CHAPTER I: GENERAL INTRODUCTION

I.1. Background

Roadway must have its origin and destination in any place of country, and must
constructed by good materials with good properties, is built between two places so that
people and goods moves from one place to another, the road way needed is flexible
pavement road, which constructed by asphalt and crushed stones or aggregates, for this
type of pavement asphalt is adapted as binding and usually consist of several layers
constructs flexible pavement road, this pavement has a layers structured as; the lowest
layer is sub base which constructed according to cbr results, the following layer is road
base, the following is surfacing those are constructed according to traffic loading
(Wilbum & Goon, 1998).

The movement of people and goods around world was based on transportation, road had a
big contribution in land transportation network to provide access to mobility to support
economic growth and communication, the pavement of roadways must smooth reasonable
speed of travel and Each state government has a department of transportation that
occupies a pivotal position in the development of road projects. Each has responsibility
for the planning, design, construction, maintenance and operation of its federally funded
Roadway system. In most states, its roadway agency has responsibility for developing
routes within the state-designated system (Tom & Krishna, 1895).

Asphalt roadway from Nkomero to G.S kayove had 1.5km and was locating in Rutsiro
district from Nkomero center and it was cross around kayove health center and continued
to G.S kayove in Ruhango sector.

I.2. Problem statement

Nkomero-G.S kayove roadway had not flexible pavement and it had no proper drainage
system which caused the road to provide a bad services to the users and the top surface of
that road had improper materials which had not good properties, because of those
improper materials there were about 6 accidents usually happened per day especially in a
rain seasons and the vehicles took long time in the roadway because the existing roadway

1
had many holes caused by rain water from around, it had also improper geometric design
elements like horizontal curves which were not meet to the comfort, sight distances, and
high grades which caused accidents for vehicles, So the design of geometric and
pavement , drainage system was provide the technical solutions of the problems that were
available in the Nkomero to G.S kayove existing road.

I.3. Objectives

I.3.1. General objective

General objective of this project was to design for geometric, hydraulics and pavement of
Roadway from Nkomero to G.S kayove for assisting people and goods to move from
Nkomero center and other around place to G.S kayove and to kayove recreation center.

I.3.2. Specific objectives of the research

 To count traffic volume and analysis

 To Collect topographic data
 To Conduct soil tests
 To Design for geometric parameters
 To Design for pavement structure
 To Design for hydraulics
 To calculate Earthwork
 To estimate total cost of project

I.4. Significance of the project

I.4.1. Personal significance

This research was providing knowledge about geometric design, hydraulics and pavement
design of road way and how the layers are arranged from lower one to top one

I.4.2. Administrative significance

This research was encouraging administrative institutions to know about road and the role
of it and how the road must be protected and it gave an idea to government about
transportation planning.

2
I.4.3. Public significance

The research was benefit to people in increasing movements, communication and trading
and it reduced transport cost and reduced time in the way.

I.5. Scope and limitation of research

I.5.1. Scope

This project was deal with design of geometric elements, pavement and drainage system.

I.5.2. Limitation

This research project limited to bridge design because the skills and knowledge about its
design was not sufficient.

3
CHAP II: LITERATURE RIEW

II.1. Traffic count volume and analysis

II.1.1 Introduction to traffic count volume

They are many reasons for collecting traffic data and many different types of
information’s that can be collected, type of survey include surveys to determine the
vehicle speed, peaks hourly traffic flow, in order to estimate the total traffic over the
design life of the roadway, the first step is to determine the current volume and the type of
traffic travelling on the road, although most traffic loading used for structural design
purposes arises from buses, medium goods, heavy goods vehicles, the additional traffic
account information for the other types of vehicles is useful for many other purposes such
as for calculating the road user costs, for road classification, and environmental appraisal
(Crowthone & Berkshire, 2004).

II.1.2. Vehicles classification

Classification of vehicles into different types can vary according to local conditions and
exact reason for surveys, for general purposes a standard vehicles classification is given
in table below, for pavement design of main roads more details are needed for the heavy
vehicles categories (Crowthrone & Berkshire, 2004).

TableII.1. Standard vehicle classification (Crownthrone & Berkshire, 2004).

Category Type of vehicles Description

1.light vehicles
1a Motorcycles Motorcycles with or without side cars eg. motor
1b Passenger cars tricycles
Includes passenger car with seating’s not more
1c Small buses 9 person’s eg. Estate cars, hire cars and taxis.
1d Light goods Includes minibuses, jeepers, matatus etc.
Usually less 40 seats

4
 2. medium and
heavy vehicles
2a Large buses All regular large passenger vehicles and
coaches with more than 40 seats
2b Medium goods 2 axled vehicles with twin tyres on rear axle
more than 1.5 tonnes unladen weight
2c Heavy goods (3 Large trucks with 3 axles
axles)
2d Heavy goods(4 or Vehicles with 4 or more axles (trailers being
more axles) includes as part of the vehicles or exceeding 8.5
tonnes gross weight of vehicles

II.1.3. Type of traffic count volume

Traffic count for pavements design purposes are often obtained by manual accounts, there
are satisfactory circumstances but for low volume roads in rural areas there is likely to be
high variation in daily traffic flow to obtain sufficient accurate estimate of average traffic
flow a manual count would need very long period time and this might be impractical
(Crownthrone & Berkshire, 2004).

II.1.3.1. Manual count

Manual count are carried out by observers situated at the observation point at the side of
road, the most usual type of survey is classified count in which as vehicles pass the
observation point, the observer records each vehicle on a survey from according to the
type of vehicle and a survey of one week is most common and is usually recommended, a
results manual count is classified traffic count should show total traffic and its
composition by vehicle type in each direction (Crowthrone & Berkshire, 2004).

II.1.5. Analysis of traffic count results

5
II.1.6. Converting a partial day’s count into full day’s traffic count

Traffic flows vary throughout the day and therefore a traffic count for 12 hours cannot
simply be doubled to give an estimated count for 24hours.the count will depend upon the
specific hours that the data have been recorded e.g. traffic count from 06:00 to 18:00hours
is likely to be significantly different to a count from 08:00 t0 20:00 hours. (Crownthrone
& Berkshire, 2004)

partial , day ,count ( 06 :00 , to, 18 :00 )×( full 24 hrs, count )
Estimated full day count= ( count , from, 6 :00 , to, 18 :00 hrs ,in ,the , 24 hrs , survey ) (Eq1)

II.2. Topographic data

Topographic data are information about the elevation of the surface of the Earth. Two
such data types are commonly used with GeoPads. The first are data that represent the
information typically found on a topographic quadrangle map, such as contour lines,
roads, streams, railroads, towns, etc. For simplicity, this first category of data will be
referred to as digital topographic map data. The second are grids of data, for which each
cell in the grid represents the elevation at a certain point on the Earth. These data are
commonly referred to as Digital Elevation Models or DEMs (Carleton, 2020).

II.2.1. Ground Surveys

Ground surveys are the basic location technique for roadway. The total station is used for
measuring angles in both vertical and horizontal planes, distances, and changes in
elevation through the use of trigonometric levels; the level is used for measuring changes
in elevation only (Garber, N. J. & Hoel, A. L, 2002)

II.1.2. The Total Station

A total station is both an electronic theodolite and electronic distance-measuring device

(EDM). The total station enables one to determine angles and distances from the
instrument to other points. Angles and distances may be used to calculate the actual
positions (coordinates and elevations The standard theodolite consists of a telescope with
vertical and horizontal cross hairs, a graduated arc or Vernier for reading vertical angles,

6
and a graduated circular plate for reading horizontal angles, whereas the electronic
theodolite provides a digital readout of those angles (Garber, N. J. & Hoel, A. L, 2002)

II.3. Engineering laboratory Soil tests

Soil is generally formed by disintegration and decomposition (weathering) of rocks

through the action of physical of mechanical agents, which break them into smaller
particles. All soils originate directly or indirectly from different rocks (Holts, 1981).

II.3.1. California bearing ratio test (CBR)

It is a penetration test used to evaluate subgrade strength of roads and pavement. It is a

penetration test in which a standard piston with a diameter of 1.954inch equal 50mm, it is
used to penetrate the soil at a standard rate of 1.25mm/min. Its ration expressed in
percentage of force per area. The primary purpose of CBR is to determine the bearing
capacity of the subgrade (Bophy, 2019).

TableII.2: Standard force penetration relationship (Bophy, 2019).

Penetration(mm) Load(KN)
2 11.5
4 17.6
6 22.2
8 26.3
10 30.3
12 33.5

CBR value calculation

ps
×100 %
CBR value= pstd (Eq2)

Ps is stress carried by site soil and pstd is stress carried by standard soil

2.3.2. Standard Proctor test or compaction test

7
Standard proctor test is used to determine the compaction of different types of soil and the
properties of soil with a change in moisture content compaction is a type of mechanical
stabilization where the soil mass is densified with the application of mechanical energy
known as comp active effort (MUrthy, 2007)

II.3.3. Sieve analysis test

II.3.3.1. Introduction

Sieve analysis is a procedure used a set of sieves which will yield equal grain size
intervals on logarithmic scale, are mostly used for separating course aggregates and fine
one (Borphy & kervn, 2019).

Table II.3: US standard sieves (Borphy & kervn, 2019).

Designation Opening Designation Opening

2in 50.80 35 0.50
1 38.10 40 0.425
1 in
2
19.00 50 0.355
3/4in
9.51 60 0.250
3/8in
4.75 70 0.212
4
2.36 80 0.180
8
2.00 100 0.150
10
1.40 120 0.125
14
1.18 170 0.090
16
1.00 200 0.075
18
0.60 270 0.053
30

total , mass ,retained

×100
Percentage retained sample= total , mass , of , sample (Eq3)

II.3.3.2. Coefficient of uniformity (cu)

8
 D 60
Cu= D 10 where D60 and D10 obtained from graph ( Eq4)

II.3.3.3. Coefficient of curvature (Cc)

2
D 30
Cc= D 60×D10 where D30,D60 and D10 obtained from graph (Eq5)

If cu >4 the soil is gravel

Cu < 6 the soil is sand

Cu=4 the soil is uniformity or uniform soil

And the soil is well grained when Cc is range from 1 and if it is 3 it becomes gravel, two
sample of soil are said to be similar when the curves of grain size are parallel (Borphy &
kervn, 2019).

II.3.4. Atterberg Limits

These tests indicate the range of the plastic state (plasticity is defined as the property of
cohesive soils which possess the ability to undergo changes of shape without rupture) and
other states. The water contents corresponding to the transition from one state to another
are termed as Atterberg Limits and the tests required to determine the limits are the
Atterberg Limit Tests (Borphy & kervn, 2019).

TableII.4: Different states and consistency of soils with Atterberg limits

States Limits Consistency Volume Change

Liquid Very soft
…………wl Liquid limit…... Soft
Plastic Stiff Decrease in volume

……...wp Plastic limit…... Very stiff

Semi solid
……….ws Shrinkage limit…. Extremely stiff
Constant in volume
Solid Hard

9
II.3.5. Determination of Atterberg limits

II.3.5.1. Liquid Limit

The liquid limit is the moisture content at the groove, formed by a standard tool into the
sample of soil taken in the standard cup, closes for 10mm on being given 25 blows in a
standard manner. This limiting moisture content at which the cohesive soil passes from
liquid state to plastic state (Borphy & kervn, 2019).

II.3.5.2. Liquid Limit by One-Point Method

The determination of liquid limit as explained earlier requires a considerable amount of

time and labor. We can use what is termed the 'one-point method' if an approximate value
of the limit is required (Borphy & kervn, 2019).

The formula used for this purpose is

N N
w( )
WL= 25 (Eq6)

Where w is the water content corresponding to the number of blows N, and n, an index
whose value has been found to vary from 0.068 to 0.121.

II.3.6. Plastic Limit

Plastic limit test is one of the laboratory tests used internationally to differentiate or
classify soils into groups. As the starting procedures of liquid limit test and plastic limit
test are common, the both tests are executed at the same time in most of the purposes. The
Swedish Scientist, A. Atterberg defined the plastic limit as, boundary of soil between the
plastic and solid state (Admin, 2017).

II.4. Geometric design of roadway

II.4.1. Basic physical elements of a Roadway

The basic features of a highway are the carriageway itself, expressed in terms of the
number of lanes used, the central reservation or median strip and the shoulders (including

10
verges). Depending on the level of the highway relative to the surrounding terrain, side-
slopes may also be a design issue (AASHTO, 2001).

II.4.1.1. Main carriageway

It is a part on road constructed by use of moving traffic, the chosen carriageway depends
on a number of factors, most notably the volume of traffic using the highway, the quality
of service expected from the installation and the selected design speed. In most situations,
a lane width of 3.65 m is used, making a standard divided or undivided 2-lane
carriageway 7.3 m wide in total (RTDA, 2014).

FigureII.1: Carriageway of Roadway

II.5. Design speed, stopping and overtaking sight distances

II.5.1. Design speed

The design speed of a roadway serves as a guide in the selection of the physical features
referred to above. Selection of the correct design speed ensures that issues of both safety
and economy in the design process are addressed. The chosen design speed must be
consistent with the anticipated vehicle speeds on the highway under consideration. The
standard design speeds are 50km/hr, 60km/hr, 70km/hr, 85km/hr, 100 km/hr and
120km/hr (AASHTO, 2001).

II.5.2. Sight distances for Roadway

Sight distance is defined as the length of carriageway that the driver can see in both the
horizontal and vertical planes (Demetrios E. Tonias, 2007).

11
Two types of sight distance are detailed:

 Stopping distance
 Overtaking distance.

II.5.3. Stopping sight distance

This is defined as the minimum sight distance required by the driver in order to be able to
stop the car before it hits an object on the highway. It is of primary importance to the safe
working of a highway (Fwa, 2006).

II.5.4. Overtaking sight distance

Overtaking sight distance is of central importance to the efficient working of a given

section of highway. Overtaking sight distance only applies to single carriageways. There
is no full overtaking sight distance (FOSD) for a highway with a design speed of 120
km/hr since this design speed is not suitable for a single carriageway road, Full
overtaking sight distances are much larger in value than stopping sight distances (Fwa, T.
F., 2006).

II.6. Roadway Alignments

II.6.1. Horizontal alignment

Horizontal alignment deals with the design of the directional transition of the highway in
a horizontal plane. A horizontal alignment consists, in its most basic form, of a horizontal
arc and two transition curves forming a curve, which joins two straights (AASHTO,
2001).

12
FigureII.2. Typical horizontal alignment

II.6.2. Horizontal alignment parameters

II.6.2.1. Circular curve

When vehicles negotiate a curve, a sideways frictional force is developed between the
tires and the road surface. This friction must be less than the maximum available friction
if the curve is to be traversed safely (RTDA, 2014).

For a given design speed, the minimum curve radius is limited by:

 The maximum allowable side friction (which is usually based on a comfort

standard);
 he maximum super elevation rate for the curve; and
 The necessity to maintain the stopping sight distance (RTDA, 2014).

v2
R= 127 ( e+f ) (Eq7)

R=radius of curve, V=design speed, e=super elevation, f=coefficient of friction

Limiting values have been established for both e and f in the formula. Side friction
coefficients are dependent on vehicle speed, type, condition and texture of roadway
surface, weather conditions, and type and condition of tires (Thomas R. Warne, Utah,
2001).

II.6.2.2. Minimum and maximum lengths of curve

13
For small changes of direction, it is desirable to use large radius curves. This improves
the appearance of the road by removing rapid changes in the edge profile. It also reduces
the tendency for drivers to cut the corners of small radius curves. Providing the curve
radii are sufficiently large, it may be possible to maintain a passing zone through a curve
(Dean Carlson, Kansas, 2001).

II.6.2.3. Widening on curves

Widening on curves shall be provided to make operating conditions comparable to those

on tangents. This is necessary as the wheel tracking width is increased. Curve widening is
required only on Class 1 and 2 roads and should be sufficient to cater for the design
vehicle. Curve widening shall generally be applied to both sides of the roadway. It should
start at the beginning of the transition curve and be fully widened at the start of the
circular curve; or where there are no transition curves, should match the start and end of
the super elevation (Fwa, T. F., 2006).

II.6.2.4. Types of widening

II.6.2.4. 1. Mechanical widening

This phenomenon is called off tracking and has the effect of increasing the effective
width of road space required by the vehicle (AASHTO, 2001).

2
nL
Wm= 2 R (Eq8)

Wm=mechanical widening, n=number of lanes, L=is length of curves, R=radius of curve.

II.4.6. Transition curves

Transition curves may be inserted between tangents and circular curves to reduce the
abrupt introduction of lateral acceleration. They may also be used between two circular
curves. Transition curves minimize encroachment on adjoining traffic lanes and simulate
the natural turning path of a vehicle (AASHTO, 2001).

Formula of Transition curve length:

14
 V3
3
L= R×C×3 .6 ( Eq9)

L=length of curve, V=design speed, R=radii of curve, C=coefficient vary between 0.3 to
0.6 m/s2

II.4.7. Super elevation

Super elevation may be defined as the raising of outer edge of the road a long a curve in
order to counteract the effect of centrifugal force acts on the vehicle and the stability of
the vehicle is disturbed. This force is experienced by the wheels at right angle to direction
of motion. The frictional resistance between the wheels and the road surface will act in
the opposite direction. The value of the centrifugal force exceeds the frictional resistance;
the vehicle will be raised up from the road surface there by causing instability to the
vehicle (Fwa, T. F., 2006).

FigureII.3: super-elevation of curve

II.5. Vertical Roadway Alignments

A vertical alignment defines the geometry of a highway in elevation, or profile. A vertical

alignment can be represented by the highway centerline along a single tangent at a given
grade, a vertical curve, or a combination of these (Demetrios E. Tonias, 1999).

II.5.1. Vertical alignment parameters

15
II.5.1.1. Vertical curves

II.5.1. 2. Vertical crest curve and design

The curvature of crest curves should be sufficiently large in order to provide adequate
sight distance for the driver. In order to provide this sight distance, the curve length L is a
critical parameter. Too great a length is costly to the developer while too short a length
compromises critical concerns such as safety and vertical clearance to structures
(AASHTO, 2001)

The formulae relating to these two conditions are

AS 2
Lm= [ √2 H 1+2 H 22] for (S≤L)

2 [ √ H 1+ √ H 2 ]
2 s−
Lm= A for (S>L)
(Eq10)

2.5.3. Vertical sag curve and design

In general, the two main criteria used as a basis for designing vertical sag curves are
driver comfort and clearance from structures.

II.5.4. Driver comfort

Although it is conceivable that both crest and sag curves can be designed on the basis of
comfort rather than safety, it can be generally assumed that, for crest curves, the safety
criterion will prevail and sight distance requirements will remain of paramount
importance (AASHTO, 2001).

The following formula is utilized in order to calculate the required curve length:

16
 2
AV
L= 3 . 9 (Eq11)

A is change in gradient, L is the required vertical sag curve length (m), V is the speed of
the vehicle (km/hr).

II.5.5. Sag curves in nighttime conditions

A critical design concern for sag curves during nighttime conditions can be headlight
sight distance, where the length of the highway illuminated by the car’s headlights is the
governing parameter. The critical measurement in this instance will be the height of the
headlights above the surface of the highway. This process is, however, highly sensitive to
the angle of upward divergence of the light beam (Demetrios E. Tonias, 2007).

The governing formulae are:

2
AS
L night= 2 [ H 1+S tan β ] for S≤L

2 [ H 1+S tan β ]
L night=2S- A for S>L (Eq12)

Where H1 is the height of the headlight above the roadway, normally assumed as 0.61m,
S is the required sight stopping distance, dependent on design speed; β is the inclined
upward angle of the headlight beam relative to the horizontal plane of the vehicle in
degrees (AASHTO, 2001).

II.6. Pavement design and construction materials

II.6.1. Introduction pavement

A Roadway pavement is composed of a system of overlaid strata of chosen processed

materials that is positioned on the in-situ soil, termed the subgrade. Its basic requirement
is the provision of a uniform skid-resistant running surface with adequate life and
requiring minimum maintenance (Dr paige-green et al, 2000).

The major variables in the design of a Roadway pavement are:

17
 The thickness of each layer in the pavement
 The material contained within each layer of the pavement
 The type of vehicles in the traffic stream
 The volume of traffic predicted to use the roadway over its design life
 The strength of the underlying subgrade soil

II.6.2. Pavement layers

II.6.2.1. Foundation or subgrade

The foundation consists of the native subgrade soil and the layer of graded stone (subbase
and possibly capping) immediately overlaying it. The function of the subbase and capping
is to provide a platform on which to place the road base material as well as to insulate the
subgrade below it against the effects of inclement weather, these layers may form the
temporary road surface used during the construction phase of the highway (Elfino, K. M.,
Roger, 2000).

II.6.2.2. Road base

The road base is the main structural layer whose main function is to withstand the applied
wheel stresses and strains incident on it and distribute them in such a manner that the
materials beneath it does not become overloaded (Shiells, D., & Smith, K. M., 2000).

II.6.2.3. Surfacing

The surfacing combines good riding quality with adequate skidding resistance, while also
minimizing the probability of water infiltrating the pavement with consequent surface
cracks Flexible pavements the surfacing and road base materials, bound with bitumen
binder, overlay granular unbound or cement-bound material (Demetrios E.Tonias, 1999).

II.6.5. Materials within flexible pavements

II.6.5.1. Bitumen

Bitumen is produced artificially from crude oil within the petroleum refining process. It is
a basic constituent of the upper layers in pavement construction. It can resist both

18
deformation and changes in temperature. Its binding effect eliminates the loss of material
from the surface of the pavement and prevents water penetrating the structure (Rolt, J.,
1993)

II.6.5.4. Aggregates

The maximum nominal aggregate size is determined from both the required thickness of
the material when put in place and the surface texture called for. The following are typical
nominal aggregate sizes used at different levels within a bituminous pavement, the size of
aggregate must not be greater than the required layer thickness (Demetrios E.Tonias,
1999).

II.10. Structural Design of Pavement Thickness

Design standard (overseas roadnote29)

II.10.1. Flexible pavement design

A flexible pavement is defined as one where the surface course, binder course and base
materials are bitumen bound. Permitted materials include hot rolled asphalt (HRA), high-
density macadam (HDM), dense bitumen macadam (DBM) and dense bitumen macadam
with 50-penetration bitumen (DBM50) (Crownthrone & Berkshire, 2004)

The design procedures

Step 1: Calculate Tn, the total number of commercial vehicles using the slow lane over
the n years’ design life, as follows:

n
( (1+r ) −1
p
TN=365fo r ( Eq13)

Where: F0 = initial daily flow (base year), r = commercial vehicle growth rate, n = design
life, P = proportion of commercial vehicles using the slow (nearside) lane, P = 1 if it is
assumed that all vehicles use the nearside lane (Crownthrone & Berkshire, 2004).

Step 2: Calculate the damage factor, D. In order to convert Tn into equivalent standard
axles, it must be multiplied by the vehicle damage factor, D, calculated for the mid-year

19
of the design life, Fm. The damage factor is calculated as follows:

0 .35 0 .26 1. 0
t
−( t
)( F ÷1550
D= 0. 93 +0 . 082 0 . 92 3 .9 (Eq14)

Where: F = number of commercial vehicles per day in one direction (mid-term year), t =
mid-term year minus 1945.

Step 3: Calculation of N, the cumulative number of standard axles

N= TN×D (Eq15)

TableII.5: Thickness of subbase and capping layers (Crownthrone & Berkshire, 2004).

Layer CBR of subgrade

<2 2 3 4 5+
Subbase thickness(mm) 615 400 310 260 225
Subbase + capping
Comprising
. subbase thickness (mm) 150 150 150 150 225
.capping layer thickness (mm) 600 350 350 350 -

20
FigureII.4: Design curve for roadway with bituminous road base (Garber, N. J. & Hoel,
A. L, 2002).

II.11. Hydraulics Design for Roadway

II.11.1. Roadway Drainage

Proper drainage is a very important consideration in design of a Roadway. Inadequate

drainage facilities can lead to premature deterioration of the roadway and the
development of adverse safety conditions such as hydroplaning. In essence, the general
function of a roadway drainage system is to remove rainwater from the road and water
from the roadway right-of-way. The drainage system should provide for the drainage
conditions (Demetrios E.Tonias, 1999)

II.11.2. Open Channels for roadway

Side ditches may be used to collect runoff from a roadway located in a cut. The ditches
may be trapezoidal or V-shaped. The trapezoidal ditch has greater capacity for a range
from as low as 0.02 for concrete to 0.10 for thick grass. Flow down gentle slopes is likely
to be subcritical whereas flow down steep slopes may be supercritical. When the water
depth is greater than the critical depth, subcritical flow occurs. Conversely, when the
depth of water is less than the critical depth, supercritical flow occurs (Demetrios
E.Tonias, 1999).

21
II.11.2. Drainage Design for roadway

Roads will affect the natural surface and subsurface drainage pattern of a watershed or
individual hillslope. Road drainage design has as its basic objective the reduction and/or
elimination of energy generated by flowing water. Hydrologic factors to consider in
locating roads are number of stream crossings, side slope, and moisture regime, in
general, roads built on the upper one-third of a slope have better soil moisture conditions
and, therefore, tend to be more stable than roads built on lower positions on the slope
(Megahan, 1977)

FigureII.6: Longitudinal side ditch

Design formula for longitudinal side ditch

Q1= C×I×A

α 1
c
I= ( t +γ ) Z= √3

2 y
A= 1.73 y
R= 2
2y
1
B= √ 3 ×A×R 2/3×S 1/2
Q2= n (Eq16)

22
where A is catchment area, b width of channel, Q1 is hydrology discharge, Q2 is hydraulic
discharge, y is height of ditch land z is side slope and I is maximum rain intensity.

II.12. Earthwork for roadway

Earthwork is a generic term for all items of work, materials and operations required to
construct the excavated areas and the embankments of a project, the most important
roadway operation involving earthwork is constructing the roadbed. The roadbed is
constructed by excavating soil from cut sections and placing soil as embankments in fill
sections. In cut sections, the roadbed is built below the original ground - the original
ground is excavated to the elevation of the proposed roadbed. In fill sections, the roadbed
is built above the original ground - the earth fill is on an embankment (Slattery, 2011).

II.13. Cut and Fill Sections for roadway

II.13.1. Cut Sections

A detailed engineering soils analysis of a proposed roadway alignment is a crucial part of

the roadway design process. The results of the soils analysis are used to develop the
design details of cut sections such as depth and slope of the cut. The engineer has to keep
in mind that the volume of excavation increases significantly as the depth of the cut
increases, cut slopes are rarely steeper than 2:1 (2 units’ horizontal to 1 unit vertical or
about 27 degrees from horizontal). AASHTO recommends that cut slopes steeper than 3:1
be evaluated with regard to soil stability and traffic safety (AASHTO, 2001)

II.13.2. Fill Sections

The greatest amount of roadway construction in rural areas occurs on fill. In flat terrain,
the roadway pavement should be elevated several feet above the original ground surface
to aid drainage. Slopes for fill should be determined in accordance with the guidelines
discussed under Cross Section Elements. It is desirable to keep the height of the fill
section to 30 feet or less, with 20 feet being a preferred maximum. With fill heights

23
greater than 20 feet, it may be more economical to build a bridge, depending on the
topography (AASHTO, 2001)

CHAPTER III: METHODOLOGY

III.1. Description of project location

24
Figures3.1: Country, District and Sector maps

25
Figure3.2: Location map

III.2. Contours map which show the terrain of the area

FigureIII.3: Contour map

In implementation of this project, those following methods are applied in order to achieve
for a complete project:

III.3. Site visiting and its purpose

It was operation of visit the site to found the information about the nature, surrounding
environments and others, in this method the total length of roadway determined by used
electronic pace meter, the total width of existing roadway determined by tape measure,
the photo of existing roadway taken by used smartphone.

III.4. Traffic count volume and method with procedures applied

26
It was the operation of determine the total traffic volume of the road way which used in
pavement design, this operation performed in one week from Monday to Sunday, from at
6:00AM to 18:00PM, in this operation of count traffic volume performed by used those
following materials: pencil, report book, and watch.

III.4.1. The method used for account traffic volume

The method used is manual account

Procedures of perform manual account for determining traffic volume:

When the manual count started firstly, the required materials and document prepared:
record book, pencils, wotch, calculator and after those materials and document prepared
the count started from 6:00 AM to 18:00PM,the results obtained recorded separately in
record book or field book according to lanes, the vehicles counted and recorded respected
to its class or type, after the vehicles counted, respected to the type, the analysis made
where the total commercial vehicles calculated and full day count calculated.

Record book used as where the data obtained are kept, pencil used to write the recorded
data, wotch used for counting the time left, calculator used for computation the results
from manual count of traffic volume.

The importance of the results obtained from traffic count, used or assisted in pavement
structure design.

III.5. Correction of Topographic data and procedures applied

It was process of surveying by taking data in the roadway, those data showed the natural
or elevation of the surface, in the roadway width the three points determined, one right,
center and left of roadway.

When the data on the field collected, those instruments and materials prepared firstly:
total station, an umbrella, staff reading, and hand Gps, after prepared those instruments,
listed before, the reference point determined by used hand Gps, this point used for
determine other elevations or points in roadway.

27
 After the reference point determined, the followed was to set the total station and
adjusted it in order to remove parallax and then the telescope of total station focused on
staff and started to read the middle, lower and upper readings from staff and data recorded
into record book or field book, in roadway width the three points determined one on right,
middle and left side after got those readings the staff shifted about 20m and continued the
same process until to the destination of roadway.

Determined data exported in total station by using the flash disc and inserted into laptop
to format them into csv format so that the software can read them. The data obtained
during field survey used for geometric design, where those geometric plans: alignment,
profile, basic assembly, sections and earthwork table prepared referred to the data
collected from field or site.

III.6. Soil tests and procedures applied

III.6.1. Sieve analysis test

When the sieve analysis test conducted, those apparatuses needed and prepared: Stack of
test sieves, electronic Balance with 0.01g as accuracy, Rubber pestle and mortar, Sieve
shaker, Oven after organized them, the oven dried sample of 500g taken and the stack of
sieves prepared respectively and weighed separately, the dried sample poured to the top
of stack of sieves and shake the stack of sieves by vibrating.

After 15minutes, the sieve shaker stopped and measured the mass of retained particles for
each sieve pan, analyzed the results obtained by determine the percentage of particles
passed on each sieve and plot the graph where the passing percentage (%) located at y-
axis while the opening sizes located on x-axis and computed the coefficient uniformity
and coefficient curvature to knew the type of particles of the soil.

The stack of sieves used for sieving the soil particles according to their sizes, electronic
balance used to determine the required weight of soil sample, rubber pestle and mortar are
used for crushing the limps in the soil sample, oven used to reduce the amount of
moisture content in the soil sample and the shaker is used for providing the vibration to

28
stack of sieves so that the particles can be sieved from one pan to another according to
their sizes.

Table III.1. Adapted formulas during calculation

S/N Formulas adapted

Percentage of retained total , mass ,retained
×100
total , mass , of , sample
Cumulative uniformity(cu) D 60
D 10
2
Cumulative curvature(Cc) D 30
D 60×D10

III.7. California bearing ratio test (CBR)

When the cbr test conducted, those apparatuses needed and prepared firstly: Mould, Steel
Cutting collar, Spacer Disc, Surcharge weight, Dial gauges, IS Sieves, Penetration
Plunger, Loading machine and after those apparatuses prepared, the soil sample of 7kg
prepared into three specimens and measured the weight of empty Mould.

After the weight of empty Mould measured, the water added in the sample and the
compaction started respectively by 10 blows in each layer, after compaction the collar and
lever surface removed.

The sample of compacted soil got for determine the moisture content after this the weight
of Mould plus specimen measured and the Mould soaked into a tank in four days after
four days the sample removed from the tank and the process repeated.

After four days the swell measured and the sample kept into penetration piston and read
the penetration loading values, after this the graph is prepared and find the value of cbr.

This ratio computed in this test used for design of subgrade layer, it facilitated in deciding
the thickness of subgrade and capping layer to be used during construction and also it
assisted to know the materials and its properties, to be used in subbase layer and
subgrade.

29
The formula adapted to determine CBR value

ps
×100
CBR value= pstd

III.8. Standard Proctor test procedures and apparatus used

When proctor test conducted, all those following apparatuses needed and prepared before
the test, those apparatuses were: Cylindrical Metal Mold, Rammer, Sensitive Balance,
Steel straight edge, Moisture containers, Sieve No.4, Tray & scoop, graduated cylinder,
Mixing tools. (Spoon, trowel, spatula).

After those apparatuses prepared, the 3kgs of soil sample prepared and sieved through
sieve No 4, the water added to the soil sample to bring its water content to about 5%, the
Mould cleaned and determined diameter, height and the weight of it but removed the
weight of collar.

The moist soil poured into Mould and fit the collar then the compaction started
respectively by three equal layers, after compaction the collar removed and soil trimmed
from Mould about 100g for water content determination.

Break the soil lamps and mixed by remained soil in the tray then added water about 2% to
increase the water content and compacted it by following the same Processures then
calculated the moisture content for each trial corresponding to dry density, finally the plot
prepared where dry density located on y-axis and water content located o x-axis and
determine the dry density max and optimum water content.

The results obtained from this test used for deciding the amount of compaction energy to
be apply to the site during compaction work and if the compaction feet to the percentage
provided by standard as 95% and also it showed the amount of water to be used during
compaction to the field.

Adapted formulas to determine dry densities

bulk .density Mg
Dry density( δd )= 1+w % and unity weight( γ )= V

30
 mass , of , wet , soil
bulk , density=
volume , of , mould

III.9.1. Apparatus and procedures followed to conduct liquid limit test

When the liquid limit test conducted, those all apparatuses needed: Balance, Casagrande,
Liquid limit device, grooving tool, mixing dishes, Spatula, Electrical oven, Squeeze
bottle. After those required apparatuses prepared, the air dried soil about 250g are taken
and sieved through 425μm sieve number, the water added to the soil and mixed until it
become uniform paste and the portion of paste placed into a cup of liquid limit device and
spread it with a few strakes of spatula. The sample of 1cm depth trimmed and cut the line
into center of soil pat in the cup and lifted and dropped the cup used the crank at the rate
of two revolutions per second, the soil got from the cup for moisture content
determination, the test repeated for different moisture content at least four more times and
made analysis by:

Details of the sample………...

Natural moisture content………. Room temperature………

Determination number 1 2 3 4 5
Container number
Weight of container
Weight of container + wet soil
Weight of container + dry soil
Weight of water
Weight of dry soil
Moisture content(%)
No of blows

After filled the results obtained in this above table, the graph plotted between water
content and number of blows and the moisture content corresponding to 25blows
determined which indicated the liquid limit.

31
Formula adapted during calculation

N
(N)
WL=w 25

III.9.2. Plastic limit test and procedures

When the plastic limit test conducted, those all apparatuses used in order to get the
complete results, those apparatuses were: laboratory porcelain dish, spatula, balance to an
accuracy of 0.01 g, wash bottle with distilled water, drying oven, Glass plate and similar
weight moisture cans, after those apparatuses prepared, the sample of soil prepared and
measured the weight of cans and named accordingly as 1,2, 3.etc.

the soil sample sieved through the sieve number 40,after the soil mixed to make paste
and rolled it on glass plate by fingers forwardly and backwardly movements, until the
thread had 3mm of diameter, the crumbled soil collected from the can and measured
respect to the named cans and the moisture can kept into oven at least 16hrs after those
hours the dried sample measured and determined the dry weights separately, then the
moisture content determined for each named can and finally calculated the plastic limit by
calculating the average moisture content of the samples as shown below table:

Sample number 1 2 3 4
Mass of empty can +lid(g)
Mass of can, lid +moist soil(g)
Mass of can, lid +dry soil(g)
Mass of soil solids(g)
Mass of water or moisture(g)
Water content(%)

III.10. Geometric design of roadway

III.10.1. Geometric plans

32
The method used to achieve to geometric design was to prepare the roadway plans:
alignment, vertical profile and cross-sections. Those plans prepared by used Civil 3D
software and Microsoft excel, firstly the data removed to flash disc where it saved from
the total station after the field work finished, after inserted them into Microsoft excel, to
format them into csv format so that the civil 3D software can read them, then the civil 3d
opened and went to insert in civil 3d icons then the data inserted in software, after the
data grouped by clicked to all points and selected the properties.

Then went to information, selected the point style to change the points marker, after this
labeled the points and selected the elevation only, then created the surface and named it,
after the surface created, selected surface style and selected the boarder only, after the
boarder only selected, started to draw the alignment by clicked to alignment creation tools
and choose the tangent with curves icon.

After drawn the alignment, created the profile and edited it by showed the cutting and fill
data, vertical geometry design, horizontal geometry design and the stations, and then
created basic assemble and after basic assemble created, built corridor by clicked to
corridor from software icons and created a sample lines, after the sample lines created,
created cross- sections of roadway and edited them, after this created the earth work
volume tables then finally prepared the plans on paper respected to the size required and
exported them from software to pdf in order to print it into hard copies.

III.10.2. Horizontal and vertical geometric design

Referred to design of bath horizontal and vertical geometric parameters those materials
used during computation; pens, spreadsheets and calculator and those formulas used for
calculation, those following parameters: radius of curves, length of transition curve, super
elevation, vertical crest curve, vertical sag curve, stopping sight distances, setback
distances, driver comfort designed based on the below formulas.

Table III.2. The adapted formula during design for geometry are shown below table

S/N Adapted formulas

33
 Radius of horizontal curve V2
R= 127(e +f )
Length of transition curve V
3

3
L= R×C×3 .6
2
V
Super elevation −f
e= 127 g

AS 2
2
Length of vertical crest curve Lm= [ √ 2 H 1+ √ 2 H 2 ] for S≤L

2 [ √ H 1+H 22 ]
Lm=2s- A for S>L

Length of vertical sag curve

2
AS
2 S−
L= 2 [ H 1+ S tan β ] for S≤L

2 [ H 1+S tan β ]
Stopping sight distance L=2S- A
V2
Driver comfort criteria S=vt+ 2 ( a±Gg )
2
AV
L= 3 . 9

III.11. Flexible Pavement structure design

In the design for roadway flexible pavement, those procedures respected to get the
thickness of layers for the pavement layers, firstly the commercial vehicles determined
according to the traffic count volume estimated and after the total commercial vehicles
determined respect to commercial vehicles obtained from traffic count volume and its
growth rate and the design life of pavement as 20years,after the total commercial vehicles
calculated, the damage factor for pavement determined, then the cumulative traffic
determined in msa unit, finally the road base +surfacing thickness determined from

34
standard table as table of road base + surfacing thickness and thickness of subbase and
capping layers determined respect to the CBR value obtained from the test results.

Table III.3. In design process those formulas as shown below table are adapted during
calculation

S/N Adapted formulas

n
Total commercial vehicles as TN ( (1+ r ) −1)
365 fo p
TN= r
Damage factor as D 0 . 35 0 . 26 1 .0
D= −( )( )
0 . 93 +0 .082 0 . 92 +0 .082 3 . 9F ÷1550
t t

Cumulative traffic as N TN×D

III.12. Hydraulic design for Roadway

In design of roadway longitudinal side ditch those procedures respected to get the
complete ditch with required dimensions, firstly the catchment area determined here the
area determined were of the following features, forests area, house roofs, streets, etc.
which were spread the rain water in the roadway surface and then after the rain intensity
in( mm) determined referred to the station of rain gouge which were Gishyita in Karongi
district , after got the catchment area and rain intensity the hydrology disirchage with
hydraulic discharge calculated and calculated the height of ditch, breath of ditch and the
side slope of it, after got those parameters of ditch, the ditch drawn respected to the
dimensions of its parameters obtained from calculation.

Table III.4. In design of roadway longitudinal side ditch those following formulas below
table are adapted:

35
S/N Formulas adapted

A(area) 2
A= 1.73 y

B(breath) 2y
B= √ 3
Z(side slope) 1
Z= √3
R(Radius) y
R= 2
Q2(hydraulic disirchage) 1
×A×R 2/3×S 1/2
Q2= n
Q1( hydrology discharge) Q1= C×I×A

36
CHAPTER IV: RESULTS AND CALCULATION

IV.1. Results from manual count for traffic from Rutsiro district

LOCATION: RUTSIRO DISTRICT

Time and Date survey date: 15 march 2020
Survey duration:1 week
Hours:16hrs from 6:00AM to 18:00PM
Roadway : between NKOMERO TO G.S.Kayove
Vehicle type Right lane Left lane
Average numbers/day Average numbers/day
Non-motorized traffic 4 7
1a motorbikes & motor tricycles 20 18
1b cars 102 112
1c small buses 0 0
1d light trucks 16 9
2a large buses 0 0
2b medium trucks 17 20
2c heavy trucks 62 85
Number of commercial vehicles 71 105
Total motorized 217 244
Percentage of commercial 36.40% 43.03%
vehicles
Table 4.1: Results from traffic counted volume

Average two way counted in 16hrs from 6:00AM to 18:00PM was 217+244=461vehicles

37
The percentage of commercial vehicles estimated for right lane was 36.40% and the
percentage of commercial vehicles estimated for left lane was 43.03%

IV.3. Results from soil tests conducted

IV.3.1. Results from proctor test conducted (lab test)

 Determined soil mass=6000g( for modified type)

 Determined height of Mould=11.6cm
 Determined diameter of Mould=15.2cm
15 .2
=7 .6 cm
 Radius of Mould= 2
2
 Volume of Mould= 3 .14×7 . 6 ×11. 6=2104 cm 3

PROCTOR TEST
Mould numbers Unit 1 2 3 4
Water added   4 6 8 10
Gra 10281. 10595. 10477.
W.T of soil+mould m 9811.4 2 2 4
Gra
W.T of soil m 3884.6 4354.4 4668.4 4550.6
Volume of Mould cm3 2104 2104 2104 2104
Gra
W.T of Mould m 5926.8 5926.8 5926.8 5926.8
g/ 1846.2 2069.5 2218.8 2162.8
bulk density cm3 9 8 2 3
Gra
W.T of soil+ container m 143.2 154.4 177.8 80.6
W.T of dry soil+ Gra 141.22 160.01
container m 133.8 9 3 73.574
Gra
W.T of water m 9.4 13.171 17.787 7.1
Gra
W.T of container m 25.6 24.8 25.6 23
Gra 116.42 134.41
W.T of dry soil m 108.2 9 3 49.574
Moisture content % 8.6 11.31 13.23 14.3
g/ 1700.0 1829.8 1959.5 1892.1
Dry density of soil cm3 8 6 6 3
Maximum dry density 1959.56

38
 opw content 13.23
Table 4.2. The results from proctor test for first 500m from origin

Figure 4.1. Compaction curve for proctor test

IV.3.3.2. Conclusion got on compaction test

The laboratory proctor test conducted for four sample, the maximum dry density founded
1959.56g/cm3 and the corresponded optimum water content founded 13.23%, the
optimum water content showed the amount of water to be used on field during
compaction.

IV.3.3. sieve analysis results

IV.3.3.1. The mass of sample used

NO.Sample Sample1 Sample2 Sample3 Sample4

Mass(kg) 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5
Table 4.4. amount of sample used during sieve analysis test

IV.3.3.2. Detail analysis performed for sieve analysis

Sieve Sample1 Sample2 Sample3 Sample4

sizes (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%)
retained Passin retained Passing retained Passing retained passing

39
 g
75mm 0 100 0 100 0 100 0 100
63mm 0 100 8.4 91.6 0 100 9.9 90.1
50mm 10.2 89.8 10.5 89.5 0 100 12.1 87.9
37.5mm 14.3 85.7 15.7 84.3 9.5 90.5 18.9 81.1
28mm 18.7 81.3 18 82 10.8 89.2 25.5 74.5
20mm 22.1 77.9 20.4 79.6 12.9 87.1 29.1 70.9
14mm 24.8 75.2 22.7 77.3 16.3 83.7 32.2 67.8
10mm 27 73 24.6 75.6 19.8 80.2 37.7 62.3
6.3mm 29.1 70.9 27.7 72.3 22.8 77.2 40.8 59.2
5mm 35.4 64.6 33.1 66.9 28.2 71.8 45.1 54.9
3.35mm 39.2 60.8 36.8 63.2 33.9 66.1 52.1 47.9
2mm 45.7 54.3 39.7 60.3 38.3 61.7 57.3 42.7
1.58mm 49.5 50.5 41.3 58.7 44.9 55.1 62.4 37.6
600 μ m 54.2 45.8 44.1 55.89 49.7 50.3 66.5 33.5

425 μ m 58.8 41.2 46.7 53.3 53.9 46.1 73 27

300 μ m 67.3 32.7 48.2 51.2 57.1 42.9 77.8 22.2

212 μ m 69.8 30.2 50.1 49.9 59.2 40.8 82.5 17.5

150 μ m 75.9 24.1 53.5 46.5 63.3 36.7 89.8 10.2

75 μ m 79.01 20.99 55.2 44.8 67.8 32.2 95.3 7.7

Table 4.5. Results from sieve analysis

40
 Figure 4.2. Combined results from sieve analysis

The % of passing on sieve NO 40,10 and 200 during test conducted

Sieve no 40 10 200
% passing 54.3 & 60.3 & 61.7 & 42.7 41.2 & 53.3 & 46.1&27 20.99&44.8&32.2&7.7
Samples 1 & 2& 3 & 4 1&2&3&4 1&2&3&4
Table 4.6. percentage of passing on sieve 40,10 and 2000

After test conducted the decision got place on sieve no 200 according to this conditions or
guideline if % passing on sieve 200 is less than 60 % the soil sample is classified as
gravel according to the % passing on sieve no 200 all were less than the percentage of
60%, so the soil sample 1,2,3 and 4 are gravels.

IV.4. Results from liquid limit test conducted

Sample number 1 2 3 4
Amount collected 250 250 250 250
Units g g g G

41
Table 4.7. Amount of sample used from ateburg limits test

IV.4.1. Detailed results and calculations

Collected sample1 with 250g

Blows 10 15 20 25 30
Wc 19.7 21 23.1 23.8 25.4
Collected sample2 with 250g
Blows 12 16 22 25 28
Wc 21.5 23.6 25.2 26.7 29.9
Collected sample3 with 250g
Blows 15 20 25 28 35
Wc 18.9 23.6 25.1 27.9 29.3
Collected sample4 with 250g
Blows 14 18 22 25 33
Wc 20.1 24.7 26.3 27.9 28.8
Table 4.8. Results from liquid limit test

IV.4.2. Water contents corresponded to 25blows obtained

Sample 1 2 3 4
Blows 25 25 25 25
Wc 23.8 25.7 26.1 27.9
Table 4.9. water content and corresponding blows from liquid limit test

42
 Figure 4.3. Combined results from liquid limit test

The liquid limit for sample 1 founded 23.8 and for sample 2 founded 25.7 and for sample
3 founded 26.1 and for sample 4 founded 27.9, to decide those as liquid limit referred to
the moisture content corresponded to 25 blows.

IV.4.3. Results from plastic limit test

Sample number 1 2 3 4
Blows 25 30 35 37
Mass of empty can +lid(g) 10.2 13.7 11.3 10.8
Mass of can, lid +moist soil(g) 13.8 16.9 14.6 15.6
Mass of can, lid +dry soil(g) 11.2 15.8 12.1 13.9
Mass of tin(g) 8.6 7.3 5.4 5.7
Net Mass of dry soil(g) 2.6 8.5 6.7 8.2
Net mass of moisture soil(g) 5.2 9.6 9.2 9.9
Mass of water or moisture(g) 2.6 1.1 2.5 1.7
Water content(%)
Table 4.10. Results from plastic limit test

41 .2+26 . 9+48 . 4+69 . 5

=133 . 8
Average moisture content(%)= 4

IV.4. 4. Results from CBR test conducted

Collected sample A
Penetration(mm 0 0.63 1.2 2 2.5 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
) 5
Loads(KN) 0 42 57 75 89 112 123 15 178 189 20 230 262
3 1
Collected sample B
Penetration(mm 0 0.63 1.2 2 2.5 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
) 5
Loads(KN) 0 55 67 77 86 98 123 14 167 179 19 230 270

43
 5 9
Collected sample C
Penetration(mm 0 0.63 1.2 2 2.5 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
) 5
Loads(KN) 0 75 87 120 14 162 178 19 215 235 26 280 310
5 0 7
Collected sample D
Penetration(mm 0 0.63 1.2 2 2.5 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
) 5
Loads(KN) 0 81 98 118 13 156 167 18 210 223 23 267 279
2 7 8
Table 4.11. Results from CBR test conducted

Figure 4.4. Combined results from CBR test

The penetration founded on loading 2.5 and 5 were as follow in the table below,
Computation of CBR value respected to loading founded on penetration 5 which
presented in below table and Calculated average for CBR for all samples.

Ps for sample A was 17.8 and for sample B was 18.9 and for sample C was 15.2 and
sample D was 19.01 and pstd for standard soil used was 1.05 where the Ps was stress

44
carried by site soil and pstd was stress carried by standard soil.

11.8
=11.23
 Sample A= 1 .05
14 . 9
=14 .19
 Sample B= 1. 05
13 .2
=12.57
 Sample C= 1 .05
16 .01
=15 .24
 Sample D= 1 .05
11. 23+14 . 19+12. 57+15 . 24
=13 .25
 Calculated average= 4
2
×13.25=8 .83
 Designed CBR= 3

Applied blows Penetration Sample A Sample B Sample C Sample D

153 145 190 187
45 5
Designed CBR
Formula Results(%)
Design CBR= 8.83
2
AVERAGE ×
3

This designed CBR founded exceed about 3.83 for CBR of 5 according to the table of
required thickness based on CBR value, for subgrade in excess of 5% CBR, the required
subbase depth is no greater than 225mm, down to a minimum of 150mm at a subgrade
CBR of 15 % (HD 25/94). According to this theory provided the thickness of sub-grade
+capping layer decided to be 175mm.

IV.4. Results from geometric design

IV.4.1. Design of horizontal parameters

45
 2
60

Calculated min radius(R)=

127 (1006 +0 .15)
Rmin=134.98m

Lmax of transition curve= √ 24×134.98

Lmax=56.91m

2
56 . 91
Shift distance(S)= 24×134 . 98

Shift distance(S)=0.99m ¿ 1m

90×100
cos( )
Setback distance=134.98*1- 3 .14×124 . 98

Setback distance founded to be 10.7984m

According to design speed used 60km/hr the possible minimum radius for horizontal
curve founded 134.98m, maximum length for transition curve founded 56.91m, the
setback distance founded to be 10.7984m and shift distance founded 1m.

IV.4.2. Design of vertical parameters

Design of vertical crest curve of grades (+2.91% and -0.53%

H1=1.5m S=100m

H2=0.2m

2
200 [ √ 1 .5+ √ 0. 2 ]
Minimum length of crest curve(Lmc)=200- 3 . 44

The minimum length of crest curve founded to be 113.457m

Design of sag curve of grades (-1.74% and 1.20%)

46
 2
0 .54×100
Minimum length of sag curve(Lms)= 200 ( 1.5+100 tan 1 )

The minimum length of sag curve founded to be 7.031m

According to the used formula in vertical geometric design the minimum possible crest
curve founded 113.457m and the possible minimum sag curve founded 7.031m and the
length of sag curve under obstacles founded to be

IV.5. Results from structural pavement design

( 1+0 . 07 )20−1
¿ 461 ×1
Calculated of commercial vehicles(TN)=365 0 . 07

The design life traffic=2.101msa used Eq (13)

Calculated of damage factor(D)

t =2030-1945=85

F=244 commercial vehicles in one direction /day

( 0. 35
85 )( 0. 26
D= 0 .93 + 0. 082 0 . 92
)−(
85
3. 9
1 .0
)
244 ÷1550

D= (4.3) (0.26) -(0.81)

D=0.308 used Eq (14)

Calculated cumulative traffic(msa)

N=2.101 x 0.308

N=0.64msa used Eq (15)

According to bituminous road base table the cumulative traffic of 0.64msa is

corresponding to 165mm of roadbase+surfacing, according to logers the surfacing should
5mm with bituminous and road base should be 160mm with granular road base materials

47
According to the thickness of subgrade + capping layer obtained according to CBR value
calculated during CBR test which founded 175mm, the roadway pavement must have
surfacing course of 5mm, road base layer of 160mm and subgrade capping layer of
175mm

Respected to the theory about cumulative axle loading and CBR value determination and
according to the procedures respected during calculation those thickness was sufficient to
resist to axle traffic volume for roadway from Nkomero center to G.S kayove.

Figure 4.5. Pavement structure designed

IV.6. Results from hydraulics design

Table: Intensity duration frequency based on Gishyita stations in western Rwanda

Station Coefficients T=2yrs T=5yrs T=10yrs T=25yrs T=50yrs T=100yrs
Name
Α 743.60 1045.55 841.99 923.06 958.47 1089.51
Gishyita Γ 4.25 7.38 2.03 2.00 0.62 0.62
∁ 0.80 0.83 0.78 0.78 0.77 0.77

48
Table: Regional quantile (mean of stations) for the selected duration
Return 0.5hr 1hr 3hr 6hr 12hr 24hr
period
2yrs 23.1 31.8 38.9 45.7 50.5 52.5
5yrs 27.9 38.2 46.1 54.7 60.0 65.0
10yrs 31.5 42.9 51.4 60.8 68.7 73.1
25yrs 36.1 48.4 57.6 68.7 77.7 83.7
50yrs 40.2 52.8 62.7 74.0 84.9 91.4
100yrs 42.7 57.6 68.4 81.0 93.2 99.3

Annual rain falls based on this station was 1539.5mm

Catchment area obtained by used digitizing method
S/N TOTAL AREA
AREA
2962.
AREA1 94
3789.
AREA2 26
3194.
AREA3 64
3132.
AREA4 07
50.33
AREA5 1
43.15
AREA6 91
50.99
AREA7 25
49.32
AREA8 26
121.1
AREA9 09
AREA1 146.4
0 64
AREA1 103.7
1 6
AREA1 55.33
2 21
AREA1 74.21
3 9
AREA1 102.6
4 69

49
 AREA1 57.11
5 49
AREA1 44.19
6 14
AREA1 100.9
7 86
AREA1 40.35
8 38
AREA1 41.75
9 69
AREA2 211.1
0 61
AREA2 371.7
1 32
AREA2 36.60
2 14
AREA2 370.5 15150.72
3 64 TOTAL 97

The total area obtained was 15150.7297m2

This total catchment area calculated from digitizing of the area where the area of forests,
hause roofs, streets, glasses etc. which were near the roadway respected. This digitizing
performed by used GIS software.
( 923 . 06 )
0. 78
Calculation of max rain fall intensity(I)= ( 83. 7+2 . 00 ) computed respect to 25years as
destiny period so intensity rain fall founded 3.069mm/hr

Calculation of hydrology(Q1)= C×I×A

Q1= 0 .25×0 . 003069 m/ s×15150. 7297 m2

Q1=11.624m3/s
Q2=11.624m3/s x1.4=16.2736m3/s
1 2/3 1/2
×R ×S ×A
According to Q2= n

()
2/3
1 y
2 × ×S1/2 ×1. 73 y 2
If R= and A= 1.73 y the y calculated respect to Q2= n 2
According to highway task force in 1971 the n is varying between 0.010-0.020 when the
channel is with trees, branches submerged at high stage so the n founded 0.015 and the
surface slope of 8%

50
 ()
2/3
1 y
× ×0 .08×1. 73 y 2
16.2736= 0.015 2
y=0.66m where y=66cm
1
=0. 57 %
z= √ 3
0 .66 m
R= =0. 33 m≈33 cm
2
A=1 . 73 ( 0. 66 )2 =0 . 753m2≈7535 cm2
2×0 . 66 m
B= =0 .76 m≈76 cm
√3
According to the procedures respected during computation and the results obtained
decided that the channel parameters equal height of channel(y)=0.66m, area of
channel(A)=0.753m2, Radius of the channel=0.33m and the side slope of 0.57.

Figure: Designed longitudinal side ditch

IV.7. Results from earth work calculation

51
CHAPTER 5. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1. Conclusion

Nkomero-G. S kayove roadway designed to meet the traffic loadings estimated, the
geometric design has been achieved by following AASHTO design procedure and road
note 29 for pavement design. In fact, geometrical parameters such as radius of the curve,
stopping sight distance, vertical curve lengths, setback distance and transition curve
lengths has been calculated using a prepared drafting sheets and calculator to complete
road geometric design parameters, 60 km/hour was chosen as design speed and a
carriageway width of 7m and width of the shoulder 1m.

In addition, this project of roadway involved the selection of appropriate thickness of

pavement structural layers according to traffic loading surveyed on 15 march 2020 , after
pavement design ,the surfacing of pavement founded to be 5mm, the road base of
pavement founded to be 160mm and then subgrade founded to be 175mm and hydraulics
design to ensure that the side longitudinal ditch had a capacity of carrying the rain water
from different areas ,after design the dimensions of longitudinal side ditch founded to be
height was 66cm and width was 76cm and its cross- section area founded to be 7535cm2

52
The results found for geometric design were as follow: minimum horizontal radius was
found to be 134.98m corresponding transition curve was found to be56.91m, stopping site
distance was found to be 59.57m, crest curve length was found to be 113.457m, sag curve
length was found to be 7.031m, according to the results obtained from sieve analysis the
soil was found to be gravel soil, design CBR was found to be 8.83%.

5.2. Recommendations

 During the design and preparation of this project some issues involves due to
different reasons that is why this recommendation provided
 Instruction’s must increase the books related to engineering highway because
during preparation of this project the reference books related to engineering
highway was difficult to get them
 The software lecturers must have more hours of training AutoCAD civil 3 d
because it is a wide software and it have a big part in achieving to the complete
roadway project in addition they have to add Gis.
 The students from civil engineering must read the reports performed related to
roadway projects and work about roadway project because it is a big project with
more skills and knowledge
 The engineering highway lecturers must have the time of training students about
cost estimation of roadway projects because it has long and more techniques and it
is very important in roadway project implementation

53
Appendix 1: Geometric drawings

Appendix 2

A. cost estimation of roadway

ESTIMATED ITEMS COST

54
 Long of roadway=1.720 km
Width of roadway=7m
Location of roadway
District: Rutsiro
Origin: Nkomero and G.S.Kayove
COST OF LABOURS
Labors Numbers Rate($) Days of working Amount($)
Supervisor for 1 195 48 9360
supersion
Operators for 6 153 150 137700
vehicles
Skilled labors 10 132 180 237600
Unskilled labors 8 121 180 174240
Designers for 3 150 180 81000
drawings
Surveyors for 2 148 60 17760
surveying
Masons for 30 122 180 658800
construction
Sub total $
COST FOR EQUIPMENT
Equipment Numbers Rate($) Amount
Bitumen distributor 1 374 374
Road roller(8/10ft) 1 400 400
Loading 1 551 551
shovel(1.5m2)
Tipper truck (5.10ft) 1 411 411
Gritter 1 100 100
Signs and traffic 1 49 49
control

55
 Mechanical broom 1 203 203
Sub total 2,088$
COST FOR MATERIALS
Materials Units/ Price Amount
quantity ($)
Crushed 50 tons 25.50 1,275
stones/aggregates
(11mm)
Bitumen 4 000kgs 20 80,000
Stones for ditch 2000m3 45 90,000
construction
Cements 550kgs 12 6,600
Diesel 80litters 1 80
Sub total 177,955$
General total 148,650,3$

This project completed in 6 months of construction the total cost of all activities and
salaries for workers was one four eight thousand, six five zero hundred and three
(148,650,3$) dollars.

56