REVIEW

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Transparency in Structural Glass Systems Via

Mechanical, Adhesive, and Laminated
Connections - Existing Research and Developments
Chiara Bedon* and Manuel Santarsiero

buildings. This is true, especially when

The consistent architectural transparency demand in buildings is highly extreme loading conditions are expected at
promoting the structural use of glass, in combination or to replace load- the design stage, or could even occur over
bearing components made of traditional constructional materials. Despite its the lifetime of a given structural system, as
well as when single glass components have
huge application in facades, roofs, envelopes, frame components, however,
to interact with structural members, as a
glass still represents a rather innovative and not well-known material, part of full 3D buildings. There, connec-
requiring specific design conceptsm and further extended studies, toward the tions and restraints have a crucial role. As a
fulfillme nt of safe design requirements. A key role in glass systems and general rule, a multidisciplinary approach
assemblies involving multiple components is given to connections. Major and specific fail-safe design criteria, includ-
ing advanced analysis methods able to
issues in their design, consequently, arise from restraining single glazing
account for the intrinsic properties of glass,
elements, as well as from ensuring their mechanical interaction with other are hence required, so that appropriate
constructional systems, as a part of full 3D buildings, including several performance levels could be guaranteed
materials, and various loading/boundary conditions. In this paper, an (i.e.,[1,2]).
overview of typical connection types in use for glass systems is presented, In this paper, careful consideration is
with special consideration for mechanical, adhesive, and laminated adhesive paid for connections, including mechani-
cal, adhesive, and laminated adhesive
connections, giving evidence of their typical applications, evolution, current
solutions in use for glass applications.
design issues. Existing research and major projects are also discussed, both Design concepts and issues are first
at the material/component level as well as at the assembly level. recalled, giving evidence of the intrinsic
features of each connection typology.
Existing research studies and major proj-
ects are then summarized and discussed,
1. Introduction highlighting current developments, and open aspects that still
should be assessed.
The industrialized application in constructions of glass in the
form of load bearing material represents a relatively recent
solution, compared to traditional and consolidated applications
in buildings of timber, steel, concrete, or masonry structural
2. Fundamentals on Structural Glass
members. On one hand, positive arguments related to the Applications
thermal, energy, light, and aesthetic performance of glass lead to 2.1. General Design Concepts
continuously increasing use and design evolution, toward
geometrically complex geometries and mechanical systems, As in the case of structural design in general, the fundamental
see Figure 1. On the other hand, due to the relatively low tensile aspect in designing load-bearing glass systems
giving the
strength and brittle behavior of the same material, as well as due intrinsic material mechanical properties ([1,2] and Section 4)
is
to need to address large deformations or stress peaks under represented by the need of appropriate safety levels. In this
specific loading and boundary configurations, glazing systems regard, past decades gave evidence of a multitude of initiatives
represent a highly fragile and vulnerable component for and research studies focused on specific structural aspects of
glass assemblies, aimed to develop comprehensive design codes
Dr. C. Bedon for real-life applications, and standardized recommendations of
Assistant Professor, University of Trieste, Department of Engineering practical use (i.e.,[2]).
and Architecture, Piazzale Europa 1, 34127 Trieste, Italy The design of structural glass typically involves an iterative
E-mail: chiara.bedon@dia.units.it and multidisciplinary process
from the design concept to the
Dr. M. Santarsiero detailed design and verification prior to construction, which
Structural and R&D Engineer, Eckersley O’Callaghan, London, United combines several methods, that is, approximate calculations,
Kingdom
accurate analytical methods, advanced numerical analyses, and
DOI: 10.1002/adem.201700815 possibly prototype testing.[1] The existing structural design codes

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typically focus on the verification of individual elements,

comparing their response to various load effects with certain
Chiara Bedon is Assistant Professor
performance criteria. In doing so, deterministic (i.e., allowable
of Structural Engineering at
stress based methods), semi-probabilistic (i.e., partial safety
University of Trieste, Department of
factors), full probabilistic approaches (i.e.,[1,3–6]) can be followed.
Engineering and Architecture (Italy),
Two major requirements are commonly associated to structural
where she chairs the Structural
safety of glass elements, including the Ultimate (ULS) and
Analysis course for BSc students.
Serviceability Limit States (SLS), see refs.[7,8] The ULS level
Her research topics and interests
ensures that structural elements have adequate strength to
include structural glass applications
withstand the design actions without fracture or losing stability,

with advanced Finite-Element
whereas SLS focuses on deflections and vibrations. A third
numerical modeling, testing,
verification level, being detected as Collapse Limit State (CLS) is
implementing novel design methods
as well as
also recommended in ref.,[9] to offer appropriate post-failure
structural systems in general (timber, composite steel-
residual resistance and stiffness to a given glass section. Besides
concrete and timber-concrete, hybrid glass, etc.),
the ULS and SLS performance levels, additional requirements
especially under extreme loading conditions (explosions,
particularly relevant in glazing systems are in fact associated
seismic events, fire).
with structural robustness,[10] so to avoid disproportionate
failure in case of any initial damage. According to Bos,[11]
robustness can be achieved at different levels, that is, the Manuel Santarsiero is a Structural
material level (by increasing glass strength through pre-stressing Engineer with experience in advance
treatments), the component level (by adding sacrificial glass probabilistic modeling, numerical
panes), and the structural level (the entire system survives and analysis, structural design and
maintains integrity after collapse of one or more elements). research and development. His
There, special care should be spent for connections enabling the experience focuses on complex
physical interaction between multiple glass components. structures and materials for building
Further attention in design and analysis must be paid, especially and bridge constructions (under
when exceptional loading conditions are expected to occur static, dynamic and seismic actions)
(i.e.,[12–14] etc.). by means of reliability-based
approaches, machine learning and probabilistic analysis.
His interests focus on the non-linear modeling, reliability
3. Connection Types analysis and probabilistic risk assessment of complex
structures and materials, such as glass, steel, concrete,
Due to well-known glass fragility, connections between multiple masonry and timber.
constructional components represent one of major criticalities to
account in glass engineering.[1,2] The main reason is that as a
brittle ceramic material, glass cannot plastically redistribute
possible stress peaks due to external forces, hence both are characterized by local stresses and mechanisms that should
the typical stress field distributions and related peaks should be properly accounted in design. In order to overcome these
be computed with careful attention at the design stage. It also issues, a soft layer plastic material, neoprene, or ethylene
follows that meticulous consideration must be paid to design propylene diene terpolymer (EPDM) is interposed between the
compatible structural details, that is, to allow gradual transfer of metal component and the glass panel, to reduce stress
forces between components as well as compensation
for tolerances and misalignments, or accommoda-
tion of the main building deformations under
extreme events. Based on their mechanisms of load
transfer, structural connections for glass systems
can be divided in four categories: clamped, friction-
grip, bolted, and adhesive connections (Figure 2).

3.1. Clamped, Friction-Grip and Bolted

Connections

Clamped connections are realized by metal parts

that mechanically clamp the edges of a given glass
element. Their key aspect is represented by
minimization of visual impact, hence potentially
allowing to design wide transparent surfaces. On the Figure 1. Examples of glass facades and canopies with point-fixed panels. Reproduced
other hand, such minimization of contact regions with permission [ref.no.4245361324657] Copyright 2017, Springer.

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Figure 2. Scheme of connection typologies used in structural glass applications. a) Clamped; b) bolted; c) bolted with countersunk bolt; d) hybrid with
countersunk bolt; e) adhesive; f) embedded with thick insert; g) embedded with thin insert.

intensification due to hard contact. Clamped connections, in any (LG) panels, since common interlayers are highly susceptible to
case, are a quite common solution for small glass elements with creep and temperature effects. As a result, local aluminum or
minor structural role in buildings. Typical examples for the fiber interlayers can be used to offer appropriate resistance and
application of clamped connections are glass balustrades or stiffness against pre-loading and design actions effects. Their
facades (see Figure 3a,b). There, point connections are used to actual goal is in fact 1) to avoid direct contact between glass and
provide local restraints to glass panels. However, thanks to steel components; 2) to provide a properly rigid support toward
framing members and/or brackets, clamped connections can in-plane and normal stresses due to the assigned loads and bolts
also take the form of linear restraints, hence providing a pre-stress, withstand creep effects in glass interlayers; 3) to allow
continuous translational and rotational support along one or small adjustments of the connection components, that is, to
more edges of a given glass panel. This is the typical case, for offer enough flexibility, hence avoiding local failure mecha-
example, of ‘cap’ systems in glass curtain walls. nisms. Friction-grip connections
taking advantage of their
Friction-grip joints represent another mechanical solution of wide influence surface
can then be efficient also for glass
large use in the design practice of structural glass fins and panels subjected to out-of-plane deformations, since limiting,
facades (i.e., as in the case of the Glasgow Medical School[15]), that is, compared to bolted connectors
the attainment of local
even derived from structural steel design concepts. On the other stress peaks in the vicinity of bolts. Special care should be spent
hand, limited research efforts are currently available in the in their design, in any case, since even a limited bending
literature (see section 5.1). In general terms, compared to point- deformation for a glass panel supported by friction-grip
fixed clamped joints, friction-grip connections take advantage of connectors and mechanical point-fixings in general should be
initial preload of bolts, hence are particularly efficient for properly accommodate and withstand rotational deformations
transmission of in-plane loads (Figure 3c). In addition, stresses and related local stresses, hence avoiding possible local failure
are distributed on a relatively wide surface, hence local peaks in mechanisms.
glass can be minimized. A critical aspect in their load bearing Since 1960s, bolted connections represent for glass applica-
performance is represented by application in laminated glass tions the conventional mechanical point fixing (Figure 4a–c and
refs.[1,16]). Bolted connections are used both for the
fixings of facade glass panels, as well as to provide the
connections between multiple structural glass com-
ponents like, for example, glass columns, fins, beams,
and stiffeners in general. There, glass components
are drilled through thickness and forces are trans-
ferred by means of bolts and plates. Bolted con-
nections can be realized either with standard or
countersunk bolts, with the difference that the latter
requires tapered machining of the hole perimeter.
In both the cases, the use of tempered glass is
usually required, due to the high stress intensifica-
tions occurring close to glass holes. The typical
stress intensification around holes, combined with
the fragile nature of glass, requires particular
attention in design, including tolerances and
thermal movements. For the same reasons, the
on-site assembly phase requires specialized instal-
lers, with high experience in glass-to-metal fixing,
mortar injection, and tolerances adjustments.
Usually, gaps between bolts and glass edges are
filled with either mortar or metallic/polymeric
bushings, so to avoid direct contact between them.
Mortar is usually more efficient to accommodate
Figure 3. Examples of a), b) clamped joints (photos from www.yekaloncurtainwall. edge misalignment at the hole, often due to the
comwww.yekaloncurtainwall.com, Copyright-1997-2014 Yekalon Group), with c) friction- lamination process of multi-layered drilled tem-
grip connection (cross-section detail) (schematic view). pered glass components.

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mechanical and physical properties (see Section 4.3),

hence allowing a wide set of technical solutions and
related performances.
The ultimate mechanical resistance of adhesive
connections can be usually related to three different
failure modes: 1) adherends’ failure (i.e., failure of the
bonded components, e.g., glass or metal parts); 2)
cohesive failure (i.e., failure of the adhesive within the
thickness); and 3) adhesive failure (i.e., failure at the
interface between adhesive and adherend). The latter
mode is the less favorable, because does not allow to
exploit the maximum load capacity of adherends
and adhesive.[20] Adhesive connections can be then
punctual, linear or ‘surface-like’. In surface-like
adhesive connections
often realized by UV curing
transparent adhesive or transparent interlayers
the
forces are transmitted over a large surface. They are
hence typically used to realize corner beam-column
(i.e.,[6]) or beam-beam spliced connections.[21] In
linear adhesive connections, instead, forces are
transferred over a long linear surface. Examples can
be found in Structural Silicon Glazing Systems
(SSGS)[22] and hybrid structural glass components,
Figure 4. a–c) Examples of bolted connections, with d) typical distribution of stresses
such as reinforced beams (i.e.,[23–26]). In terms of
near holes. Photos: a) Copyright 2016 Steel Structures Education Foundation (www.
tboake.comwww.tboake.com); b and c) Copyright 2017 Prisma (www.prisma.sewww. design, for both surface and linear adhesive con-
prisma.se); d) adapted from ref.,[124]
under the terms of the CC-BY 3.0 license, Copyright nections, thermal expansion often represent a critical
2016, Chiara Bedon and Claudio Amadio). issue and a certain adhesive flexibility is often
desirable, especially if exposed to outdoor conditions.
In this context, the mechanical resistance is often less
In terms of design, the computation of stress distribution in critical then thermal expansion, as the large bonded area produces
glass usually requires refined, non-linear Finite Element contact low stress in the adhesive.
analyses, and fine meshing of the glass components, which In punctual adhesive connections (see an example in Figure 5
results in high modeling and computation cost. and refs.[27–29]), conversely, forces are transmitted over a small
Analytical formulations of practical use are also convention- bonded area, which results in an increased transparency of the
ally applied, based on classical theories of literature.[17–19] There, connection. However, due to the reduced bonding area, high
local effects are taken into account by means of an intensification mechanical resistance of the adhesive is usually desirable.
factor K inclusive of the effects deriving from the hole diameter, Examples of punctual adhesive connections are adhesive point-
its position from glass edges, glass panel thickness, etc. In fixing (Figure 2e) and embedded laminated connections
accordance with Figure 4d, for example, the maximum tensile (Figure 2f,g).
stress values achieved in the glass panel can be calculated as: Adhesive connections tend to exhibit a more complex
behavior, compared to bolted and clamped connections, which
PK t is a function of several parameters. Their mechanical response is
σ max ¼ ; where½17 ð1Þ
t  ð2c
dÞ indeed dependent on the temperature, load duration, aging,
loading condition, surface preparation, chemical properties of
the surfaces, and several other aspects. At the same time,
   2
d d differing from bolted fixings, adhesive connections are also
K t ¼ 12:882
52:714  þ 89:762  typically characterized by a series of advantages, being related
2c 2c
 3 both to their mechanical performance as well as to their
d

51:667  ð2Þ production process. For example, it is in fact established that
2c
adhesive connections 1) can transfer the incoming forces over a
represents one of the existing analytical formulations. distributed region, coinciding with the full bonded area, hence
avoiding possible contact stress intensification effects. In
addition, their production stage is advantageous, compared to
3.2. Adhesive Connections bolted joints, since 2) the drilling process and the consequent
reduction of the reference glass strength values close to the hole
Adhesive connections (Figure 2e–g) are commonly composed by edges is avoided. For the same reason, 3) the residual stress field
bonding glass components either to metal parts or to other glass distribution due to the tempering treatment is unaltered, at the
components, by means of adhesives materials. These adhesive connection. Once the glass system is realized, moreover, 4) its
polymeric materials are typically characterized by broad range of architectural flushness is enhanced, since metal parts do not

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metal component, the adhesive layer and the glass

elements to bond are then placed in the vacuum bag
and a standard autoclave process to fabricate the
component with the connection. Indeed, at the end
of the lamination process, the result takes the form
of a glass assembly in which the metal part is fully
bonded to glass, via a transparent adhesive layer.
The so achieved “standard” laminated adhesive
connections (Figure 6a) can be distinguished from
Figure 5. Examples of punctual adhesive connections. Reproduced from ref.[29] under “embedded” laminated connections. In the latter
the terms of the CC-BY-X license, Copyright 2014, IOS Press. case, a thick (Figure 2f) or thin (Figure 2g) metal part
is embedded within the laminated components
(Figure 6b). Thin embedded connections often
pass through the entire glass thickness, thus ensuring a require the use of multiple foils of interlayers between two
continuous external surface without discontinuity. Finally, the glass plates, that is, to compensate the thickness of the metal
overall thermal performance of glazing systems can take further plate, while in thick embedded connections this is not necessary,
advantage from adhesive connections, since 5) thermal bridges since the metal inserts have the same thickness as the middle
and losses are minimized (i.e., due to lack of metal components glass panel. In the case of thick inserts, the embedment of metal
passing through the glass thickness); and 6) gas losses typically inserts also requires to cut a slot in the middle glass plate, which
occurring in IGU bolted panels are also markedly reduced (i.e., is usually done by a numerically controlled machine, hence
since the glass panels are not drilled). Following the 1)–5) needing careful attention to the quality of glass edges. A main
motivations here summarized, the use of adhesive connections advantage of laminated connections is that, once the lamination
in structural glass applications has been already considered very process is concluded, the structural glass component is complete
promising in the last years. Major efforts have been derived from and ready for metal-to metal parts on-site installation on site.
extensive investigations carried out by several research insti- Compared to other connection typologies, neither bonding nor
tutes, to assess their mechanical behavior (see Sections 4 and 5). drilling nor mortar injection is hence required. Key peculiarities
It is worth pointing out that in the last years, a novel typology of of laminated connections are in fact 1) the fully transparency of
enhanced adhesive connections, known as laminated adhesive the adhesive; 2) the simple preparation and application
connections (Figure 2e,f), has been also emerged and identified as processes, if compared to other bonding technologies; and 3)
of promising performances, as also described more in detail in the semi-automatic glass manufacturing process, that is, actually
Section 3.3. well known by most of glass manufactures.

3.3. Laminated Adhesive Connections 4. Materials in Glass Connections

As known, glass is a constructional material with typical tensile
Laminated adhesive connections (recognized also as laminated
brittle behavior, but moderate compressive resistance, with up to
connections) are characterized by the same fabrication process of
1000 MPa its theoretical value.[1,2] Given a nominal modulus
LG components.
of elasticity (MOE) of 70 GPa, glass is also relatively heavy
LG elements are composed by assembling several glass layers
(2500 kg m
3 its nominal density), with respect to other
bonded together by means of adhesive transparent plastic
materials of common use for claddings and facades. When
materials (interlayers), see ref.[1] There, the adhesives are
compared to traditional materials for construction, glass is
produced in solid thin foils (nominal thickness 0.38–
1.52 mm), rather than in liquid or semi-liquid cartridges as in
the case of other bonding technologies. Typical interlayers are
Ethylene Vinyl Acetate (EVA), Poly Vinyl Butyral (PVB), and
1
transparent Ionomers (i.e., SentryGlas , SG). The final product
obtained from lamination, which can be performed with or
without vacuum-bag, depending on the size of the glass element,
on the geometry, presence of inserts, size of the autoclave, and
other factors
is a fully transparent multi-layered glass
component (non-transparent options are also available on the
market). Even if the use of a vacuum bag is more expensive,
generally it results in high quality lamination and reduces the
risk of air-bubble inclusion.
The main concept at the base of the standard production
process for laminated connections lies in the use the same
principle of LG elements to realize adhesive joints (see Figure 6).
Commonly, a solid foil of transparent adhesive material is Figure 6. Fabrication scheme for a) laminated adhesive connections and
in fact placed between a metal connector and glass panel. The b) embedded laminated connections.

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associated to a MOE-to-density ratio (28) in the same order of properties of hybrid mortars (2.8 GPa the modulus of elasticity,
steel, aluminum and even timber. In accordance with actual 70 MPa the 28-day compressive strength) or epoxy resins
design methods (Section 2) and material properties, however, in (1.7 GPa and 65 MPa the reference elasticity modulus and
most of the cases nominal values of glass tensile resistance compressive resistance values).
represent the major influencing parameter for the ULS design of Finally, it is worth to notice that the chemical compatibility
a given system. This effect derives from limited tensile resistance between different materials in contact to each other (e.g., mortar,
value, lying in the order of 45 MPa for simple annealed float glass bushing materials, interlayer polymers, and silicons) it is of

even thermal or chemical treatments can provide beneficial relevant important in the choice of intermediate material for
pre-stressing effects (up to 70 or 120 MPa)
as well as from the bolted connections. In that regards, specific compatibility tests
high sensitivity of such tensile resistance value to a series of are often performed before construction, especially when new
geometrical and mechanical aspects, including the presence of material are used.
holes, edge treatments, size, and thickness of glass, loading
condition (time, distribution), etc.
In the case of a given point-fixed bolted, adhesive, or 4.2. Adhesive Connections Materials
laminated connection, the interaction between glass elements
and stiffer steel joint components is hence ensured via structural In adhesive materials for structural glass bonding applications,
details that are mainly optimized to avoid local failure the conventional curing process (i.e., development of adhesion
mechanisms in the glass layers, including cracking close to force and full mechanical strength) and the related chemical
hole edges, or crushing phenomena. reactions, can be activated by

1) moisture or additive, in one or two components adhesives

4.1. Bolted Connections Materials 2) UV-light, in the so called UV-cured adhesive
3) lamination process, in laminated adhesive connections.
Since bolted connections are expected to transfer loads between
glass components by means of metal connectors through holes Humidity activated curing adhesives are often one-compo-
in the glass, additional materials are usually interposed between nent adhesive such as non-structural silicones and others. These
glass and metal parts, in order to 1) compensate fabrication and materials are usually characterized by a medium-viscosity to
installation tolerances and 2) mitigate the arise of stress facilitate their applications, and the curing requires the moisture
concentration at the hole edge, due to direct metal-glass to penetrate the adhesive material. Because of this reason, the
contacts. It should be noticed that neither too soft nor too suggested maximum depth-thickness is around 1:2–1:3, other-
hard material are necessary the most suitable solution, in bolted wise the moisture would not reach the core of the material. Two
connections. Instead, suitable materials that exhibit a good components adhesives, because of the catalyzer part, are instead
compromise between compliance and resistance are usually characterized by shorter curing time and more pronounced
individuated by means of experimentally and numerical studies. depth-thickness ration are possible. Typical mechanical proper-
Polymeric materials or soft aluminum plates are a typical ties are reported in ref.[29] UV-cured polymers are characterized
example of such intermediate materials, which can be used by very low viscosity and
compared to other adhesives
are
when small tolerance need to be accommodated in the hole, or usually applied in very thin layers. The curing chemical reaction
the magnitude of load transfer is rather low. Comparative studies is activated by UV-light, and commonly accelerated by UV-lamps,
on the mechanical performances of these soft layer materials can which allows to develop the full mechanical performance in a
be found in refs.,[30,31] while further experimental extended relatively short time. Investigation on the mechanical behavior of
assessment is reported also in refs.,[32–34] where the effects of bulk materials for UV-cured adhesive connection can be found in
different bushing types and/or geometrical features on the refs.[35,36]
overall structural performance of bolted joints have been
explored.
In most of the cases, polyoxymethylene (POM) or polyamide 4.3. Adhesive Materials for Laminated Adhesive
(PA) layers represent a widely used solution, being characterized Connections
by limited modulus of elasticity (1.6–3.2 MPa the typical range
for POM and PA, and up to 9–10 MPa for glass-fiber reinforced Currently, two adhesive materials are mainly used for laminated
solutions only). It is also worth to mention that the Shore connections in glass applications, and generally detected as 1)
Hardness commonly represents in industry a key parameter to the Transparent Structural Silicon Adhesive (TSSA)
from Dow
1
specify suitable materials for bolted connections. Corning
and 2) the SentryGlas (SG) ionomer from Kuraray,
When larger tolerances need to be accommodated in the glass see Sections 4.3.1 and 4.3.2.
holes (such as in multi-layer LG tempered glass panels) or when
large load need to be transferred via glass holes, injectable
mortar material are used. The latter indeed, thanks to their 4.3.1. TSSA Material for Laminated Adhesive Connections
low viscosity before curing, are able to better accommodate
tolerance and distribute load in a more uniform manner than The TSSA material consists in a Transparent Structural Adhesive
simple gaskets or bushing materials. In ref.,[30] some compara- Silicon, being currently produced by Dow Corning, and
tive results are reported, giving evidence of mean mechanical commercialized since few years only for the realization of

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laminated connections in structural glass applications. The environment with controlled humidity and temperature values.
major difference between such a novel TSSA solution and All the basic components (i.e., the glass, the SG foil and the
standard silicon adhesives already used for glass structural metal parts) are then located in a vacuum bag and subjected to
systems lies in the enhanced mechanical performance. In the standard autoclave process (135  C and 12 bar for a
accordance with earlier research investigations, it is in fact minimum of 60 min). Subsequently, to achieve a good
actually recognized that TSSA generally offers higher stiffness lamination quality, a key role is assigned to the cooling phase,
and strength capacities than standard silicon. It is worth that should be generally performed with a minimum rate of
pointing out that despite such well promising material 2–3  C min
1. In accordance with several research studies on
properties, TSSA is not intended neither for embedded material properties at room temperature,[43–50] SG material is
laminated connections nor for LG components in general,[37] dependent on the applied strain rate, with higher strength at
and it actually finds exclusive application in metal-to-glass high strain rate. Limited results are indeed available to
adhesive laminated connections, glued to the glass surface. characterize its mechanical response at different temper-
TSSA is a one-component addition-cured silicon, with no by- atures.[51] SG also exhibits good edge stability and enhanced
products, characterized by nano-silica, and cross-linked poly- durability, compared to other interlayer materials for glass.
mers. The curing chemical reaction occurs between Si–H Literature studies on material include in fact ageing effects on
containing polymers and Si–Vinyl containing polymer in SG,[52–57] both under artificial and natural weathering.
the presence of platinum with addition cure hydrosilylation
(Si–H þ Si–Vinyl ¼ Si–CH2–CH2–Si). TSSA has
within the
range of
20/ þ 80  C[22]
a typically amorphous structure 5. Existing Research on Small-Scale
since crystallization, that occurs below
55  C. Its mechanical Components and Materials
stiffness is stable against temperature variation, given its glass
transition temperature being around
120  C. Rheometry tests 5.1. Clamped, Friction-Grip and Bolted Connections
reported in ref.[27] showed that 90% of the full mechanical
capacity is achieved after 15 min at 130  C. In any case, A large number of research studies has been focused, especially
minimum 1 h is generally recommended to ensure uniform over the last two decades, on the load bearing performance of
curing. Another intrinsic feature of TSSA material is finally mechanical joints for glass applications, by means of small-scale
represented by the so-called “whitening effect” (see Section experiments, numerical modeling, and analytical derivations
5.3.1). Such a phenomenon is strictly related to a material color able to provide appropriate knowledge to relatively recent design
change, as a function of the imposed stress field, and namely applications in buildings.
shows TSSA going from fully transparent, reference color, to Despite the huge interest of researchers, however, limited
white color as far as maximum stresses in it exceed a certain studies are still available in the literature for friction-grip
value. Accordingly, once these stresses are removed, the material connections. In ref.,[58] the performance of friction-grip
goes back to transparent color. connections has been experimentally assessed, including
variations in temperature (10 , 25  C) and time of imposed
pre-compression (minimum 1 min, up to 10 h). The typical
4.3.2. Sentry Glas Material for Laminated Adhesive specimen (55 in total) consisted of a AN or FT small glass plate
Connections (300  200  10 mm), interposed to two aluminum (soft 1050
alloy type) plates (30  30  3 mm). An analytical exponential
1
Differing from TSSA material, SentryGlas (SG) consists in a curve was derived to fit measured friction coefficients due to
transparent ionomer polymer, which is actually largely used in quasi-static shear loads. No soft layers were interposed at the
LG applications in the form of interlayer foils. Given a glass glass-to-metal face. Later on, in ref.,[59] an extended FE
transition temperature in the range of 50–55  C,[38,39] compared investigation was carried out on double line friction-grip
to PVB and EVA, SG already proved, in fact, to offer a limited connections, taking advantage of frictional tests presented in
sensitivity to time-loading and temperature, including a ref.[58] Variations in stress distribution around holes, as well as
generally higher stiffness, an enhanced durability and an higher expected failure pattern in glass plates was discussed via
mechanical resistance (Section 5.3.2). parametric FE studies, based on validation of reference FE
In general terms of chemical composition, ionomer polymers models toward small-scale experiments. Further experiments
belong to the category of polyelectrolytes,[40] or more generally were proposed in ref.,[60] to assess the mechanical performance
are recognized as polymeric materials with mechanical perfor- of novel friction-grip specimens. Despite several influencing
mance linked to the strengthening effect offered by the presence parameters were taken into account through the quasi-static
of ionic groups, their interaction, and the formation of ionic friction test program (i.e., 4 different materials for the gasket
aggregates.[41] It is indeed the attraction between ionic groups layers, as well as different cross-section features for the glass
and the subsequent cross-links between polymeric chains panes, the testing temperature (20  C, 40  C) and the acclimati-
that enhances the physical properties and the mechanical zation time before testing (1 h, 60 h)), a limited number of
response of the polymer.[42] SG is fabricated in foils with nominal experiments was carried out only (12 in total), hence suggesting
thickness of 0.72, 0.89, and 1.52 mm. For the fabrication of LG further extended investigations.
connections, a SG foil can be simply placed between metal parts Special care should be spent especially to assess long-term
and glass plates (the application of silane primer is often effects on the load bearing capacity of such connections,
recommended). The assemblage is performed in dust-free including interlayer viscous phenomena and ageing. In ref.[60] it

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was shown, in particular, that creep-related effects in LG systems

with friction-grip connections can be properly limited by
spending careful attention for gaskets (i.e., Figure 3c). To this
aim, comparative test results were reported for specimens with
gaskets composed of styrene butadiene rubber, nylon or
polyoxymetheylene(-copolymer), giving evidence of the overall
effects of such connections details.
The majority of existing research studies is focused on bolted
connections, due to critical role of local stresses in their design.
Overend[61] first assessed the load bearing performance of bolted
joints, including extended FE solid models and giving evidence
of major input parameters (shape of bolt and hole, closeness of
fit, ratio of hole diameter and distance from plate ends, stiffness
of gaskets, etc.) on the corresponding stress distributions in
glass. Later on,[62] he proposed a computer algorithm for
optimized design of bolted connections. Maniatis[31] extensively
explored, via experiments and numerical modeling, the in-plane
response of bolted connections.
As far as bolted joints are used in tempered glass panes, where
residual stresses should be taken into account due to
manufacturing processes, combined effects of initial non-
uniform stresses and stress patterns due to external loads
should be properly accounted. In this regard, Bernard and
Daudeville explored by testing and FE simulation the load-
bearing performance of special bolted joints, see ref.[63] and
Figure 7a. Bolted tempered glass connections were investigated
also in refs.[64,65] As a common issue of most of the existing Figure 7. Research on bolted connections, in accordance with a) Bernard
research studies, analytical formulations of practical use were and Daudeville (figures adapted from ref.[63] with permission [ref. no.
proposed by several researchers, to account for the actual 4201940612283] Copyright 2017, Elsevier) and b) experimental tests from
distribution of stresses near glass holes, see for example.[66–70] Mocibob (figure adapted from ref.[72] with permission [ref. no.
Mocibob[71,72] assessed experimentally and numerically the in- 4245290198780] Copyright 2017, Elsevier).
plane load bearing performance of small-scale bolted joints
consisting of M20 stainless steel bolts and small HS glass plates
(200  500 mm), including variations in the resisting section Later on, a large screening of potential adhesive materials has
features (6 mm, 2  6 mm þ 1.52 mm PVB, or 2  8 mm þ 1.52 been performed at the University on Ghent, Belgium, with
mm PVB), as well as accounting for small eccentricities in the particular focus on durability.[79–82] One of the main objectives
imposed compressive loads. The typical failure mechanism and was to identify suitable materials for adhesive connections in
propagation in glass was hence explored, see Figure 7b. glass applications. More specifically, the mechanical resistance
of a large number of single-lap joint samples was investigated.
The connections were exposed to several cycles of accelerated
5.2. Adhesive Connections aging, namely 4 and 12 weeks exposition to 90% RH and 50  C.
Tests were performed at room temperature (see Figure 8b) and
Because of their enhanced features when compared to bolted their resistance compared to the one of not-exposed samples.
connections (e.g., reduced stress intensification and increased Among others, epoxy, MS polymers, and laminated adhesive
transparency), research on adhesive connections has been connections showed potential for further investigations.
exponentially increasing in the last few years. Studies on Following this study, more specific research was further
adhesive connections for glass applications can be found from performed on adhesively bonded point-fixing,[29,81] with care for
early 2000s, including research at the material
UV curing two materials only (MS polymer, i.e., modified silane
and
included
as well as at the component level (i.e.,[73–76] etc.). epoxy adhesive), see Figure 8c. The study involved both
Different types of adhesives were initially investigated as experimental and numerical analysis of connections under
potential application in glass-to-glass connections. The mechan- different load conditions. It was shown that carefully designed
ical resistance of the adhesive joint was studied, for example, in adhesive connections can exhibit satisfactory yet complex
refs.[77,78] at different temperature and loading conditions (see mechanical performance, which can be well described by
Figure 8a). Initial experimental assessment on their long-term numerical modeling. This can lead to the glass being the weak
behavior were also carried out by means of creep tests, where the part of the glass components rather than the adhesive
mechanical response of adhesive joints subjected to constant connections. Further research on epoxy adhesive was also
load was monitored over time. Finally, a full-scale glass dome performed in refs.,[83–87] including coupled numerical and
prototype has been built using glass-to-glass, epoxy-based, experimental studies on small scale samples, to investigate their
connection. mechanical behavior and stress distribution under shear and

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have been performed, including small scale samples

in different load conditions and geometry, as well as
full-scale samples (i.e., adhesively bonded canopy
and beams). Some full-scale prototypes has been
also exposed to out-door conditions, in order to
investigated any aging effect, as also reported.
Further research on UV cured point adhesive
connections can be found in the work of Puller
and Sobek.[94]

5.3. Laminated Adhesive Connections

5.3.1. TSSA Laminated Connections

TSSA single lap joints at room temperature were

tested in refs.[79–82] after accelerated aging protocols.
Based on comparative experimental observations,
TSSA connections were selected, among a set of
different solutions, as a well promising candidate for
the realization of adhesive connections. Major
benefits proved to derive
compared to other
connection types
from their typically high
durability and mechanical strength, especially with
Figure 8. Tests on adhesive connections, including a) different temperature [78] respect to silicon-based connections. In refs.,[27,95]
(reproduced with permission, Copyright 2012, Anneliese Hagl, Oliver Dieterich, experimental tests on TSSA single lap joints and T-
Andreas Wolf, Sigurd Sitte); b) shear tests on single lap; and c) tensile tests (figures peel specimens were reported to assess their
reproduced from ref.[80] with permission [ref. no. 4245291127819] Copyright 2017, mechanical performance at room temperature.
Springer). The collected experimental results generally gave
evidence of major influencing parameters in the
mechanical response of TSSA, and in particular
tensile loads. Generally speaking, results indicated that epoxies emphasized how the TSSA mechanical response
differing
adhesive are usually characterized by considerable durability and from other materials
is characterized by a rather good balance
mechanical strength. However, especially in the case of stiff between flexibility and load carrying capacity. In refs.,[96,97]
adhesive, stress intensification in the materials should be circular TSSA connections were then tested under tensile and
carefully computed and, where possible, mitigated. shear loads (see Figure 11). Also in this case, the experiments
The use of silicon materials as adhesives for glass connections were mainly performed at room temperature, under, and
has been also largely studied. Silicon was used for both linear[84] assigned constant displacement rate. Limited experimental
(Figure 9a) and point connections (i.e.,[86,87–90] etc., and results were also reported, from the same investigation, for
Figure 9b). Although characterized by low mechanical resis- TSSA specimens under different temperature conditions. The
tance, silicon adhesive connections allow more flexibility in the latter experimental outcomes
even limited in number
gave
system, which is of great advantage when dealing with evidence of temperature sensitivity of TSSA, hence suggesting
phenomena like thermal expansion and building movements. the need of further investigations, so to properly assess their
In addition, thanks to their chemical composition, they tend to actual resistance. Finally, further efforts were spent to
develop strong chemical bond with glass and metal surface. As experimentally assess TSSA bulk material specimens, with
such, silicon adhesive connections are by nature characterized by careful consideration for its performance at room temperature
high durability performance.[88] and under constant displacement rates.
All the above-mentioned studies focused on adhesive glass Also in ref.,[98] the aging of TSSA connections was more
connections characterized by an opaque optical appearance. extensively assessed via experimental testing. In doing so,
However, given the transparency of glass material, several circular point-fixing connections were subjected to both outdoor
research programs have been focused on transparent adhesive exposition and accelerated aging protocols. Accelerate aging
connections. There, a commonly used material is the so-called protocols included 1) UV radiation, 2) water immersion, as well
UV-cured adhesive polymer (Figure 10). Because of their typical as 3) high temperature cycling. The obtained results typically
thickness and low viscosity, the fabrication process of UV- showed that the TSSA performs well even after aging exposition,
bonded adhesive connections can be rather complex and often as expected for silicon material because of its high energy SI–O
requires and experience workmanship and dedicated tools.[91] bonds.[99]
Several research works can be found in literature on UV-cured In ref.,[100] the mechanical behavior of circular TSSA
[92,93]
adhesive connections. In the works from Weller, (etc), for connections were then further investigated, with particular
example, extensive experimental and numerical investigations focus
through the experimental study
on the TSSA

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Figure 9. Adhesive silicon for a) linear (figure adapted from ref.[84] with permission [ref. no. 4202020945486] Copyright 2017, Elsevier) or b) point-fixing
applications (see ref.[86] for further details); reproduced with permission, Copyright 2008, Lucio Blandini.

whitening phenomenon. These tests were performed under on to assess the mechanical behavior of TSSA connections (see
[50,96,97,101]
room temperature and constant displacement rate conditions. refs. ), including extensive analytical, numerical, and
Additional aging and cycling tests were then also performed. experimental studies. Careful attention was spent especially to
Based on such experimental observations, it was shown that the study the mechanical response of TSSA connections under the
whitening phenomenon generally occurs at consistent values of effects of variable strain-rate and temperature conditions. In
nominal stresses. Furthermore, is was also observed that the particular, TSSA connections were tested under tensile, shear,
whitening location strictly depends on the diameter and adhesive and combined loading configurations, including further uniaxial
thickness. Further analytical studies and accurate numerical bulk material tests. The obtained experimental results typically
investigations were hence suggested as a further extension of proved a complex stress-distribution in the adhesive layers,
earlier research studies, so to provide a mechanical interpreta- especially when subjected to tensile loading, due to large
tion to such effects. Following the TSSA preliminary observa- condiment effects. In addition, the occurrence of a consistent
tions here recalled, more extensive studies was performed later whitening effect was also observed, which generally resulted to
be a function of the stress tensor configuration, that
is, to be a function of the connection geometry and
loading configuration for testing.
In this regard, it should be noticed that even if
extensive experimental and numerical work can be
found in literature on different type of adhesive
connections, research literature still lacks of infor-
mation about failure criteria. Among the few
available research efforts, Santarsiero’s work fo-
cused on the mechanical strength and failure
prediction of TSSA connections under different
strain-rate, temperature and loading conditions and
a novel generalized failure criterion was developed
for isotropic adhesive connections.[101,102] The main
Figure 10. UV-bonded joints, in accordance with ref[36]: a) example of glass-to-metal advantage of such a failure criterion is that it also
connection and b) variations in geometrical properties (after test). Reproduced with allows to compute the adhesive mechanical resis-
permission under the terms of CC-BY 3.0 license, Copyright 2009, Iris Vogt. tance under any generic configurations of the stress

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[96]
Figure 11. TSSA laminated adhesive connection tests. a) Shear test ad different temperature, as investigated in ref. (figure reproduced with permission
[ref. no. 4202021395501] Copyright 2017, Elsevier); with b) SG laminated connection; or c) TSSA laminated connection respectively during tensile tests,
[97]
in accordance with ref. (figures b and c) reproduced with permission [ref. no. 4202030231510] Copyright 2017, Elsevier).

tensor, that is, general geometrical features and loading 5.3.2. SG Laminated Connections
condition. The predicted failure criterion was further validated
by tensile-torsion tests, where variable torque-tensile force ratio Studies on the resistance of SG laminated connections are rather
were simultaneously applied to TSSA specimens. limited (Figure 12). Early exploratory tests on SG laminated

[96]
Figure 12. SG embedded laminated connections: numerical-analytical study under shear loading (figures reproduced from ref. with permission from
Elsevier [ref. no. 4245300041922]).

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[113,114]
Figure 13. Study on small-scale SG embedded laminated connection under pull-out forces (see refs. for further details). Reproduced with
permission, Copyright 2013, Manuel Santarsiero and Christian Louter.

connections bonded to the glass surfaces were performed by failure prediction of SG connections at different strain-rate,
[103]
Peters in ref. for the fabrication of a structurally bonded temperature, and loading conditions. A novel generalized failure
transparent stair. There, a rectangular metal connector was criteria was then developed also for SG connections.[101,102] In
bonded to the surface of a LG panel, while room temperature comparison to TSSA connections, the presented model proved to
tests were performed by clamping the glass panel and applying be characterized by huge analytical complexity, due to the
tensile force to the metal connection. Results showed how glass pronounced non-liner effects of temperature variation. As a
failure often governs the maximum capacity of such connec- major outcome, the so detected SG failure criteria allows to
tions. In the work performed by Belis and his collaborators compute the mechanical resistance for generic configurations of
(i.e.,[79,81,82]), as also early recalled, SG specimens were indicated the stress tensor, and
similarly to TSSA
was validated by

among other types
as well promising candidate for adhesive tensile-torsion tests.
connections. Watson[83] carried out an extensive experimental Several authors investigated then embedded laminated
investigation, including single lap connections with different connections with thin metal inserts. In the research studies of
adhesive and interlayers, among which SG. The collected test Puller,[44,94,104] a thin metal plate was embedded within the
results showed that SG connections exhibit, compared to other interlayer of a LG panel. Multiple foils of SG interlayer were
possible solutions, the largest load carrying capacity, and that the stacked on top of each other to realize the connections. Tests
latter is often governed and limited by glass failure. Limited were performed by placing the edge of the glass panel against a
experimental research efforts are indeed available in the reaction metal frame and the metal plate was then pulled out.
literature for SG connections at different temperatures. In this The so obtained experimental results showed that temperature
regard, preliminary results of numerical parametrical analyses generally causes a variation in the mechanical response of the
[28,29]
performed in refs. showed that the stress state distribution in connection, with a severe change of the maximum load-carrying
SG laminated connections is rather complex and that the full capacity at high temperatures. The same results also showed
three-dimensional stress and strain tensor must be properly that, at room temperature, the maximum capacity of the
considered for an appropriate description of the adhesive stress connection can be limited by the plastification of the metal
state. Stress peaks of the non-linear field distribution proved in insert, depending on the metal grade. In the work of
fact to be strongly dependent on the material properties and Carvalho,[105–107] a thin metal plate was also embedded within
temperature regime. the interlayer of a LG system. Connections with PVB and SG
Similarly to TSSA connection, an extensive study was interlayers were studied embedding normal and perforated
performed to assess the mechanical behavior of circular SG metallic plates.
connections (see refs.[50,96,97,101]), including analyti-
cal, numerical, and experimental analyses, with
major attention for the effects of strain-rate and
temperature variable conditions. Based on a wide set
of experiments on SG connections under tensile,
shear, and combined loading, including uniaxial
bulk material tests, the collected results indicated a
complex stress-distribution in the adhesive, espe-
cially under tensile loading, due to large condiment
effects.
In comparison to TSSA connections, SG con-
nections generally exhibit larger mechanical resis-
tance (at low and room temperature), but
temperature variation was observed to induce a Figure 14. Failure pattern of bolt supported glass systems, as reported a) in ref.[115] for a
more pronounced non-linear effect on the ultimate balustrade under impact (reproduced with permission, Copyright 2015, Kinga Nehme,
resistance, as well as to strongly affect the Salem Georges Nehme, Andreas Jakab) or b) in refs. [116,117]
for a point fixed glass panel
corresponding failure mode. As per TSSA, particular under fire (figure adapted from ref.[117] with permission [ref. no. 4201970631669]
focus was paid on the mechanical strength and Copyright 2017, Elsevier).

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6. Overview of Existing Research and

Applications on Full-Scale Systems
and Projects
6.1. Clamped, Friction-Grip, and Bolted
Connections

Despite the large use of mechanical point fixings for

glazing systems, a rather limited number of full
scale academic research is actually available in the
literature, and most of them are related to bolted
connections only. In addition, due to the intrinsic
fragility and vulnerability of such details, several
investigations are focused on the overall perfor-
mance of specific structural systems under excep-
tional or extreme loading conditions.
In ref.,[115] for example, the impact performance
of a glass balustrade was explored experimentally
and numerically. Soft body impact tests were carried
out in accordance with current standards and
regulations,[116,117] by varying the drop height (up
to 1200 mm). A rather close correlation was found
between experimentally observed failure mecha-
nism (occurring for drop heights larger than
Figure 15. Numerical modeling of glass assemblies with mechanical point fixings. 900 mm only) and corresponding FE predicted
Examples of a) IGU panel in bending (see refs.[126,127] for further details; figures adapted
[127] stresses in glass (see Figure 14a), with crack
with permission from ref., under the therms of a CC-BY-NC 4.0 International License,
propagation originating from holes.
Copyright 2015, Journal of Facade Design and Engineering) and b) cable-supported
facade, in accordance with ref. [133]
(figures adapted with permission [ref. no. Mechanical point fixings have a crucial role for
4201941463843] Copyright 2017, Elsevier). glazing systems also in terms of thermal perfor-
mance. In refs.,[118,119] the sensitivity of thermal
shock and fracture pattern was experimentally
In accordance with Carvalho’ design concept, a similar investigated for glass panels under fire, see Figure 14b, by
connection can be found in the internal glass ceiling of the varying the position of fixings, giving evidence of the observed
Zurich Stadtbad, see ref.[108] Marinitsch[109,110] also investigated crack pattern. A full-scale fire experiment was reported in
a connection detail for folded plate structures made of glass ref.,[120] for a LG wall assembled with special fire-resistant gel
laminates, being composed of triple LG sections incorporating infills, and mechanical point fixings as restraints to connect the
metal inserts within the interlayer thicknesses. Based on glazing system to a metal frame.
experimental and numerical studies, it was preliminary shown Under seismic events, a crucial issue is represented by the
that the proposed design connection
consisting of
can be capacity of a given point fixed glass system to accommodate the
effective for structures with up 15 m span. Current design overall deformations of the primary building it belongs. As such,
challenges and open questions are mainly related to durability the in-plane performance of point supported glass panels has been
and temperature dependency issues, hence suggesting further assessed in refs.,[121–123] including full-scale experiments and
experimental studies.
Although several research effort can be found on
embedded connections with thin metal plate,
limited experimental investigations are instead
available in the literature on embedded connections
with thick metal plate.[111] Parametric numerical
studies can be found, for example in refs.,[112,113]
while more extensive experimental and numerical
investigation at different temperatures is reported
in refs.,[113,114] see Figure 13. There, the specimens
were made of three-ply laminated connection with
thick metal insert embedded in the inner layer. The
experimental and numerical studies allowed to
Figure 16. Structural glass projects with bolted connections or clamped fittings, respectively.
understand the complex stress state in the connec- a) La Villette (Paris, France), Peter Rice (see ref.[135] for further details; figure reproduced from
tion, how this changes at different temperature and ref.[16] with permission [ref. no. 4245351406428] Copyright 2017, Elsevier) and b) Munich
how this effect the connection failure mode and Airport Facade Hilton
former Hotel Kempinski (Munich, Germany; figure reproduced with
fracture pattern. permission [ref. no. 4201941463843] Copyright 2017, Elsevier).

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of glazing systems are missing, however, hence

requiring expertise and experimental background
for materials, constitutive damage models, and
components detailing.[134] On the other hand, since
decades, design projects including bolted glass
connections or clamped fixings represent a widely
used solution (selected examples are proposed in
Figure 16).
Figure 17. Experimental investigation on full-scale glass panel with adhesive point-
fixing, as reported in ref.[136] (reproduced with permission [ref. no. 4201950212168]
Copyright 2017, Elsevier). 6.2. Adhesive Connections and Laminated
Adhesive Connections

derivation of analytical expressions of practical use in design. In Huge research efforts have been spent from scientists
refs.,[124,125] following[71] and earlier research efforts, a standard- and designers to assess the structural performance of full-scale
ized design method was proposed for the shear buckling design systems inclusive of adhesive or laminated connections.
and verification of glass walls with bolted connections, by Most of existing projects are related to specific structural
accounting for different number, position of point fixings, as well systems, including a relatively wide set of loading and boundary
as for initial geometrical imperfections and curvatures. conditions, depending on the study goal. Full-scale experimental
Refined 3D numerical modeling for double IGUs was proposed and numerical research on glass systems with adhesive point-
in refs.[126,127] Compared to monolithic or LG panels, careful fixing connections can be found, for example, in glass panels
consideration was paid
based also on small-scale experiments on investigated by Dispersyn,[136] Figure 17. The effects of boundary
single connections
to the actual performance of point supported conditions and geometry were first experimentally investigated,
IGUs, as resulting from in-plane and out-of-plane combination of while test results were then used to validate numerical models.
stresses due to self-weight, external wind pressure acting on glass The majority of research studies on full-scale assemblies with
panes, and climatic loads deriving from the gas cavity. Mechanical TSSA connections are implicitly related to recent projects realized
contact interactions proved to offer rather accurate estimation of in Europe (i.e., Belgium, Italy, Germany, Poland, Switzerland),
stresses close to glass holes, hence allowing further design Japan and United State of America. Further work on innovative
optimization for the examined structural systems. full-scale TSSA applications can be also founded in ref.[137] Limited
Numerical modeling can generally represent an efficient tool preliminary studies have also investigated the mechanical
for design assessments, compared to cost and time consuming behavior of TSSA bonded glass panels under blast loading.[138]
full-scale experiments, especially in the case of geometrically As a common aspect of such projects, TSSA connections have
complex systems under specific loading conditions. Several been mainly used as adhesive point-fixings in alternative to
research efforts, in this context, have been spent for the standard bolted connections. As an example, Figure 18 shows Dow
mechanical investigation of cable-supported facades, under Corning European Distribution Center in Feluy (Belgium). There,
ordinary loads, as well as seismic events or explosions (see large IGU panels are connected to the steel columns by circular
e.g.,[128–133]). In general, simplified mechanical models can TSSA adhesive laminated connections. The metal connectors are
provide reliable global and local estimations, as far as the actual then fixed to the primary structure by the metal spiders, while glass
mechanical performance of glazing components and their panels are finally sealed with structural sealant.
reciprocal interaction is properly reproduced (Figure 15). SG laminated connections have been also used in several
Actually, standardized guidelines for advanced FE modeling projects, and especially in structural component with embedded

Figure 18. Dow Corning European Distribution Center in Feluy (Belgium). a) Global view of the project, with detail views (b) external, c) internal) of
TSSA laminated connections (Photos: reproduced with permission, courtesy of Dow Corning).

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Figure 19. Apple Retail Store at the 5th avenue of New York (US). a) Global view of the project; b) SG embedded laminated connections between
column and faSc ade panels (detail); c) SG embedded laminated connections between roof beams (detail). Figures reproduced from ref.[97] with
permission [ref. no. 4202030231510] Copyright 2017, Elsevier.

laminated connections made with thick metal inserts. Embed- connections, including mechanical, adhesive, and laminated
ded connections have been indeed used worldwide in several solutions. As shown, the collection of selected research studies
structural glass applications for Apple Retail stores, to act as and project applications generally give evidence of the key role the
structural joints between glass beams and columns. One of the technological development in materials science and knowledge had
most iconic examples is certainly represented by the Apple store in the last years on the proposal of novel design solutions for
in New York (US), on the 5th avenue,[139,140] where the main structural glass connections. There, the mechanical interaction
external structure is composed of 10  10 m glass portals that are between a typical tensile brittle material and other structural
used to form a fully transparent glass cube (see Figure 19a). The components should be in fact guaranteed, by taking into account
connections between structural glass elements (e.g., beam-to- appropriate safety design levels, as well as giving evidence of a
beam connections (Figure 19c) or column-to-facade connections multitude of aspects, including transparency, and aesthetic impact
(Figure 19b)) were made with SG embedded laminated demands.
connections. Further structural applications of embedded
connections can be found also in more recent Apple Retail
stores projects (see refs.[112,141,142]) Generally speaking, most of Acknowledgements
the mentioned design projects with embedded laminated The past EU COST Action TU0905 ‘Structural Glass
Novel Design
connections have shown over the years increasing complexity Methods and Next Generation Products’ (2012–16) and the ongoing EU
in size and geometry, which made them a main reference of COST Action TU1403 ‘Adaptive Facades Network’ (2014–18) are gratefully
glass engineering and architectural details designing. Further acknowledged for facilitating international research network in the
recent applications can be found in the structural facade of the domain of structural glass.
ING Direct building in Barcelona (Spain) and in the IKEA store
facade, Valladolid (Spain), as well as in refs.,[143,144] where
laminated connections have been used to join the glass facade Conflict of Interest
panels to the bracing glass fins. Another application of The authors declare no conflict of interest.
embedded laminated connections can also be found in London,
at the new Tottenham Court Road underground station.[145]
Finally
even currently limited to academic research
full-
Keywords
scale investigations for LG beam-to-beam applications with
laminated connections can be found in ref.[146] Three different Adhesive connections, Bolted connections, Experimental testing, Finite
configurations of the embedded connections (i.e., with variations element numerical modeling, Laminated adhesive connections, Point
fixings, Safe design, Structural glass
in their geometry and position) were tested. Mechanical
interpretation to the experimentally observed fracture patterns
were provided and the performance of the connected beams was Received: September 15, 2017
also evaluated in post-breakage scenario. Revised: December 10, 2017
Published online:

7. Conclusions
[1] M. Haldimann, A. Luible, M. Overend. Structural Use of Glass,
In this paper, a review on current design solutions, research International Association for Bridge and Structural Engineering,
outcomes, and major issues has been proposed for glass point-fixing Imprint Zürich, Switzerland 2008.

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