastructural development

projects in those
projects subject to a maximum unit of Rs. 2 crore. With this scheme, the Central Government
has been helping the state Governments to develop a good number of Growth Centres through
the development of infrastructural facilities.
(b) State Government Incentives: In order to attract private sector investment in backward
regions, the State governments have also been offering incentives in different forms. These
incentives include providing developed plots with electricity and water connection on a no
profit and no loss basis, exemption from payments of water charges for some years, sales
tax exemption, interest free loans, exemption from payment of property taxes for initial
years, providing subsidy on industrial housing scheme, establishment of industrial estates
for setting
up small industries etc. In recent years more than 50 percent of loans sanctioned by institution
like SFCS, SIDCO and SIIC under concessional finance scheme have gone to backward
districts.
(c) Concessional Finance Available from Major Financial Institutions: In India, there are
some important public sector financial institutions which are providing concessional
finance for setting up industrial projects in the backward areas of the country. These
institutions include Industrial Development Bank of India (IDBI), the industrial Finance
Corporation of India (IFCI) and the Industrial Credit and Investment Corporation of India
(ICICI). These institutions are offering loan at concessional rates of interest and also at
longer period repayment facilities waiving of Commitment Charges etc. They are also
arranging entrepreneurial development programmes for providing necessary training to
small and medium prospective entrepreneurs. Moreover, these are setting up Technical
Consultancy Organisations (TCOs) to provide technical consultancy services to these
prospective industrial units of backward areas at cheaper rates.
III. Regional Allocation of Resources in India
It is quite clear that regional distribution of resources cannot be considered entirely
as a non- political decision. Here national and regional social goals are in conflict: On the one
hand there is the understandable desire of each state to develop its own resources and increase
the standard of living of its own population as fast as possible; on the other hand, rapid national
growth may require the concentration of larger resources in particular areas. This unfortunate
conflict arises from the very nature of the growth process.
Some areas are better endowed with natural resources than others. The exploitation
of certain resources has greater urgency than others for phasing development. Investment is
lumpy: many projects must be undertaken in large chunks in order to attain a minimum efficient
scale in production. Furthermore, there is a powerful motivation to agglomerate industrial
investment at selected areas because of external economies consisting of sharing the same
social overhead facilities, service industries, skilled labour pools, and expert management.
Then again, markets are also unevenly distributed, requiring uneven development in
transportation and market-oriented activities. And in addition to all these influences there is a
natural tendency for agglomeration because the proportion of resources used in diverse
branches of production can be more economically adjusted if larger pools of the different
resources are pulled together.
Regions which have existing advantages can grow at a faster rate than others. In
the process of growth, employment opportunities increase and a flow of labour from other
regions is attracted, which should have beneficial effects both on the industrialising areas and
on the more stagnant regions. Furthermore, the rapidly growing areas can yield surpluses for
future investment. Such surpluses arise from the profits of the expanding private and state
enterprises and from increasing private incomes which in turn yield larger savings and taxes.
Initially a good part of these savings must be used to maintain growth in the vigorous centres.
But as savings continue to increase and new investment outlets are needed, more and more
resources can be channelled to the development of other areas, which in turn will raise the
living standard of the local population and create new surpluses and resources for continued
development. The latter will manifest itself in the creation of new «growing points» in other
previously stagnant or slowly moving areas. In good time the number of growing areas should
increase to a density which is adequate to provide a satisfactory regional balance. It is a
paradoxical conclusion that for developing the retarded areas the growth of the more advanced
regions must be encouraged. If the latter is stifled because of insufficient investment on an
uneconomical scale, surpluses will be insufficient and stagnant regions which are unable to
raise their own savings must be doomed to an even longer period of waiting and poverty.
Barring some special and obvious cases, most industrial investments, if located in
retarded areas, would have very low current yields, if any at all, and only questionable higher
returns in the distant future. Similarly, many government-sponsored rural programs would be
of the low-yield type. It might be argued that either approach to increase «regional balance»,
i.e. low-yield type rural programmes or arbitrary location of industrial investment, is more in
the nature of a transfer payment to improve income distribution than a contribution to economic
development. In effect, it uses resources which otherwise would be available to increase
national economic growth. Resources needed for the creation of «economic» investments, i. e.,
industrial and agricultural capacity that directly or indirectly can yield immediate high returns,
should be allocated with the strictest regard for economic efficiency. The surpluses from these
projects are essential to maintain future investment and growth. Investments undertaken with
the purpose of bringing relief to retarded areas should be based on low-cost rural labour and
locally available materials. They should be oriented to prepare the ground for national
integration and future development. In addition to local irrigation, land reclamation,
reforestation, and other projects some of which can have high immediate returns, public works
which increase communication and mobility should be emphasised. Among these, road
building and rural school construction programmes are of primary importance. Since low-yield
investment in retarded regions competes for resources with investment needed to maintain the
rate of economic growth, the amount of effort which can be devoted to regional balance is
determined by, first, the minimum level of politically acceptable national growth rate and,
second, the over-all savings effort the nation is willing to undertake over and above the one
needed to maintain the desired national growth. Long-run relief can come only from the gradual
accumulation of viable, economically efficient industrial and agricultural investments. For this
reason it is important to note that many projects, if allocated with strict economic rationality,
would benefit industrially retarded areas if efficiency in price policy and allocation were given
greater consideration, For instance, railway rates for carrying grain discourage milling in the
producing areas where it logically should take place since the commodity loses weight and
bulk in processing. Furthermore, there are many small-scale industrial projects in either local
consumer-oriented industries or in agricultural processing which logically belong to the
agricultural producing areas. To promote these types of industries the Plan should give greater
attention both to their requirements and to improvements in transportation and pricing policy.
Unfortunately, state governments frequently compete for certain types of industrial
investments not on economic grounds but out of political necessity or misguided eagerness. In
effect, Regional self-sufficiency in fertilizer production or in petroleum refining is almost a
status symbol and the sign of an active state government. Rational economic evaluation of
regional production patterns and real cost-benefit calculations would demonstrate that many of
these projects are wasteful from the point of view of both the nation and the state. The national
interest is to make use of the economies of large-scale production, standardization, and other
advantages in order to achieve efficient resource utilization for any desired level of output. The
states' interest is to obtain the largest return on whatever funds for investment are available to
them. Frequently, fewer resources than needed for «conspicuous investments», if skilfully
employed, can accomplish more for the welfare of the local population than badly located
larger investments. The latter are usually capital intensive and hence do not provide great
employment opportunities; since they cannot be competitive, instead of providing surpluses,
they must be subsidized.
Criteria for Efficient Resource Allocation: Correct allocation of industrial investment
involves the application of competitive principles, particularly when government
ownership is prevalent. Efficient allocation can take place only if there is a suitable norm to
channel resources into activities that will maximise the real value of national income
forgiven supply- and-demand relationships. Such a norm is provided by an efficiently
working pricing mechanism. In the context of regional allocation of resources, the
following pricing rules should be followed.
1. Prices of commodities and rates for services should reflect real costs (including real interest
and foreign exchange rates) at the place of production and at the place of consumption.
2. Prices of homogeneous goods should be the same at a given location without regard of origin
and should differ from location to location by the marginal cost of transportation if the
commodity is transported and at most by that cost if not transported between two separate
locations.
3. The choice for investment allocation should be such that the present discounted value of the
project is at a maximum (basing the computation on real costs and interest).
The violation of these principles results in wasting resources and diminishing savings and
growth potential. A few examples will illustrate this:
Example 1: Railway rates of certain commodities are below cost of hauling, and total revenues
barely cover total railway expenditures. The rate for coal is illustrative. Since the railways are
unable to make adequate profits from the existing rate, they cannot finance badly needed
improvements and new railway investment to keep up with demand. New locational decisions
by investors (private or public) are made in terms of the money cost of transportation rather
than the real costs; hence they have no motivation to seek the most economical location, and
production costs increase.
Example 2: A discussion of the Assam refinery project will show the need to consider the
present discounted value of investments in locational decisions. The present discounted value
of a project is the sum total of the yearly net revenues over its lifetime discounted by the market
rate of interest in a free enterprise, or by a shadow rate of interest in a controlled economy.
First, it is well recognized that refineries are best located in the proximity of markets since the
transport of diverse outputs is more expensive than that of crude. At this point there is no
market which warrants an efficient-scale refinery in Assam. Second, the capacity of the refinery
is below optimal whereas the economies of scale in refining are very large. Assam provides
particularly good opportunities in rational and bold planning. In addition to its under-populated
fertile soil it has vast unutilised natural resources. For instance, a large-scale project of land
clearing would provide agricultural opportunities for great numbers of landless families. Large-
scale paper pulp production and its transportation to other states for processing could be offset
by opposite flows of commodities needed in Assam. Such plans would result in efficient
production patterns according to comparative advantage and in optimal utilisation of
transportation facilities. Assam, as other states, must be encouraged to integrate gradually with
the national economy rather than to follow a policy of striving on its own-toward regional self-
sufficiency.
The process of economic development in its geographical setting requires growth
at different rates in different areas. Attempts to industrialise retarded regions ahead of time and
at the cost of slowing down the growth of more vigorous areas must necessarily put off the date
of bringing relief to the former. Inefficient regional allocation of investments results in wasting
of scarce resources and in unnecessary burdening of the transport system. Losses in the saving
and Investment potential go hand in hand with higher costs of production. Inefficient plants
operating in unsuitable locations require subsidies which are frequently hidden in complexly
administered pricing formulas. Such pricing policies lead to further wastes along with increases
in the price level. The short-run solution is to apply more vigorous criteria to regional
investment choices in accordance with a rationally adjusted pricing mechanism. In the long
run, however, the states cannot be expected to cooperate unless the distant benefits of current
patience and sacrifice are spelled out in the form of explicit long-term plans. Without such
detailed long-term planning the democratic approach to development will be replaced by fiat.

Hall, Peter 1992: Urban and Regional Planning, Routledge, London.

Misra R. P. (ed), 1980: Regional Planning Concepts, Techniques, Policies and Case
Studies, Vikas Publishing, Delhi.
Misra R. P., Sundaram K. V. and Prakasa Rao V. L. S., 1974: Regional Development
Planning in India A New Strategy, Vikas Publishing, Delhi.
Sharma H. S and Chattopadhyaya S., 1998: Sustainable Development: Issues and Case
Studies, Concept Publishing, Delhi
Sundaram K. V., 1980: Decentralised Multilevel Planning: Principles and Practices
(Asian and African Experiences), Concept Publishing, Delhi.
Yugandhar, B. N. and Mukherjee, Amitava (eds.) 1991: Readings in De-centralised
Planning (with special reference to District Planning), 2 vols. Concept Publs. Co., New Delhi.
Misra, R. P. & Misra, K. eds. 1998: Million Cities of India, Sustainable Development
Foundation, New Delhi.
S.M. Raffiullah. 1967. Regionalization in Geography. The Geographer. Aligarh
Muslim University. Vol. XIV. P-55.
Amitabh Kundu. 1980. Measurement of Urban Process - A Study in Regionalization.
Popular Praskshan. Bombay. P-8.
Amitabh Kundu. Measurement of Urban Process - A Study inRegionalization. Op.
Cit. P-9.
L.D. Stamp, 1962. The delimitation of Planning Region. National
Geography. Vol-5.

Unit V
Town planning (Basic concepts, need and functions) Urban Planning classical theories
(Concentric zone, Sector, Multiple nuclei models) Metropolitan Planning in India
I. Town planning
Urban planning is also popularly known as Town Planning. It encompasses many
different disciplines attempts to accomplish sustainable, user-friendly, economic and social
organization of all elements of a town, city or any other urban environment. It has to take care
business, sanitation, mobility and
communication besides preserving the natural and built heritage of the place. Conveyers and
decision and choices,
about normative ways of using available resources, with the aim of achieving articular goals at

It is the design and regulation of the uses of space that focus on the physical form,
economic functions, and social impacts of the urban environment and on the location of
different activities within it. Because urban planning draws upon engineering, architectural,
and social and political concerns, it is variously a technical profession, an endeavour involving
political will and public participation, and an academic discipline.
Urban planning concerns itself with both the development of open land (greenfield
sites) and the revitalization of existing parts of the city, thereby involving goal setting, data
collection and analysis, forecasting, design, strategic thinking, and public consultation. There
are many other specialized streams of planning that constitute urban planning: environmental
planning; transport planning; land use planning; housing etc.
Regional planning involves planning at a larger scale, comprising of both urban and rural
planning.
Why is Town planning important?
It is evident that a small house if well-arranged and planned, looks far more better
than a disordered big palace. In a similar way, a town which is properly planned provide people
with more comfort and convenience. The necessity of town planning can very well be
appreciated by mentioning the evil situations which a town has to face in the absence of town
planning. They are as follows:
1. Defective road system resulting in the formation of narrow streets and lanes;
Defective road system is a problem in most countries. It is due to the fact that towns and cities
were never planned. They gradually grew with the help of the developers which resulted in bad
road network giving rise to bad transportation network.
2. Development of slums and squatter settlements; If land use is not regulated
efficiently, it will result in the formation of slums and squatter settlements which will
eventually degrade the quality of the life of the citizens.
3. Haphazard location of industries; Industries are generally located away from
towns and cities. Hence, industrial zones have to be allotted so that haphazard springing up of
industries on unsuitable locations can be avoided.
4. Heavy traffic congestion during the working hours of the day; If the road network
is not efficient, it will lead to heavy traffic congestion. Traffic congestion is linked to a lot of
other problems.
5. Inadequate open spaces for parks and playgrounds resulting in unhealthy living
conditions; This is one big problem in cities. It is very hard to find open spaces in cities. If
there are open spaces, they are later on used up for designing more houses and constructing
more buildings. This is more common in metropolitan cities and mega cities across the world.
6. Lack of essential amenities like electricity, water supply and drainage; If
planning is not done and towns and cities are left to grow on their own, it results in lack of
efficient network of amenities like electricity, water supply, sewerage and drainage systems.
This results into degraded quality of life.
7. Noisy atmosphere disturbing the peace of city dwellers; When designing towns
and cities, population density is taken into consideration. If the population increases beyond

population gives rise to too much traffic and noise making the city dwellers uncomfortable.
8. Uncontrolled development of the town; Development of town can be controlled
if it is zoned efficiently. Uncontrolled town development is bad news for all of us. For an
important and obvious reason that we are all aware of; population is growing whereas we have

exhausted and we would reach a stage of no return.

9. Unhealthy living conditions; All the above factors mentioned lead to unhealthy
living conditions which can be avoided if we give enough emphasis to planning.
Reasons why cities need Urban Planning
Urban planning is a valuable force for city leaders to achieve sustainable
development. It is a means to bring about a difference; Planning helps make the most out of
municipal budgets by informing infrastructure and services investments, balancing demands
for growth with the need to protect the environment. It distributes economic development
within a given territory to reach social objectives and creates a framework for collaboration
between local governments, the private sector and the public at large.
Urban planning is a framework that helps leaders transform vision into
implementation, using space as a key resource for development and engaging stakeholders
along the way. Good planning can help city leaders to drive constructive changes:

A framework for growth: Thriving cities have a vision and follow it through with a
framework to develop in an orderly manner. A framework is not about centralized
command and control but a way to anticipate needs, coordinate efforts, and draw a path to a
horizon that is collectively held. Major efforts to enhance liveability, prosperity and equity
have taken place in a number of well-known cities. Such transformational impact is not a
product of spontaneity, instead of constructive planning.
A planned city is a well-prepared city: Anticipating the future allows us to be better
prepared today. By staying ahead of challenges, city leaders are ready to see opportunities
and manage risks from a vantage point. With reliable information on the current situation,
they will be able to make connections between the long-term vision and short-term actions.

On the other hand,

Planning improves impact: Local leaders are elected and appointed to deliver improvement.
Given the magnitude of the challenges cities face, it is unlikely that all desired
improvements will happen at once. Successful cities build momentum by undertaking
priority projects that are aligned with the vision. Planning identifies pressing issues and
available resources and makes sure that initiatives are not redundant or going in different
directions.
An appropriate Urban form is very important: Housing, employment, accessibility and
safety are key concerns for urban dwellers. These topics are strongly correlated to urban
form. The right policies on density, land use, public space and the layout of infrastructure
and services can make a difference in delivering quality of life at the right price point.

Designing a spatial
Urban planning positively impacts urban economy: Making sure there are plenty of jobs in
a city is a priority for local leaders. Cities compete to attract investment with a view to
generating economic activity. Planning coordinates the spatial location and distribution of
economic activity and facilitates value capture from public investment and the
transformation of rural to urban land.
A collectively held plan allows cities to build lasting relationships: City leaders that are
able to see opportunity in urbanization would need to engage all possible contributions
toward capturing it. A collectively held framework gives local leaders a road map to reach
out to citizens, energize departments and mobilize partners so that they become engaged in
realizing the vision.
A broader territorial perspective helps cities attain economies of scale: Cities do not
operate in vacuums. Their footprint is associated with a surrounding region with which they
share resources and opportunities. Rather than just looking within municipal boundaries,
cities that plan together can make a competitive advantage out of cross-municipal
coordination. In addition to spatial efficiencies, this would allow them to draw on
economies of scale to boost their negotiation power.
Continuity generates credibility: Successful cities have ensured continuity of plans through
political cycles, realizing that a stable road map would make them more credible.
Investment is a long-term endeavour that benefits from predictable conditions. Spatial
planning is an asset to reduce uncertainties and thus its continuity contributes to the
creation of transparent opportunities for an engaged society.
Anticipating is more cost effective than reacting to problems: Local leaders have the
opportunity of driving constructive change if they move away from laissez faire. Cities that
plan in sufficient scale would be in a position of anticipating rather than reacting, hence
being able to tackle the root of the problem. Unplanned spatial patterns are inefficient and
require more resources to maintain, and the high cost of bad or no decisions is likely to
make them irreversible.
A framework gives consistency to messages: Communication is a key asset for cities, but the
can be undermined by empty
or contradictory messages. Momentum and support are increased when the local
leader can demonstrate substantive, even if incremental, progress that is consistent with
the collective vision and framework for action.

II. Urban Planning classical theories

The main classical theories of urban development include Concentric Zone Theory, Wedge or
Radial Sector Theory and Multiple-Nuclei Theory.

Concentric Zone Theory:

 Ernest Burgess developed the concentric zone theory of urban land use in the mid-
1920s based on an examination of the historical development of Chicago through the 1890s.
The concentric zone theory of urban land use is based on the assumption that a city grows by
expanding outwards from a central area, radially, in concentric rings of development. He gave
this model to define how different social groups are located in a metropolitan area. Social
groups based on the socio-economic status of households and distance from central area or
downtown. This model is known as the concentric zone model because the different locations
were defined in the form of rings around the core urban area around which the city grew.
Burgess Model is another name for this model (given after the name of Ernest Burgess).
Various researchers and scholars have debated over the number of zones in the
Burgess concentric zone model. Some consider them to be five whereas some consider 6 zones
to explain this urban land use model. The centre is the oldest part of the city around which the
city expands over time, and the newest development comes on the edges.
Zone I (Central Business District) This is the centre (innermost zone) where the central
business district is located and has highest land value. The zone has tertiary activities and
earns maximum economic returns. Another feature is the accessibility of the area because
of the convergence and passing of transport networks through this part from surrounding
and even far places in the city. This part has tall buildings and noticeably high density to
maximize the returns from land. Commercial activity taking place in the area results in
negligible residential activity in this zone.
Zone II (Transition Zone) The mixed residential and commercial use characterizes this
zone. This is located adjacent and around the CBD and is continuously changing, i.e.
transition takes place. Another feature is the range of activities taking place like mixed
land use, car
because of a large number of
old structures as the buildings in transition zone were earlier used for factories and tenement
housing blocks. This zone had a high population density when industrial activities were at their
peak. Those residing in this zone were of the poorest segment and had the lowest housing
condition.
Zone III (Inner City/ Working Class zone) This area is occupied for residential purpose

factory workers but had better condition than the transition zone. This area has a mix of new
and old development and generally requires orderly redevelopment. People living in this zone
are second generation immigrants as many moves out of the transition zone to this zone
whenever affordable. This zone is nearest to the working area with modest living conditions,
and this resulted in reduced commuting cost. Another interesting feature includes the large
rental housing occupied by single workers.
Zone IV (Outer Suburbs/ White Collar Homes) This zone had bigger houses and new
development occupied by the middle class. Many of the homes are detached, and unlike
single occupants of inner suburbs, families resided in these homes. Better facilities are
available to the residents like parks, open spaces, shops, large gardens but this comes at an
increased commuting cost.
Zone V (Commuter Zone) This is the peripheral area and farthest from the CBD, this
resulted in highest commuting cost when compared with other zones. Significant
commuting
-income
groups which could afford large houses, could pay commuting charges, had access to different
transportation mode, enjoy modern facilities like shopping malls. Low rise development, large
gardens, less population density are some of the characteristics of this zone.

The Rationale Behind Concentric Zone Theory:

Burgess model takes into account the positive correlation between economic status
and distance from downtown. This considers, better the economic status more the distance from
the central area. The central area has high density, and the availability of land is scarce. Because
of this more affluent segment of the society reside away from the city centre where they can
build large houses. Burgess described the changing spatial patterns of residential areas as a

would exert pressure on the surrounding zone (the zone of transition). Outward expansion of
the CBD would invade nearby residential neighbourhoods causing them to expand outward.
The process continues with each successive neighbourhood moving further from the CBD. His
work included the study of bid rent curves according to which the land with the highest rent
was occupied with economic activities of highest returns.
Limitations and Criticisms of Concentric zone model:
Concentric zone model is one of the simplest models available. This model
accounts for the economic forces which drive development and the study of patterns present at
the time of the study. But with the evolution and passage of time urban areas grew more
complex and this model cannot define the development of existing cities. Some of the
limitations and criticism include:
Although widely appreciated in the United States Burgess model is not applicable
outside the US. This is so, as the pattern of growth is different because of various
circumstances.
The relevance of this model decreased over time. With the advancement in the mode of
transportation, mass transit vehicles, motor vehicles, cars changed the way people
commute. Accordingly, their preference for living in a particular zone changed.
 It does not take into account the effect of political forces and the restrictions imposed
by the government for the improvement of living conditions.
In reality, no distinct zones and boundaries exist as overlapping of areas is possible in
every town. The preference of people changes over time depending on the importance
they associate for a particular benefit.
This model is not applicable to polycentric cities as many CDB exists in such towns.
Moreover, every city is different, and the factors influencing the growth of a city are
diverse.
While useful in a descriptive sense for explaining the location of land uses in a
mono-centric city, both the work of Burgess and Von Thunen has (by extrapolation to urban
cases), has been criticized on the grounds that the models are too rigid to ever accurately
represent actual land patterns (the mono-centric city assumption is perhaps the largest flaw).
They have also been accused of overlooking the important influence of topography and
transport systems on urban spatial structure and have been criticized for failing to accommodate
the notion of special accessibility and ignoring the dynamic nature of the urban land use pattern
(Harvey, 1996).

Wedge or Radial Sector Theory:

Development of the wedge or radial sector theory of urban land use is generally
a
of residential uses across urban areas; it refers to business location only in an indirect fashion.
The model seeks to explain the tendency for various socio-economic groups to segregate in

-like sectors of dominant urban land

use, within which he identifies concentric zones of differential rent. The model suggests that,
over time, high quality housing tends to expand outward from an urban centre along the fastest

wedges of land use.

further than its predecessors in recognizing that the Central Business District is not the sole
focus of urban activity (Kivell, 1993). One major criticism, however, is that the model
overlooks the location of employment, which itself is the major determinant of residential
location (Harvey, 1996).
Hoyt Model is somewhat similar to Burgess Model and is often considered as its
improved version. Hoyt argued that cities do not develop in the form of simple rings, instead,

sectors which radiates out along the main travel links. Activities in a sector are considered to
be the same throughout the sector because of the purpose/function it serves. Land use within
each sector would remain the same because like attracts like. The high-class sector would stay
high-class because it would be the most sought-after area to live, so only the rich could afford
to live there. The industrial sector would remain industrial as the area would have a typical
advantage of a railway line or river. These sectors can be housing, industrial activities, etc.
These sectors grow along railway lines, highways or rivers.
Components of Hoyt Model:

C BD: Central Business District is placed at the centre. Sectors and the partial rings of land
us e/activities
In fo take place. This area is often known as downtown and has high rise buildings.
Pr dustry: Industries are represented in the form of a sector radiating out from the centre.
These
rms sector because of the presence of a transport linkage along which the activities grew.
esence of railway line, river or road would attract similar activity, and thus a continuous

area for lower class workers. Living conditions are bad because of proximity to industries.
Low-Class Residential: Low-income groups reside in this area. Narrow roads, high
population density, small houses with poor ventilation exist in this area. Roads are narrow
and often connects to the industries where most of the people in this sector work. Closeness
to industries reduces the travel cost and thus attracts industrial workers. Environmental and
living conditions are often inadequate because of the proximity to factories.
Middle-Class Residential: This area has middle income groups who can afford more
substantial travel cost and want better living conditions. The activities of people residing in
this area consist of different activities and not just the industrial work. It has more linkages
with CBD along with some linkages to industries. This area has the most significant
residential area. High Class residential: This is the outermost and farthest area from the
downtown. Wealthy and affluent people live in this area. This area is clean, has less traffic,
quiet and has large houses. Corridor or spine extending from CBD to the edge has the best
housing.
The significance of Hoyt Model:
Ecological factors + economic rent concept to explain the land use pattern
Stress on the role of transport routes in affecting the spatial arrangement of the city
Both the distance and direction of growth from the city centre are considered
Brings location of industrial and environmental amenity values as determinants in a
residential place
Example: Sectors of high-class residential areas tend to grow towards higher grounds,
sites with a better view, more open space, the homes of influential leaders within the
community and existing outlying, smaller settlements.
Limitations of Sector Model:
Only Railway lines are considered for the growth of sectors and do not make allowances
for private cars.
It is a monocentric representation of cities; multiple business centres are not accounted
for in this model.
Physical features physical features may restrict or direct growth along specific wedges
No reference to out of town development
Features of sector model:
Presence of low-income groups near industries supports Hoyt Model
 The Hoyt model realized that transportation (in particular) and access to resources
caused a disruption of the Burgess model.
Transport linkages profoundly influence activities and their locations. Low
transportation cost and proximity to roads/railway reduce the cost of production.
This model applies well to Chicago
Account for major transportation routes and its effect on activities

Multiple-Nuclei Theory
The work of Harris and Ullmann (1945) in developing a multiple-nuclei theory of
urban land use is amongst the most innovative descriptive or analytical urban models. Their
model is based on the premise that large cities have a spatial structure that is predominantly

nuclei that serve as the focal point for agglomerative tendencies. Harris and Ullmann proposed
that around these cellular nuclei, dominant land uses and specialized centres may develop over
time. The novelty in multiple-nuclei theory lies in its acknowledgement of several factors that
strongly influence the spatial distribution of urban activity, factors such as topography,
historical influences, and spatial accessibility. The theory is also innovative in its recognition
of the city as polycentric. In this sense, it moves closer to explaining why urban spatial patterns
emerge. Multiple nuclei model of 1945 by C.D. Harris and Edward L. Ullman is based on the

widely adopted models which was applicable to modern cities unlike older models studied
under settlement geography
Concept and need for Multiple Nuclei Model
This model is based on the structure of Chicago just like the Burgess model or
Concentric zone model of 1925. It can be considered as an attempt to explain the structure of
the city taking into account the complexity and growth over time. Harris and Ullman argued
that a city might start with a single central business district (CBD), but over the time the
activities scatter and gets modified. The scattered activities attract people from surrounding
areas and act as smaller nuclei in itself. These small nuclei gain importance and grow in size
and start influencing the growth of activities around them.
The need for this model was to provide a more realistic explanation of the cities.
The influence of cars on personal travel and greater movement of goods offered opportunity in
different places instead of concentrating all economic activities in one place. People started
optimizing their business for maximum profit by locating at a different place and bringing
down their rent with a slight increase in transportation cost. Whereas some activities like
industrial areas create pollution and are thus preferred to be located away from residential areas.
This model is considered to be more suitable for cities which are large and expanding.
Activities listed under the model: The activities listed in the model can be considered as
independent zones which influences activities around them. These are also formed because

of
to be developed.
Central business district
Light manufacturing
 Low-class residential
Middle-class residential
Upper-class residential
Heavy manufacturing
Outlying business district
Residential suburb
Industrial suburb

Assumptions for Multiple Nuclei Model

The land is not flat This provides a more practical application of the multiple nuclei
model and is an improvement over the Burgess model. It is difficult to find flat land for
big cities, and the terrain features effects the activities, development, and direction of
growth of an urban area.
Even distribution of resources Resources are evenly distributed within the city, no
one enjoys privileges or have exclusive access to resources.
Even distribution of people in Residential areas People are distributed
homogeneously and not concentrated in a particular area or pocket. This is essential as
an unevenly distributed population has a direct impact on markets.
Even transportation cost Transportation cost is even in the city and not influenced by
location.
Profit maximization A particular activity will locate itself where maximum profit can
be earned. For this, a different combination of rent, transportation costs, labour
 cost, proximity to market may be tried, and the combination which yields the best result
gives the final location for the activity.
This location also takes into account the restrictions over the activity and the need
to be separated from other noncompatible activities such as locating residential areas away
from industrial, locating large industries with more accessibility to reduce transportation cost
and to ease the movement of goods.
Limitations and
Multiple nuclei model was considered much better than the previous simple models
which attempted to explain the structure of urban areas. However, this model also had its
limitations and could not be applied to many cities and did not entirely explain the structure of
urban areas. Formation of well-
city as the small or new towns do not have a very well-defined location because of which they
are usually scattered. Another drawback is the limited activities which are considered in the
model along with the very rigid and specific boundaries of the activities. Some other
disadvantages include:
Negligence of the height of buildings.
Non-existence of abrupt divisions between zones.
Each zone displays a significant degree of internal heterogeneity and not homogeneity.
Unawareness of inertia forces.
No consideration of the influence of physical relief and government policy.
The concepts may not apply to Asian cities with different cultural, economic and
political backgrounds.

III. Metropolitan Planning in India

Metropolitan planning in India still has to face a fluid condition on account of the
economic condition of the people. Rural folk do not like to move into towns voluntarily they
do so for a better income. In the process they suffer considerable psychological and
environmental tensions. For their integration into a new society, it is essential to undertake
community development on a fairly extensive scale simultaneously with physical planning for
cities. This will have to be as a basic part of the over-all programme as national economic
development and will naturally have to be concurrently linked up with a nation-wide
programme for controlling the growth of population. While the technical aspects of planning
are of vital importance, the existence of efficient administrative machinery is equally
important. It will enable plans to be implemented in a properly phased and coordinated manner.
Where a region is completely within the jurisdiction of a State Government, the problem is
obviously easy. Where the region extends into several political jurisdictions, the problem gets
complicated, as in the case of Delhi. Adjustments have to be made not only with the various
governments concerned but also with the local authorities. For the development of the Delhi
metropolitan area, which three political jurisdictions of three states, co-ordination and
consultation at all stages are necessary for fruition of plans. This co-ordination has already been
achieved at the technical plan-making level. Achievement at the administrative and political
levels will involve the active participation of the central and state governments and the local
bodies concerned. Regional plans transcending political jurisdictions, as in the case of the Delhi
metropolitan area and the national capital region, call for vision and imagination, apart from
day-to-day co-ordination and understanding. If the purpose of planning is clear and if the
objectives are understood, smooth and active collaboration is likely to ensure.
Metropolitan Government
Metropolitan government is regional government at some level between national
government and local municipal government. In a federal set-up, the metropolitan level has to
be conceived at some level between state or provincial government and local municipal
government. It is, therefore, natural that it would be difficult to prescribe any universally
applicable criteria for drawing the boundaries of metropolitan government. Any urban area
becomes metropolitan when it becomes heavily populated and its central and other outlying
areas develop a high degree of economic and social interaction. For planning and development
of such an area, establishment of metropolitan government is one of the administrative devices
available. There are other types of options in the approach to be adopted and administrative
reorganizations to be introduced. Even when there is a case for metropolitan government on
grounds of some such technical data, there is no certainty that metropolitan-level government
would be set up. What would be finally required for establishment of such a government is the
political will at the higher-level government, state (provincial) or national. Metropolitan
government would require large-scale readjustments in powers and resources of the higher
level, government and of the existing local governments. The socio-economic data remain the
same but in different political contexts in different countries the response is seen to be different.
In India, problems of metropolitan areas, weakness of the existing local government, in the
areas concerned, and need for metropolitan level responses have been recognized, but the idea
of metropolitan government has not been accepted. Various issues of major political, economic
and administrative importance are involved, in arguing the case for or against metropolitan
government. It is not only a question of constitutional consistency or of fiscal feasibility; the
question of metropolitan government involves other equally important issues, like control of
bureaucracy, protecting public interest, public accountability of administration and planning of
metropolitan areas, responsiveness of governmental machinery, needs for social welfare and
finally local democracy.
Agencies for Urban Development
In India, there are five types of urban development agencies: municipalities,
municipal corporations, improvement trusts, town planning trust, urban development
authorities and the special agencies like water supply and sewerage boards and the state
housing boards. Some of the development bodies are performing single function as in the case
of town planning trust, housing board and the water supply and sewerage boards and the state
housing boards. But bodies like the improvement trust and urban development authorities are
undertaking overall development function, leaving corporations and municipalities to
undertake functions relating to the day-to-day necessities of an urban area. In spite of setting
up so many development bodies, there does not appear to be substantial progress in the urban
scene and the urban areas still face acute problems like shortage of housing and water supply,
rapid growth of slums resulting in improper sanitation, etc. It may be noted that even where the
urban development authorities are constituted, the multi agencies are unable to function
efficiently. While the concept of multiple agencies to undertake development is a welcome idea
as it lessens the burden of a single agency like the urban development authority, proper co-
ordination has to be maintained amongst the multiple agencies. This exercise is not being
performed either by the government or by the urban development authority. It appears that the
urban development agencies are unable to play an effective role because of inadequate
finances. It is desired that government should give due consideration to these problems so that
development authorities can function effectively. For this, greater emphasis must be laid on
urban development in the five-year plans and the allocations made must be consistent with
future requirements or urban development. Experience shows that the urban development
authorities set up in metropolitan cities are undertaking single function like housing or slum
improvement instead of expanding and integrating various other services. The balance between
rural and urban areas and their development may be maintained through the regional planning
approach and area-wise administration for an effective organization of urban services. In most
of the cities in all states the public sector owns most of the land. It is often the monopoly
provider of many services; especially those based on physical networks; e.g. water supply,
sewerage, electricity, gas, and telecommunications. In these cases, its franchise is exclusive,
and private provision is illegal. In other areas, such as housing, the public sector establishes
standards and regulations. Urban Development and Housing Department (UDH) in all the
states is the key agency responsible for the urban development especially of land and housing
in urban areas. The bodies under its purview are: (a) Directorate of Local Bodies (DLB) (b)
Urban Improvement Trusts (UITs) (c) State Housing board (SHB) and Housing Cooperative
Societies (d) City Development Authority (CDA) (e) Town Planning Department (f) Economic
Development Board (EDB) (g) State Industrial Development and Investment Corporation (h)
Department of Industries (i) State Pollution Control Board (j) Project Development
Corporation (PDCOR) (k) State Level Financial Institutions Serving the Urban Sector (l) Other
Institutions (m) Private Sector
The City Development Authority (CDA) is constituted under the respective City
Development Authority Act for the purpose of planning, co-ordination and supervising the
proper, orderly and rapid development of the city region. The city development authority
has been undertaking comprehensive area development schemes besides upgrading
infrastructure like flyover, bridge, sewerage, roads, streetlights, parks, playgrounds and
open spaces etc.
The Town Planning Department of almost all the states, headed by a chief town planner is
the sole agency responsible for planning and for the preparation of master plans for urban
areas of the state. Main functions of this department are:
i. Preparation of master plans for urban areas of the state,
ii. Works related to national capital sub region of the state
iii. Planning, monitoring and coordinating IDSMT projects executed by local bodies,
iv. Preparation of schemes and projects for local bodies,
v. Regulating use of urban lands in terms of granting various no-objection certificates under
revenue rules as applicable for urban areas, and
vi. Advisory role with reference to all matters connected with planned urban development
Metropolitan Area Planning Committee: The constitution of Metropolitan Area Planning
Committees (MPC) in every metropolitan area under Article 243 ZE of the 74th
Amendment accords constitutional recognition to metro-regional planning. When seen in
the context of agglomeration economies, a metro region is the most preferred area for
investment in economic activities and infrastructure but these areas are normally deficient
in spatial planning inputs. The functions to be assigned to Metropolitan Area Planning
Committee are as follows:
i. Preparation of draft development plan for the metropolitan areas. ii. Spatial coordination of
plans prepared by the municipalities and panchayats in the metro area and recommending
modifications in local area plan, if any, taking an overall view. iii. Coordination and sorting
out of common issues involving panchayats and municipalities in the metro area including the
sharing of water and other physical and natural resources, iv. Allocation of resources made
available by the state and central governments to local level institutions. v. Phasing and
prioritization of development works or works involving number of panchayats or urban areas.
vi. Advice and assistance to local bodies in preparation of development plans, vii. Monitoring
effective implementation of approved development plan of the region viii. Assistance and
advice to state government and other agencies on matters relating to metropolitan planning,
development and management ix. Serving as a link to disseminate development objectives,
policies and priorities of central and state governments among various local bodies by
formulating operational guidelines so that the same may be considered while preparing plans
of the respective local bodies. x. Undertaking studies and research on all matters relating to
metropolitan planning and to provide necessary feedback to the state and other agencies. xi.
Resolution of conflicts and to avoid areas of overlap between different agencies. xii.
Undertaking formulation and implementation of projects involving provision of infrastructure
such as major roads, trunk services, electricity, telecommunications, etc.
Like the District Planning Committee (DPC), the Metropolitan Area Planning
Committee should be constituted within the framework of the State Town Planning Acts, under
which development authorities and metropolitan development authorities are in operation, and
the existing setup of the metropolitan development authorities would provide the necessary
technical and secretariat assistance to the MPC. In cases where the metropolitan area cuts
across the boundaries of a state and covers areas of more than one State, the 74th Amendment
Act is silent and the MPC would need to be set up by following the procedure laid down in the
Constitution of India which provides for the passing of Resolution by the participating states
authorizing the Parliament to legislate for them. The implementation of the metropolitan
development plan after it is legally enforceable would be done by the participating states, and
the MPC would ensure that no developments in the metropolitan area falling in more than one
state conform to the metropolitan plan. Like District Planning Committee, senior town and
country planner of the state government should head the MPC and should be assisted by his
staff in the preparation of metropolitan area plan.
Delhi Development Authority:
The Delhi Development Authority was statutorily constituted in 1957 to promote
and planned development of Delhi metropolitan area, comprising both urban and rural areas. It
is headed by the Lieutenant Governor of Delhi functions under the administrative control of
the Central Ministry of Urban Affairs and Employment. It is responsible for formulating and
administrative the Master Plan, declaration and development of areas notified for development
from time to time, development of facilities and land for housing, transport office and
commercial premises, recreation parks and playgrounds. Its primary functions are, of course,
to ensure large scale acquisition and development of land in Delhi in accordance with the
declared polices of the government, and ensure availability of adequate land and shelter to the
weaker sections and essential facilities. In this task, it is expected to operate in a self-financing
and viable manner, with adequate support from government by way of seed capital and other
grants.
Kolkata Metropolitan Development Authority (KMDA):
KMDA is a statutory authority functioning under the administrative control of
urban development department of government of West Bengal. KMDA derives its powers and
functions from the provisions of West Bengal Town and Country Planning Act, 1979. KMDA
has an 11-
-in-charge of urban development in the
Government of West Bengal is the ex-officio chairman of the board of KMDA. All the
members of KMDA Board are also members of the KMPC, which has been done with a view
ef Minister of
West Bengal is the chairman of KMPC. The board or authority of KMDA takes all major policy
decisions that are incidental to running the development programs of KMDA. However, for
decisions in certain matters that may have impacts across other organizations and areas outside
Kolkata Metropolitan Area (KMA), the same are forwarded to the state government via the
urban development department, after the authority of KMDA recommends the same.
Bombay Metropolitan Regional Development Authority (BMRDA):
Great Bombay today consists of three geographical divisions, namely, Bombay
city, the suburbs and the extended suburbs. It came into being when in 1950 outlying areas in
Salsette Island consisting of Bandras, Ghatkopar and Kurla were annexed to the original
Bombay city and they came to be known as the suburbs of Greater Bombay. The Municipal
Act of 1872 was passed and the first municipal corporation for Bombay city was established.
Of the 64 members of the corporation, 32 were elected and 32 nominated. In accordance with
-government in 1882, the Bombay Municipal
Corporation Act of 1888 was passed which continues to be in force today. In 1950, when new
areas were annexed to the Bombay city, the municipal jurisdiction increased and a single
municipal corporation of Greater Bombay was formed.
The Bangalore Metropolitan Region Development Authority (BMRDA):
The Bangalore Metropolitan Region Development Authority Act is an Act to
provide for the established of an authority for the purpose of planning, coordinating and
supervising the proper and orderly development of the areas with the Bangalore metropolitan
region and to provide for matters connected therewith. Whereas it is expedient to provide for
the establishment of an authority for the purposes of planning, coordinating and supervising
the proper and orderly development of the area within the Bangalore metropolitan region and
to provide for matters connected therein.

Town Planning in Chennai:

Chennai has always been a pioneer to the nation in many aspects. Town planning
is one among them. Even though the southern India has quite few ancient settlements with well
laid down sound town planning principles at the time of their creation, Chennai cannot be
brought under this category. Till 18th century, planning remains incidental. Thus, formal and
systematic approach of town planning are traced back to 19th century coinciding with the visit
of Sir Patrick Geddes and H.V. Lanchester undertaking the task of development of provincial
small towns in Madras presidency.
 Lanchester prepared a plan for the Chennai in 1916 which was basically a road
network plan. The plan emphasized the development of some new roads. In continuation to
this development, town panning act was enacted in the year 1920 and it paved the way for
significant accomplishment to be made later in the area of town planning. The Town Planning
Act 1920 had facilitated the preparation of town planning schemes by the municipal council
for parts of Chennai city. The town planning schemes were prepared by the local bodies and
the development was regulated in accordance with the Town Planning scheme of that area.
Further, development of residential suburbs and residential developments had been taken up
by the city improvement trust which was established in the year 1920s with the main objective
of clearance of slums.

Moonis Raza. 1978. "Levels of Regional Development in India". Paper presented at

Indo-Soviet Symposium of Regional Development and National Planning. USSR.
V. Nath. 1970. Regional Development in Indian Planning. Economic and Political
Weekly. Annual Number. Jan., 1970. PP.242-260
A. K. Singh.1966. Demarcation of Planning Regions with Special Reference to Uttar
Pradesh, in R.P. Mishra (ed.). Regional Planning. University of Mysore.
Misra R. P., Sundaram K. V. and Prakasa Rao V. L. S., 1974: Regional Development
Planning in India A New Strategy, Vikas Publishing, Delhi.
Sharma H. S and Chattopadhyaya S., 1998: Sustainable Development: Issues and
Case Studies, Concept Publishing, Delhi
Sundaram K. V., 1980: Decentralised Multilevel Planning: Principles and Practices
(Asian and African Experiences), Concept Publishing, Delhi.
Yugandhar, B. N. and Mukherjee, Amitava (eds.) 1991: Readings in De-centralised
Planning (with special reference to District Planning), 2 vols. Concept Publs. Co.,
New Delhi.
Misra, R. P. & Misra, K. eds. 1998: Million Cities of India, Sustainable Development
Foundation, New Delhi.