Class 12

Subject: Biology

Chapter-2

SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN FLOWERING PLANTS

Sexual reproduction is the process of fusion of male and female gamete resulting in the
production of a diploid zygote which ultimately develops into a new organism. All flowering
plants show sexual reproduction.

FLOWER: Flowers are the site of sexual reproduction in flowering plants.

A typical angiospermic flower has following parts arranged in four whorls. They are Calyx,
Corolla, Androecium and Gynoecium.

1. Calyx: It is the outer most whorl of the flower. It is composed of leaf like green
sepals.
2. Corolla: It is the second whorl of flower and consists of number of petals.
3. Androecium: It is the third whorl of flower consisting of stamens. Stamen is the male
reproductive organ of flower. Each stamen is made up of filament and anther.
4. Gynoecium: This is the last and fourth whorl of the flower consisting of pistil or
carpel. Pistil is the female reproductive organ of the flower. Each pistil is composed
of ovary, style and stigma.

Fig : structure of a flower

STAMEN : A typical stamen consists of two parts --

 i. The long and slender stalk called the filament ii.
The terminal bilobed structure called the anther.

ANTHER:

• It is a bilobed and dithecous structure.

• In transvers section, it is a tetragonal structure consisting of four microsporangia
located at the corners , two in each lobe.
• Microsporangia develops further into pollen sacs.
• Pollen sacs contain pollen grains.

STRUCTURE OF MICROSPORANGIUM

• Microsporangium is circular in outline.

• It is surrounded by four wall layers—the epidermis, endothecium, middle layers and
the tapetum.
• The outer three wall layers are protective in function and help in dehiscence of
anther to release the pollen.
• The inner most wall layer i.e. tapetum provides nourishment to the developing
pollen grains.
• A sporogenous tissue occupies the centre of each microsporangium.

Fig : T.S of an anther Fig: Stamen

MICROSPOROGENESIS : The process of formation of haploid microspores from a pollen

mother cell(MMC) through meiosis is called microsporogenesis.
• Microspores are arranged in a cluster of four cells—the microspores tetrad.
• As the anthers mature and dehydrate, the microspores dissociate from each other
and develop into pollen grains.

POLLEN GRAIN:

• The pollen grains represent the male gametophytes.

• Each pollen grains has a two-layered wall. The outer hard layer called the exine is
made up of sporopollenin which is one of the most resistant organic material that
enables them to resist high temperature and strong acid and alkali. No enzyme is yet
known to degrade sporopollenin.
• The region on exine where sporopollenin is absent are called the germ pores. It
helps in the formation of pollen tube.
• The inner layer is thin called as intine. It is composed of cellulose and pectin.
• A mature pollen grain contains two cells ,the vegetative cell and the generative cell.
• The vegetative cell is bigger, has abundant food reserve and a large irregular shaped
nucleus.
• The generative cell is small and floats in the cytoplasm of the vegetative cell.
• In about 60% of angiosperms, pollen grains are shed at this 2- celled stage.
• In the remaining species, the generative cell divides mitotically to give rise to two
male gametes before pollen grains are shed (3 celled stage).
PISTIL / GYNOECIUM

• The gynoecium represents the female reproductive part of flower.

• A flower may be monocarpellary (having one pistil) or multicarpellary (having more
than one pistil).
• Pistils may be syncarpous (fused together) or apocarpous (free).
• Each pistil has three parts- the stigma, style, and ovary.
• The stigma serves as a landing platform for pollen grains.
• The style is the elongated slender part beneath the stigma.
• The basal bulged part of the pistil is the ovary.
• Placenta is located inside the ovarian cavity. Megasporongia commonly called ovules
arise from the placenta.

THE MEGASPORANGIUM (OVULE)

• The main parts of megesporangium (ovule) are –

i. Funicle—stalk that attached ovule to placenta ii.
Hilum—Junction between ovule and funicle.
iii. Integuments—one or two protective envelops around the ovules.
iv. Micropyle—a small opening at the tip of integuments. v.
Chalaza—basal part of ovule.
vi. Nucellus—mass of cells enclosed within the integuments having abundant
reserve food material.
 vii. Embryo sac or femal gametophyte—it is located inside the nucellus

MEGASPOROGENESIS - The process of formation ofhaploid megaspores from megaspore

mother cell (MMC) through meiosis is called megasporogenesis.

• The megaspore mother cell divides meiotically to form four haploid megaspores.
• One of the megaspore is functional while the other three degenerate in majority of
the angiosperms.
• Only the functional megaspore develops into female gametophyte or embryo sac.
• This method of embryo sac formation from a single megaspore is termed as
monosporic development.

Development of Embryo sac or female gametophyte:

• Nucleus of the functional megaspore undergoes mitotic division to form two nuclei
which move to the opposite poles forming, the 2-nucleate embryo sac.
• To more sequential mitotic divisions result in the formation of 4-nucleate and later
the 8-nucleate stages of the embryo sacs.
• The cell wall is laid down leading to the formation of embryo sac.
Structure of an Embryo sac: Embryo sac consist of—

i. Egg apparatus – present at the micropylar end. It consists of two

synergids and one egg cell.
ii. Antipodals – Three cells present at the chalazal end. iii. Central
cell—It has two polar nuclie.

Thus a typical angiosperm embryo sac at maturity is 8-nucleate 7-celled structure.

 POLLINATION

The transfer of pollen grains from anther to stigma of a pistil is called pollination.
Kinds of pollination:
• Autogamy : Transfer of pollen grains from anther to stigma of the same
flower. e.g viola,oxalis
• Geitonogamy: Transfer of pollen grains from anther to the stigma of
another flower of the same plant. e.g cucurbits
• Xenogamy:Transfer of pollen grains from anther to the stigma of
another flower of the different plant. e.g. papaya.

Agents of pollination:

• Abiotic agents- a) wind- Anemophily

b) water- Hydrophily

• Biotic agents- a) Insects- Entomophily

b) Birds- Ornithophily

c) Bats- Chiropterophily

d) Mammals- Zoophily

Adaptation in flowers in pollination

Wind pollination-

• Pollen grains: light, non-sticky winged

• Anther- well exposed
• Stigma- large and feathery

Eg: corn cob, grasses

Water pollination-

• Pollen grains are long ribbon like

 • Pollen grains are protected by mucilaginous covering
• Produces large number of pollen grains

Insect pollination-

• Flowers –large colourful, fragnant, rich in nectar

• Pollen grains and stigma are sticky

OUTBREEDING DEVICES

Plants have many mechanism and devices that promote cross pollination.

• Dichogamy- In this mechanism the stigma and the anther mature at different time.
• Heterostyly- Stigma and anther are placed at different levels.
• Self-sterility or self-incompatibility – This is a genetic mechanism that prevent self
pollen from fertilizing the ovules by inhibiting pollen germination.
• Unisexuality- (Dioecism) –The plant produces either male or female flower.

Artificial Hybridisation Techniques

• Emasculation- Removal of anther from the bisexual flower before the anther is
mature is known as Emasculation.
• Bagging- The emasculated flower is then covered with a bag to prevent unwanted
pollination. This process is called Bagging.

POLLEN PISTIL INTERACTION - All events from pollen deposition on the stigma until pollen
tubes enter the ovule are together called as pollen pistil interaction.

• Recognition of compatible pollen

• Germination of pollen grain and pollen tube growth

DOUBLE FERTILISATION:

• The pollen tube releases two male gamete into the embryo sac.
 One of the male gamete fuses with egg to form diploid zygote. This is called syngamy.
• The second male gamete fuses with two polar nuclei to produce triploid endosperm
nucleus(PEN). As this involves the fusion of three haploid nuclei it is termed as triple
fusion.
• Since two types of fusion takes place in an embryo sac the phenomenon is called
double fertilization.
• PEN develops into endosperm and zygote develops into embry

POST FERTILISATION EVENTS:

1. Endosperm development
2. Embryo development
3. Maturation of ovule into seed
4. Maturation of ovary into fruit

ENDOSPERM

• The primary endosperm cell(PEC) divides repeatedly and forms triploid endosperm
tissue.
• The endosperm tissue is filled with reserve food material and are used for the
nutrition of developing embryo.
• Two types of endosperm development:
1 Free nuclear type
2 Cellular type

• Non-albuminous seed-Endosperm is completely utilized before maturation of seed.

E.g pea, groundnut
• Albuminous seed – A portion of endosperm remains in mature seed. E.g wheat,
maize

EMBRYO DEVELOPMENT
 • Zygote divides by mitosis an gives rise to the proembryo and subsequently to the
globular ,heart shaped mature embryo.
• A typical dicotyledonous embyo consists of two cotyledon and an embryonal axis
between them. The part of embronal axis above the level of cotyledon is the epicotyl
which becomes plumule(shoot). The part ofembryonal axis below the level of
cotyledon is the hypocotyl which becomes radicle(root).
• Monocot embryo consists of only one cotyledon which is termed as scutellum.
Embryonal axis has the radicle on its lower end, it is covered by a sheath called
coleorhiza. Plumule is covered by coleoptile.

Dicot Embryo

SEED

• Seed is a fertilized ovule.

• Seed consists of :
1. Seed coat: composed of two layer a)Testa- thick outer layer b)Tegmen-
thin inner layer.
2. Hilum: scar on seed coat.
3. Micropyle: A small pore on seed coat through which oxygen and water
exchange occurs during seed germination.
4. Cotyledon: It stores food which provides nourishment to the developing
embryo.
5. Radicle: embryonic root
6. Plumule: embryonic shoot.
 Monocot seed

FRUIT

• Fertilised ovary is called fruit.

• Wall of ovary forms fleshy or dry fruit wall called pericarp.
• Types of fruit: 1) True fruit: only ovary contributes in fruit formation.
2) False fruit: thalamus also contributes in fruit formation.e.g. apple,
strawberry,cashew.
• Parthenocarpic Fruit: Fruit which develops without fertilization is called
parthenocarpic fruit. E.g. Banana. Parthenocarpic fruits are seedless.

FIG : False fruit of an apple and a strawberry

APOMIXIS

Formation of seed without fertilization is called apomixis. E.g. some species of

Asteraceae and grasses. Thus apomixis is a form of asexual reproduction that mimics
sexual reproduction.

POLYEMBRYONY

Occurrence of more than one embryo in a seed is known as polyembyony. E.g. citrus
MODEL QUESTIONS WITH ANSWER
 Multiple choice questions ( carrying 1 mark )

1 .In angiosperm female gametophyte is:

a) Embryo b) Egg Apparatus c)Embryo sac d) synergids

Ans: c)Embryo sac

2. Exine layer of pollen grain is made up of :

a) sporopollenin b)Pectin c) cellulose d)chitin

Ans: a)sporopollenin

3. Embryo sac of angiosperm is :

a) 6-celled 8-nucleate b) 7-celled 8-nucleate c)8-celled 7- nucleate d)7-celled 7-nucleate

Ans: b) 7-celled 8-nucleate

4. Microsporogenesis is the formation of :

a) Microspore b) Megaspore c) Egg d) Embryo sac

Ans : a) Microspore

5 . Pollination by insect is called:

a) Hydrophily b) Entomophily c) Anemophily d) Ornithophilly

Ans: Entomophily

6 . Removal of anther is called:

a) Emasculation b) Bagging c) Artificial hybridization d) pollination

Ans: a) Emasculation

7 . Which layer of microsporangium provides nutrition to the developing pollen grains:

a) Epidermis b) Endothecium c) Tapetum d) All

Ans : c) Tapetum

8 . The transfer of pollen grains from anther to stigma is called;

a) Fertilization b) pollination c) Microsporogenesis d) Polyembryony

Ans. b) Pollination
9 . Occurrence of more than one embryo in a seed is known as:

a) Polyembryony b) parthenocarpy c) Apomixis d) Embryogeny

Ans: a) Polyembryony

10 . A typical angiospermic anther is;

a) Bilobed b) unilobed c) Trilobed d) Tetralobed

Ans: a) Bilobed

II. Very short questions (carrying 2 marks)

Q1. Name two cells of a mature pollen grain?

Ans: Vegetative cell and Generative cell

Q2. What do you mean by parthenocarpy?

Ans: Formation of fruit without fertilization is known as parthenocarpy.

Q3. What are the different types of endosperm?

Ans: Nuclear endosperm and Cellular endosperm

Q4. What is meant by monosporic development of female gametophyte?

Ans: The method of embryo sac formation from single megaspore is called monosporic
development.

Q5. What are cleistogamous flowers?

Ans: The flower which are always closed and shows autogamy is known as cleistogamous
flower.

Q6. Name the parts of angiospermic flowers in which development of male and female
gametophyte takes place.

Ans: Anther and Ovary

Q7. What do you mean by monoecious and dioecious plants?

Ans: Plants that have both male and female sex organs or flowers are called monoecious
plant whereas a dioecious plants have either male or female sex organ.

Q8. Differentiate between hypocotyl and epicotyl.

Ans: The part of embryonal axis below the cotyledon is known as hypocotyl whereas the
part of embryonal axis above the cotyledon is known as epicotyl.

Q9. Why apple is called a false fruit?

Ans: Apple is a false fruit because thalamus develops into fruit here ,not the ovary.

Q10. What is seed dormancy?

Ans: Seed dormancy is a state in which seeds are prevented from germinating even in
favourable environmental condition.

III. Short answer type question (carrying 3 marks)

Q1. Draw a labelled diagram of an embryo sac.

Ans:

Figure : An Embryo Sac

Q2. What is triple fusion? Name the nuclei involved in triple fusion.

Ans: Fusion of male gamete with diploid secondary nucleus to form triploid primary
endosperm nucleus is known as triple fusion. In triple fusion two polar nuclei and one male
gamete are involved.

Q3. Mention three strategies evolved to prevent self-pollination in flowers.

Ans: 1. Dichogamy: stigma and anther mature at different times.

 2. Heterostyly: stigma and anther are placed at different levels.

3. self-incompilibility

Q4. What do you mean by double fertilization?

Ans: The process of fusion of one male gamete with egg to form diploid zygote and another
male gamete with the polar nuclei or secondary nucleus to form primary endosperm
nucleus is called double fertilization.

Q5. Differentiate between microsporogenesis and megasporogenesis.

Ans:

Microsporogenesis Megasporogenesis
It is the formation of haploid microspores It is the formation of haploid megaspore
from the diploid microspore mother cell. from the diploid megaspore mother cell.
The microspores are arranged in tetrahedral The megaspores are arranged in linear
tetrad. tetrad.
All the microspores are functional. Only one megaspore is functional.

IV. Long answer type question( carrying 5 marks)

Q1. With neat, labeled diagram, describe the parts of a typical angiospermic ovule.

Ans:

A typical angiospermic ovule has following parts:

1. Funicle: Stalk by which ovule is attached to placenta.

2. Hilum: Junction between ovule and funicle
 3. Integument: Protective envelopes around ovule 4. Micropyle: A small opening at the
tip of integuments.
5. Chalaza: Basal part of ovule.
6. Nucellus: Mass of cells enclosed in integuments having reserve food material.
7. Embryo sac or Female gametophyte: Located in nucellus.

Q2. What do you mean by pollination? Explain the differents types of pollination.

Ans: The transfer of pollen grains from anther to stigma of a pistil is called pollination.

Types of pollination:

1. Autogamy: Transfer of pollen grains from anther to stigma of the same flower. E.g
viola,oxalis
2. Geitonogamy: Transfer of pollen grain from the anther to the stigma of another
flower of the same plant. E.g cucurbits
3. Xenogamy: Transfer of pollen grains from anther to the stigma of another flower of
the different plant. E.g papaya

Q3. Explain the process of microsporogenesis in angiosperm.

Ans: The process of formation of haploid microspores from a pollen mother cell (PMC) or
microspore mother cell through meiosis is called Microsporogenesis.

When the anther develops, each cell of sporogenous tissue functions as microspore mother
cell (MMC) which undergoes meiotic divisions to form four haploid microspores . The
microspores get arranged in a cluster of four cells which is known as microspore tetrads. As
the anther matures and dehydrates, the microspores dissociate from each other and
develop into pollen grains.

Fig: Microsporogenesis