Uta A De POWER SYSTEMS GROUNDING IEEE Std 3003.1"-2019 Recommended Practice for System Grounding of Industrial and Commercial Power SystemsIEEE Std 3003.1™-2019 IEEE Recommended Practice for System Grounding of Industrial and Commercial Power Systems Developed by the Industrial and Commercial Power Systems Standards Development Committee of the IEEE Industry Applications Society Approved 13 June 2019 IEEE SA Standards Board standard99%Abstract: Discussed in this recommended practice is the system grounding of industrial and ‘commercial power systems. The recommended practices in this document are intended to provide explanations of how electrical systems operate. It can also be an aid to all engineers responsible for the electrical design of industrial and commercial power systems. Keywords: effectively grounded, ground, grounding system, high resistance ground, IEEE 3003.1™, neutral 3PanAvene.Now York NY OOT6S007 USA Copy © 2018 by The inst of Etc and Electonics Engineers ‘Ning reer Pubished 9 Auquet 30° Prete tbe Unis Sine Amonca IEEE is magic adem the U.S. tas & Trademark Ofc. ona by The lt, lca ant Econ Engine, Pom ISENO7E-.60445015:7 STOPOO7AS EEE promos ascrmnaton, peassmet na bus, Formorn meetin wa Mp. ee awed obetswhat patie 9-26 mk No partes pucaon may be epradced i any frm. a elec mtv syt6r or cence, wahout he po writen perms fie tener ‘et andar dooImportant Notices and Disclaimers Concerning IEEE Standards Documents. IEEE documents are made available for use subject to important notices and legal disclaimers. These notices and disclaimers. or a reference to this page. appear in all standards and may be found under the heading ‘Important Notices and Disclaimers Concerning IEEE Standards Documents," They can also be obtained on request from IEEE or viewed at htp/standards.sece org/IPR disclaimers htm Notice and Disclaimer of Liability Concerning the Use of IEEE Standards Documents IEEE Standards documents (standards, recommended practices, and guides), both fulluse and trial-use. are developed within IEEE Societies and the Standards Coordinating Committees of the IEEE Standards Association (“IEEE SA”) Standards Board. IEEE ("the Institute") develops its standards through a consensus development process, approved by the American National Standards Institute (“ANSI”), which brings together volunteers representing Varied viewpoints and interests to achieve the final product. IEEE Standards are documents developed through scientific, academic, and industry-based technical working groups. Volunteers in IEEE working groups are not necessarily members of the Institute and participate without compensation from IEEE, While IEEE administers the process and establishes rules to promote fairness in the consensus development process, IEEE does not independently evaluate, test, or verity the accuracy of any of the information othe soundness of any judgments contained in its standards, IEEE Standards do not guarantee or ensute safety, security, health, or environmental protection, oF ensure against interference with or from other devices or networks. Implementers and users of IEEE Standards documents are responsible for determining and complying with all appropriate safety, security, environmental, health, and interference protection practices and all applicable laws and regulations. IEEE does not warrant or represent the accuracy oF content of the material contained in its standards, and expressly disclaims all warranties (express, implied and statutory) not included in this orany other document relating tothe standard, including, but not limited to the warranties of: merchantability fitness tor a particular purpose: non-infringement; and quality, accuracy. effectiveness, currency, oF completeness of material, In addition, IEEE disclaims any and all conditions relating to: results; and workmanlike effort. IEEE standards documents are supplied "AS IS” and "WITH ALL FAULTS. Use ofan IEEE standard is wholly voluntary, The existence of an IEEE standard does not imply that there are no other ways to produce, test, measure, purchase. market, or provide other goods and services related to the scope of the IEEE standard, Furthermore, the viewpoint expressed at the time a standard is approved and {gsued is subject to change brought about through developments inthe state ofthe art and comments received trom users of the standard, In publishing and making its standards available, IEEE is not suggesting of rendering professional or other services for, or on behalf of, any person or entity nor is TEEE undertaking to perform any duty owed by any ‘other person or entity to another. Any person utilizing any IEEE Standards document, should rely upon his or her own indepenclent judgment inthe exercise of reasonable care in any given circumstances or. as appropriate, seek the advice of a competent professional in determining the appropriateness of a given IEEE standard IN NO EVENT SHALL IEEE BE LIABLE FOR ANY DIRECT, INDIRECT, INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, EXEMPLARY, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES (INCLUDING, BLT NOT LIMITED TO: PROCUREMENT OF SUBSTITUTE GOODS OR SERVICES: LOSS OF USE, DATA, OR PROFITS OR BUSINESS INTERRUPTION) HOWEVER CAUSED AND ON ANY THEORY OF LIABILITY, WHETHER IN CONTRACT, STRICT LIABILITY, OR TORT (INCLUDING NEGLIGENCE OR OTHERWISE) ARISING IN ANY WAY OUT OF THE PUBLICATION, USE OF, OR RELIANCE UPON ANY STANDARD, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGE AND REGARDLESS OF WHETHER SUCH DAMAGE WAS FORESEEABLE. 3 Copyright© 2019 IEEE. Alright reserved ‘et andar daoTranslations The IEEE consensus development process involves the review of documents in English only. In the event that an IEEE standard is translated, only the English version published by IEEE should be considered the approved IEEE standard, Official statements Astatement, written or oral, that is not processed in accordance withthe IEEE SA Standards Board Operations Manual shall not be considered or inferred tobe theofficial position of IEEE or any of ts committees and shall not be considered to be, or be relied upon as, a formal position of IEEE. At lectures, symposia, seminars. or educational courses, an individual presenting information on IEEE standards shall make it clear that hs or her views should be considered the personal views ofthat individual rather than the formal position of IEEE. Comments on standards ‘Comments for revision of IEEE Standards documents are welcome from any interested party, regardless of membership affiliation with IEEE, However, IEEE does not provide consulting information or advice pertaining to IEEE Standards documents. Suggestions for changes in documents should be in the form of a proposed change of text. together with appropriate supporting comments. Since IEEE standards represent 2 Consensus of concerned interests, itis important that any responses to comments and questions also receive the concurrence of a balance of interests. For this reason, IEEE and the members of its societies and Standards Coordinating Committees are not able to provide an instant response to comments or questions except in those cases where the matter has previously been addressed. For the same reason, IEEE does not respond to imerpretation requests. Any person who would like to partiipate in revisions to an IEEE standard is welcome tojoin the relevant IEEE working group, ‘Comments on standards should be submitted tothe following address: Secretary, IEE 445 Hoes Lane Piscataway, NJ 08834 USA, A Standards Board, Laws and regulations Users of IEEE Standards documents should consult all applicable laws and regulations. Compliance with the provisions of any IEEE Standards document does not imply compliance to any applicable regulatory equi ments. Implementers of the standard are responsible for observing or referring to the applicable latory requirements, IEEE does not, by the publication of ts standards, intend to urge action that i notin compliance with applicable laws, and these documents may not be construed as doing so. Copyrights IEEE draft and approved standards are copyrighted by IEEE under US and international copyright laws, They are made available by IEEE and are adopted for a wide variety of both public and private uses. These include bth use, by reterence, in laws and regulations, and use in private self-regulation, standardization. and the promotion of engineering practices and methods. By making these documents available for use and adoption by public authorities and private users, IEEE does not waive any rights in copyright to the documents. 4 Copyight © 2019 IEEE. Alnights reserved st andar d99¢Photocopies Subject to payment of the appropriate fee, IEEE will grant users limited, non-exclusive license o photocopy portions of any individual standard for company or organizational internal use or individual, non-commercial use only: To arrange for payment of licensing fees, please contact Copyright Clearance Center, Customer Service, 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA (01923 USA; +1 978 750 8400, Permission to photocopy portions of any individual standard for educational classroom use can also be obtained through the Copyright Clearance Center. Updating of IEEE Standards documents Users of IEEE Standards documents should be aware that these dacuments may be superseded at any time by the issuance of new editions oF may’ be amended from time to time through the issuance of amendments, corrigenda, or errata. An official IEEE document at any point in time consists of the current edition of the document together with any amendments, corrigenda, or errata then in effect, Every IEEE standard is subjected 1o review at east every 10 years, When a document is more than 10 years old nd has not undergone a revision process, itis reasonable to conclude that its contents, although still of some value, do not wholly reflect the present slate of the at, Users are cautioned to check to determine that they have the latest edition of any IEEE standard. In order to determine whether a given document is the current edition and whether it has been amended through the issuance of amendments, corrigenda, or errata visit the IEEE Xplore at http://ieeexplore ieee ore! ‘or contact IEEE atthe address listed previously. For more information about the IEEE SA or IEEE’s standards development process, visit the IEEE SA Website at hitp/standards seee org. Errata Errata, ifany, forall IEEE standards can be accessed on the IEEE SA Website atthe following URL: http! standards ieee.org/findstds/errata/index. html. Users are encouraged to check this URL for errata periodically Patents Attention is called to the possibility that implementation of this standard may require use of subject matter covered by patent rights, By publication of this standard, no position is taken by the IEEE with respect to the existence of validity of any patent rights in connection therewith, Ifa patent holder of patent applicant has filed a statement of assurance via an Accepted Letter of Assurance, then the statement is listed on the IEEE ‘SA Website at hitp2/standards iece org/aboutsash/patcom/patents.himl, Letters of Assurance may indicate whether the Submitter is willing or unwilling to grant licenses under patent rights without compensation or under reasonable rates. with reasonable terms and conditions that are demonstrably free of any unfair discrimination to applicants desiring to obtain such licenses. Essential Patent Claims may exist for which a Letter of Assurance has not been received. The IEEE is not responsible for identifying Essential Patent Claims for whicha license may be required. for conducting inquiries into the legal validity oF scope of Patents Claims, or determining whether any licensing terms or conditions provided in connection with submission of a Letter of Assurance. if any. or in any licensing agreements are reasonable or non-discriminatory, Users of this standard are expressly advised that determination of the validity of any patent rights, and the risk of infringement of such rights, is entirely their own responsibi Further information may be obtained trom the IEEE Standards Association 5 Copyright© 2019 IEEE Alnights reserved ‘st andar d99¢Participants Atte time this draft recommended practice was completed, the 3003.1 TBCC Grounding Working Group had the following membership: Massimo Mitolo, Chair Sergio Panetta, Working Group Chair Witham Bush Daleep Mobla Robert Schuster Claudio Mardegun Dev Paul Miche Simon Saleh Saleh “The following members ofthe individual balloting committe voted on this recommended practice. Ballocers may have voted for approval, disapproval, or abstention. William Ackerman Robert Hoeft Antony Parsons AlLALAWa7i Alan Jensen Shawn Patterson Dwight Alexander aslo Kadar Dey Paul Robert Beavers ‘Chad Kennedy Howard Penrose Siak Belaynch Gael Kennedy Jim Phillips WJ. (Bill) Bergman YYari Khersonsky {ulin Profi Binder Jim Kulchisky Moises Ramos Frederick Brockhurst Mikhail Lagos Samala Santosh Reddy Gustave Brunello Michact Lauxman Charles Rogers William Bush Aleksandr Levin Ryandi Ryan Witham Byea Albert Livshitz Daniel Sabin Paul Cardinal William Lockley Robert Schuerger Wen-Kung Chang Greg Clement Arturo Maldonado John Meathaney J Churstopher Searles Kenneth Sedo! Kurt Clemente William Merde Robert Seitz Terry Conrad Edward MeCall Nika Shah Glenn Davis John MeCelland Miche! Simon Davide DeLuca Willam MeCoy Jeremy Sevith Gary Doonee John Merando Jerry Smith Daglas Dorr Charles Morse Gary Smullin ‘Neal Dowling William Mostan Wayne Stee Robert Durham etry Murphy Gregory Steinman Keith Flowers Paul Myers K.Stump Gary Fox. Warren Naylor Joseph Tal “Timothy Gauthier Dennis Neitz David Tepen Joel Goergen Rhonds Netz Wayne Timm J Travis Grithih ‘Anthur Neubauer Marcelo Valdes Randall Groves Michael Newman Peter Walsh ‘Thomas Gruss Joe Nims. Wayne Walters, Paul Guidey Mathes Norwalk Joho Wang AjitGwal Gearold 0. H. Eidhin doe Watson Robert Hanna. T.W.0ken Kenneth White Lee Herron Lorraine Palen Darren Woodhouse Erling Hest Richard Paes Jian Yu Werner Hoel Sergio Panetta David Zech 6 Copyight © 2019 IEEE. Alnghts reserved et andar d99¢When the IEEE-SA Standards Board approved this recommended practice on 13 June 2019, it had the following membership: Masayuki Ariyoshi Stephen D. Dukes 1. Travis Grtith Guido ier Christel Hunter ‘Thomas Koshy Joseph L. Koeplinger* John D. Kulick “Member Emeritus Gary Hoffman, Chair ‘Ted Burse, Vice Chair Jean-Philippe Faure, Pas! Chair Konstantinos Karachalios, Secretary David J. Law Joseph Levy Howard Li Xiaghus Liv Kevin bs Daleep Mola Andrew Myles 7 Copyight © 2019 IEEE. Allnghts reserved Annette Di Dorothy Stanley Sha Wei Phil Wennblom Philip Winston Howard Wolfman Feng Wu Jingyi Zhow et andar d99¢Introdui n This introduction is not pat of 3003.1 nde Practice for System Grounding of tndustial and Commercial Power syste. IEEE 3000 Series® This recommended practice was developed by the Industrial and Commercial Power Systems Standards Development Committee of the IEEE Industry Applications Society as part ofa project to repackage IEEE’ popular series of “calor books.” The goal ofthis project isto speed up the revision process, eliminate duplicate ‘material, and facilitate use of modern publishing and distribution technologies. will be included in categories, will ‘When this project is completed, the technical material included in the 13 “color boo! a series of new standards. Approximately 60 “dot” standards, organized into the follo provide in-depth treatment of many ofthe topies formerly covered in the color books: — Power Systems Design (3001 series) — Power Systems Analysis (3002 series) — Power Systems Grounding and Bonding (3003 series) — Protection and Coordination (3006 series) — Emergency, Stand-By Power, and Energy Management Systems (3005 series) — Power Systems Rehiaility (3006 series) — Power Systems Maintenance, Operations, and Safety (3007 series) In many cases, the material in a “dot” standard comes om a particular chapter of'a particular color book. In ‘other eases, material Irom several color books has been combined into a new “dot” standard, The material in this recommended practice largely comes from Chapter | of IEEE Std 142.2007 IEEE Std 3003.1™ This recommended practice covers the system grounding of industrial and commercial power systems. Its likely to be of greatest value to the power-oriented engineer with limited experience in this area. team also be nai to all engineers responsible forthe electrical design of industrial and commercial power systems, iB Copyright© 2019 IEEE. Alright reserved et andar d99¢Contents 1. Overview 11 Scope. 1.2 Pumpose. 13 Covered—system grounding, 1.4 Not covered—equipment grounding and bonding. 2, Normative references: 3. Definitions, 3.1, Grounding terminology as used worldwide 3.2 IEC system grounding terminology. 4, Methods of system neutral grounding 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Ungrounded system (no intentional grounding) 43 Resistance grounding. 44 Reactance grounding 4.5. Resonant grounding (ground-tault neutralizer) 46 Solid grounding. 4.7 Characteristics of grounding methods 5. Obtaining the system neutral 5.1 Grounding transformers 5.2 Grounding at points other than system neutral 6, Location of system grounding points 6.1. Derived systems 6.2 Transformer configurations 63 Single power source 6.4 Multiple power sources 65 Utility wouserimerface 7. Grounding of industrial and commercial generators 7.1 Industrial and commercial generator characteristics 72 Single-unparalleled generator. 7.3 Paralleled generators in an isolated system 74 Generators as unparalleled alternate sources 7.5 Generators paralleled with other sources. 8, Autotransformers 9. System grounding for uninterruptible power systems. 9.1 General 9.2 Separately derived UPS system 9.3 Non-separately derived UPS system 9.4 Separately derived UPS system serving fourewire loads 9.5 Non separately derived transformerless ups system 10, Creation of stray currents and potentials 11. Resonantly produced voltages Annex A (informative) Bibliography 9 Copyight © 2019 IEEE. Allnights reserved B B B 4 4 4 13 15 "0 7 38 a2 B B 47 4 50 3 33 55 56 ol 68 68 68 0 1 RB 15 st andar d99¢List of Figures Figure | TT system, Figure 2TN-Ssystem Figure 3 TN-C system. Figure4TN-C-Ssystem Figure 5 ECPs earthed individually in IT systems. Figure 6 ECPs earthed collectively in IT systems Figure 7 System neutral circuit and equivalent diagrams for ungrounded and grounded systems, Figure 8a) Ungrounded system circuit configuration, b) Voltage phasor diagram Figure 9 0) Single line-o-ground fault on an ungrounded system, b) Voltage phasor diagram. Figure 10 Independent grounding of each voltage level Figure 11 Resistance grounded system, Figure 12 Single line-to-ground fault on a high-resistance grounded system Figure 13 Scheme for ground fault on 2 high-resistance grounded system using voltage transformer Figure 14-—Low-resistance grounded system. Figure 15-—Single line-to-ground fault on a low-resistance grounded system Generator hybrid ground, Figure 17 Watt-second fault energy versus time Figure 18—Typical hybrid grounding schematic Figure 19 Single line-to-ground fault on a reactance-grounded system Figure 20 Transient overvoltage. Figure 21 Solidly grounded systems a) Grounded wye b) Comer grounded delta, Figure 22 ‘Transformer to obtain neutral where system is resistance grounded Figure 23 Zigzag grounding transformer a) Core windings b) System connection Figure 24 Resistance grounding ofa system through a zigeag grounding transformer. Figure 25—Low-resistance grounding of a system through a wye-delta grounding transformer with ground sensing current relay Figure 26 Connection of grounding transformers in delta connected of ungrounded power system to obtain neutral for system grounding a) Cireuit feeder breaker b) Connected between main transformer and main switchgear Figure 27-—Zero-sequence impedance of different transformer configurations 10 Copyright© 2019 IEEE. Allnghts reserved 30 30 31 2 33 35 36 a8 ” ” 41 45 st andar d99¢Figure 28—Transformer connections illustrating the flow of zero-sequence current resulting from a line-to-ground fault Figure 29—Non separately derived wye-wye transtormer, Figure 30—Grounding for systems with one source of power: ) Solidly grounded. b) R or Z grounded Figure 31—Grounding for systems with multiple pawer sources (Method 1): a) Solidly grounded, b) RorZ grounded. Figure 32—Grounding for systems with multiple power sources (Method 2) a) Solidly grounded, b) RorZ grounded, Figure 33—IECTN-C-S configuration Figure Ma) Concentric neural cable b) Tape shield cable Figure 3S—Circulation of third harmonic curent ina delta connected generator. Figure 36—Third harmonic current (no zro-sequence loop) Figure 37—Single unparalleled generator. Figure 38—Two parallel generators solidly connected to a neutral bus, Figure 39—Two parallel generators with grounding res ors Figure 40—Ground fault on a system with two parallel generators, Figure 41—Generator in parallel with a transformer. Figure 42—Grounding transtormers in a distribution system Figure 43—a) Ungrounded wye step down autotransformer with load fault, ) Normal and faulted voltage phasors Figure 44—a} Ungrounded wye step down autotransformer with primary fault, b) Normal and faulted voltage phasors, Figure 45—a) Ungrounded wye step-up autotransformer with load fault, b) Normal and faulted voltage phasors, Figure 46—a) Delta autotransformer with load fault b), Normal and faulted voltage phasors Figure 47—a) Wye autotransformer with grounded neutral, four-wire connection, b) Normal and faulted voltage phasors. Figure 48—Separately derived UPS system, Figure 49—Non-separately derived UPS system. Figure 50—Separately derived UPS system serving four-wire-plus-ground loads Figure $1—Non separately derived transformerless UPS system Figure $2—Series capacitor welder u Copyight © 2019 IEEE. Alnghts reserved 46 47 49 50 65 67 68 0 iT ™ et andar d99¢List of Tables Table 1 Characteristics of grounding methods 7 2 Copyright© 2019 IEEE. Alnights reserved st andar d99¢IEEE Recommended Practice for System Grounding of Industrial and Commercial Power Systems 1. Overview 11 Scope This recommended practice covers the system grounding of industrial and commercial power systems. The basi reasons for grounding oF no tical system and the various types of system grounding, ‘aswell asthe practices commonly used to ground electrical systems are discussed, unding th 1.2 Purpose Grounding of an electrical system is a decision that must be faced by engincers changed with planning or setrical distribution. Grounding in some form is generally recommended, although there are ia exist for system grounding: each has its own purpose. smoditying certain exceptions, Several methods and crit [tis the intention of this recommended practice to assist the engineer in making decisions by presenting basic seasons for grounding or not grounding and by reviewing general practices and methods of system grounding. nsttutional, andor commercial power within a smaller geographical area ‘The practices set forth herein are primarily applicable to industri systems that distribute and utilize power at medium or low volta than is covered by a utility Where distances or power levels may dictate circuitry and equipment similar to a utility, consideration of utility practices is warranted, In addition to the general technical considerations inthe practice of grounding as discussed in this recommended practice, pertinent codes or standards imposed by local regulatory authorities, the particular needs of service, and the experience and tr the workforce should also be considered. Where an industrial or commercial power system includes power-generating equipment, the reasons for grounding these components may be the same as those for grounding similar components of public utility systems, The methods of grounding would generally be similar under like conditions of service. However. it the industrial or commercial setting, conditions of service may be altered by the following 2) Location within the power system b) Individual generator characteristies ©) Manufacturing process requirements dd) Emergency/life safety requirements of the local codes B Copyight © 2019 IEEE. Alnghts reserved et andar d99¢IEEE sts 3003.1.2019 IEEE Recommended Practice for System Grounding of Industrial and Commercial Power Systems “The standards listed in Clause 2 are considered minimum requirements forthe protection of life and property and should be carefully reviewed during the course of system design. The recommended practices in this document are intended to supplement, and not negate, any ofthe requirements inthe NEC, IEC, or any other Tocation-specifie regulatory codes. ‘The recommended practices in this document are intended to provide explanations of how electrical systems operate, A better understanding of the electrical prineiples will assist the engineer in implementing the recommendations in a manner that best provides for the needs of a specific design function, 1.3 Covered—s ‘stem grounding ‘System grounding isthe intentional connection to ground of phase or neutral conductor for the purpose of ) Controlling the voltage with respect to earth, or ground, within predictable limits, and b) Providing fora flow of current that will alow detection of an unwanted connection between system conductorsand ground, Such detection may then initiate operation of automatic devices to remove the source of voltage from these conductors, ‘The control of voltage to ground limits the voltage stress on the insulation of conductors so that insulation performance can more readily be predicted. The control of voltage also allows reduction of shock hazard to persons who might come in contact with ive conductors, 1.4 Not covered—equipment grounding and bonding ‘The terms grounded and bonded are defined in the CEC, IEC, NESC, and NEC. “Bonding” is the electrical interconnecting of non-current carrying conductive parts designed to achieve a low impedance conductive path, This definition is self-explanatory and implies that the conductive path should be adequately sized, ‘and connections properly installed, in order to maincain a path with impedance as low as possible. The term bonding obviously 1s not exclusive to grounded systems. “Grounded” means connected to, oF in contact with, the earth, or connected to some extended conductive body that serves in place of the earth, whether the connection is intentional or accidental. The earth or the other conductive body is known as the “ground” in North America and areas of the world that use the CEC or NEC, and “earth” in the areas of the world that use the IEC, When used asa verb, “grounding” isthe act of establishing the aforementioned connection to ground or the conductive body. When used as an adjective, grounding describes the conductor or metal part that is used to make the connection to ground. Equipment grounding and bonding is covered in IEEE Std 3003.2", IEEE Recommended Practice for Equipment Grounding and Bonding in Industrial and Commercial Power Systems, 2. Normative references ‘The following referenced documents are indispensable for the application of this document (i, they must be understood and used, so each referenced document is cited in text and its relationship to this document is explained). Fordated references, only the edition cited applies. For undated references, the lates edition of the referenced document (including any amendments or corrigenda) applies. TEC 60364-1, Electrical Installations of Buildings. IEEE Std C37.101™, IEEE Guide for Generator Ground Protection IEEE Std 367™, IEEE Recommended Practice for Determining the Electric Power Station Ground Potential Rise and Induced Voltage from a Power Fault 4 Copynght© 2019 IEEE Allights reserved ‘et andar dogIEEE Sts 3003.1-2019 IEEE Recommended Practice for System Grounding of Industial and Commercial Power Systems, TEE Std 3003.2™, IEEE Recommended Practice tor Equipment Grounding and Bonding in Industrial and Commercial Pawer Systems, 3. Definitions For the purposes ofthis document, the following terms and definitions apply. The /EEE Standards Dictionary ‘Online should be consulted for terms not defined in this clause." earth: See: ground cearthed: See: grounded. effectively grounded: Grounded through a sulficiently low impedance (inherent or intentionally added, or both) such that forall system conditions the ratio of zero-sequence reactance to positive-sequence reactance (XJX;) i positive and less than or equal to 3, and the rato of zero-sequence resistance to positive-sequence reactance (R/X,) is positive and less than | equipment grounding conductor (EGC): See- protective conductor exposed-conductive-parts (ECP): A conductive part, forming part of electrical equipment. which can be touched (even if out of reach) and not live, but ikely to become live when basic insulation fails, ECPs are required to be connected to the same earthing system individually, in groups or collectively, via a protective conductor. extrancous-conduetive-part (EXCP): A conductive part, not forming part of the electrical installation, and liable to introduce an electric potential, generally the electric potential ofa local earth/ground, ground: A conducting connection, whether intentional or accidental, between an electrical circuit or equipment nd the earth, orto some other body that serves in place ofthe earth. This term is considered equivalent tothe term “earth {ground (carth) electrode: Conductive part, which may be embedded in a specific conductive medium (e.g, concrete or coke) in electric contact withthe earth, ‘grounded: Connected to earth orto an extended conducting body that serves instead of the earth, whether the Connection is intentional or accidental {grounded system: A system in which at least one conductor or point (usually the middle wire or neutral point of transformer or generator windings) is intentionally grounded, either solidly or through an impedance. {grounding system: A system that consists ofall interconnected grounding connections in a specific power system and is defined by’its isolation from adjacent grounding systems, The isolation is provided by transformer primary and secondary windings that are coupled only by magnetic means, high-resistance grounded: A resistance grounded system designed to limit ground-fault current to a value that can be allowed to flow for an extended period of time, while still meeting the criteria of Ry< Xco. So that transient voltages from arcing ground faults are reduced, The ground-fault current is usually limited to less than 10 A, resulting in limited damage even during prolonged faults "TEBE Sanda Divamare Onin waa wp ditonanyiee ng, 15 CCopynght © 2019 IEEE. Allights reserved ‘et andar dooIEEE sts 3003.1.2019 IEEE Recommended Practice for Systm Grounding of Industial and Commercial Power Systems local ground (local earth): Part of the ground (earth) which is in electric contact with a ground (earth) electrode, whose electric potential is not necessarily equal to zero, low-resistance grounded: A resistance grounded system that permits a higher ground-fault current to flow to ‘obtain suficient current for selective relay operation. Usually meets the criteria of R/X, less than or equal to 2. Ground-fault current is typically between 100A and 1000 A. incutral point: Common point of a star-connected polyphase system or earthed mid-point of a single-phase system, neutral conductor: The conductor connected to the neutral point ofa system that is intended to carry current ‘under normal conditions, per-phase charging current (ICO): The current (V,./X ,,) that passes through one phase of the system to charge the distributed capacitance per phase-to-ground ofthe system protective conductor: The conductor provided fr protective functions. such as providing a path for fault current to flow back tothe source. for connecting exposed-conductive-part ECP, such as non-current carrying ‘metal parts of equipment, raceways, and other enclosures to earth, etc. There ae often specific names for this conductor. such as “equipment grounding conductor (EGC)" in the NEC, “protective earth conductor ( the IEC, and “bonding conductor (BC)" in the CEC. protective earth neutral (PEN): A conductor that combines the functions ofthe protective conductor and the ‘neutral conductor, used in some IEC grounding systems, Ry: The per phase zero sequence resistance ofthe system, ‘reactance grounded: Grounded through an impedance, the principal element of which is inductive reactance. ‘remote (or reference) ground (carth): Part of the ground (earth) considered as conductive, whose electric potential is conventionally taken as zero, being outside the zone of influence of any earthing arrangement resistance grounded: Grounded through an impedance. the principal element of which ist ‘resonant grounded: A system in which the capacitive charging current is neutralized by an inductive current produced from a reactor connected between the system neutral and ground. By properly “tuning” the reactor (electing the right tap), alow magnitude of fault current can be achieved. In general, when this occurs the are will not maintain itself and the ground fault is extinguished or “quenched” by the parallel circuit consisting of inductance (L) and capacitance (C). This happens when, oeVic Rg; Value of the resistance-to-earth of an electrode that grounds a point of the electrical source of a system (64g. the neutral pointof a transformer). Itisnota resistance intentionally inserted, See also: solidly grounded. Ry: Value ofthe resistance-to-earth of a neutral grounding resistor. separately derived system: A wiring system whose power is derived from a generator, transformer, of converter windings and has no direct electrical connection, including a solidly connected grounded circuit conductor, to supply conductors originating in another system, solidly grounded: System in which at least one neutral point is grounded (earthed) directly with no intentional device having a resistance/impedance designed to limit the line-to-ground short-circuit current. lo Copyight © 2019 IEEE. Alnghts reserved et andar d99¢IEEE sts 3003.1.2019 IEEE Recommended Practice for Systm Grounding of Industial and Commercial Power Systems static charge: The electricity generated when two dissimilar substances come into contact, Conveyor belts are active producers of static electricity. switching surge: A transient wave of overvoltage in an electric cireuit caused by the operation ofa switching device interrupting current. system charging current: The total distributed capacitive charging current (3 V\VX «,) ofa three-phase system, three-phase, four-wire system: A system of alternating current supply comprising four conductors, three ‘of which are connected as in a three-phase three-wire system. the fourth being connected to the neutral point ‘of the supply or midpoint of one phase in case of delta-connected transformer secondary tor the purpose of ‘conducting load current. three-phase, three-wire system: A system of alternating current supply comprising three conductors, between successive pairs of which are maintained alternating differences of potential successively displaced in phase by one third of'a period touch voltage: The difference in potential between metallic objects or structures within the substation site that ‘may be bridged by direct hand-to-hand or hand-to-feet contact. transient overvoltage: The temporary overvoltage associated with the operation of a switching device, a ‘fault, a lightning stroke, an arcing ground fault on an ungrounded system. or other instigating events ungrounded system: A system without an intentional connection to ground except through potential indicating or measuring devices or other very high-impedance devices, a: The line-to-neutral voltage Xs Te distbuted pr-phase capacitive reactance to ground othe system, Xe: Zero-sequence reactance ofthe system X,: Positiv-sequence reactance ofthe system Xz: Negative-sequence reactance ofthe system. 3.2 IEC system grounding terminology Rather than using dual terminology throughout this recommended practice, basic system grounding ‘nomenclature from the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) as found in IEC 60364-1 is provided in this section for relation to the concepts presented in the remainder of this document. ‘When discussing what in North America is called grounding, of primary importance is the understanding that the term for ground in much of the world is earth (E). Translated to French, earth is tere (T) and for system definitions equates to a solidly grounded system, Systems without a direct connection to earth (ungrounded) ‘or connected through a suficiently high impedance are called isolated (1). Tor I may be used in the frst of two positions of an IEC system grounding configuration to indicate source grounding. T may also be found in the second position indicating a direct connection to earth at the device being supplied. Neutral (N) in the second position indicates connection to ground via the supply network. 7 Copyight © 2019 IEEE. Allnights reserved et andar d99¢EEE Sts 3003.1-2019 IEEE Recommended Practice for System Grounding of Industial and Commercial Power Systems 3.2.1 TT systems TT (Terre-Terre) systems are defined as the electrical systems whose devices being supplied are cont to ground electrades electrically independent of the geound electrodes of the source (e.g, the local utility) Figure | aan lt Poy 2 13 a N Ra + FCP, System Grounding Pe Figure 1—TT system ‘This is the grounding method adopted for low-voltage systems (1.¢, not exceeding | kV) supplying dwelling units im several countries, to list a few: Algeria, Belgium, Denmark, Fyypt, France, Greece. Italy. Japan, Kenya, Luxemburg, Morocco, Tunisia, Spain, Portugal, Turkey, United Ara Emirates te 3.22 TNsystem ‘TN (Terre-Neutral} systems are defined as the electrical systems whose FCPs are directly connected by a protective conductor to the solidly grounded point of the source (eg., the neutral point Figure 2, OF note; connection of the PE to individual ECP ly oF unintentionally provide additional connections tw earth throughout the system. The different arrangements of neutral and protective conductors determine three types of TN system, In TN-S systems Figure 2, also as in typical industrial and commercial applications, wo separate wires are used as protective and neutral conductors, throughout the system, Is CCopynght© 2019 IEEE Allighs reserved ‘et andar daoIEEE Sts 3003.1-2019 IEEE Recommended Practice for System Grounding of Industial and Commercial Power Systems, Peet a ey w Pe Figure 2—TN-S system In TN-C systems, the functions of the neutral conductor and of the PE are combined in the PEN conductor throughout the system Figure 3. This is a configuration typical of utilities in North America, but not a recommended practice for industrial and commercial power systems awn 2 + Ls . eu tl Re | t ECP cP Figure 3—TN-C system In TN-C-S systems, the functions of the neutral conductor and of the PE are combined in a single conductor ina part of the system, Such conductor is referred to as protective earthed neutral (PEN), When the earthing point is provided to low-voltage users by a utility network, the TN-C-S system is also referred to as protective ‘multiple earthing (PME) as shown in Figure 4, In North America, the transition point from PEN to PE is typical ofthe utility to user interface with inelusion of an electrode for an intentional connection to earth at the 19 Copynght © 2019 EEE. Allights reserved ‘et andar dooEEE sts 3003.1-2019 IEEE Recommended Practice for System Grounding of Indusial and Commercial Power Systems Pee re ot L + + Pe dps re & - J coe zo Figure 4—TN-C-S system 3.2.3 IT system Isolation (erre (IT) systems are defined as the electrical systems whose source is insulated trom ground for connected to it through sufficiently high impedance, In this arrangement itis advisable, although not prohibited, court the neutral wites to loads in order wo sate jon from ground, In the event ofa first fault between a line conductor and an ECP, or earth, fault currents can still low due the distnbuted capacitance to ground of the electrical system, Such currents ate relatively low it intensity, bul ‘may be surficient to cause harmful touch voltages. Thus, in order to limit such hazard, ECPs are required to be earthed individually, in groups, or collectively as shown in Figure S and Figure 6 u 2 us oP 1 Ecp2 Figure 5—ECPs earthed individually in IT systems. 20 Copynght© 2019 IEEE Allights reserved ‘et andar dooEEE sts 3003.1-2019 IEEE Recommended Practice for System Grounding of Indusial and Commercial Power Systems ant rae. cae N a) poz Protective devieo + Protective device 2 ECP 1 pe} EcP2 4, Methods of system neutral grounding 4.1 Introduction Most electrical systems employ some method of grounding the system neutral at one or more points. Similar to the IEC T and I designations, these methods can be divided into two general categories: solid grounding nd impedance grounding, Impedance grounding may be further divided into several subeategories: reactance grounding, resistance grounding. and ground-fault neutralizer grounding. Figure 7 shows examples of these ‘methods of grounding, Each method. as named, refers to the nature of the external circuit from system neutral to ground rather than to the degree of grounding, In each case, the impedance of the generator or transformer whose neutral is ‘grounded isin series with the external circuit, Thus a solidly grounded generator or transformer may or may not furnish effective grounding to the system. depending on the system source impedance, For additional clarity, see the definition of “effectively grounded, Many of the concepts involved in defining system grounding types and levels are best explained in terms of symmetrical components or equivalent circuits. The reader who is not familiar with these analytical :methods i referred to a text on symmetrical components for power systems, several of which are listed inthe bibliography. Molded-case cireuit-breaker interrupting capabilities can be affected by the method of grounding, If other than solidly grounded wye systems are used. the circuit breakers” single-pole interrupting ratings should be evaluated forthe application [B20]. a Copynght © 2019 IEEE. Allights reserved ‘et andar dooEEE sts 3003.1.2019 IEEE Recommended Practice for System Grounding of Industial and Commercial Power Systems. cRcuT ZERO-SEQUENCE COMPONENTS: ‘OF NEUTRAL CIRCUIT UNGROUNDEO Xeo ale Xoo ‘SOLIDLY GROUNDED RESISTANCE GROUNDED ) ? Th ma g + 1 y : ¥ x Xo crounpraurneutrauer 9) Brn x. Keo = Zoro-sequence reactance of generator or transformer X= Reactance of grounding reactor Ry, = Resistance of grounding resistor Figure 7—System neutral circuit and equivalent diagrams for ungrounded and grounded systems 4.2 Ungrounded system (no intentional grounding) In an ungrounded system, there +s no intentional connection between the system conductors and ground, However, as shown in Figure 8, there always exists a capacitive coupling between ane system conductor and another, as well as between system conductors and ground, By virtue of the distributed capacitance from the system conductors to zround, the so-called ungrounded system is in reality a capacitance grounded system. Since the capacitance between phases has litle effect on the grounding characteristics ofthe system, it will be disregarded. For simplicity, the distributed capacitive reactance to ground, Xi assumed to be balanced Copynght© 2019 IEEE Allights reserved ‘et andar dooEEE ste 3003.1.2019 IEEE Recommended Practice for System Grounding of Indust and Commercial Power Systems oe ( eS p= =< rl | oa Lineosraisuren ee || beheneneo ) © Figure 8—a) Ungrounded system circuit configuration, b) Voltage phasor diagram Innormal operating conditions, with balanced three-phase voltages applied tothe lines, the capacitive changing current, I... in each phase will be equal and displaced 120° from one another. The phase voltages to ground ‘ill also be equal and displaced 120° from one another. The phasor relationships can be determined. Since the neutral of the distributed capacitances is at earth potential, it follows that the neutral of the transformer is also atearth potential, being held there by the capacitance to ground. Ione of the system conductors, phase C for example. faults fo ground, current flow through that capacitance to ground will cease, since no potential difference across it now exists. The voltage across the remaining ‘nwo distributed capacitors to ground will inerease from line-to-neutral to line-to-line. The capacitive charging ‘current. Ia, in the two phases without a fault will therefore increase by the square root of 3. As shown in Figure 9, the line-to-ground voltages are no longer 120°, but 60° apart. This causes the excessive terminal voltages during faults, along with the absence of a neutral conductor, precludes support of lne-to-neutral loads ‘on an ungrounded system, TTT P pep GROUND FAULT yu re_| te co @) © Figure 9—a) Single line-to-ground fault on an ungrounded system, b) Voltage phasor diagram ence. the vectorial sum of the capacitive charging current to ground is no longer zero, but is 3 [or three times the original charging current per phase. The fault current, [., flowing from the faulted conductor to ground, leads the original line-to-neutral voltage (Viye=-V,4) by approximately 90°, 23 Copyright© 2019 IEEE. Alright reserved ‘et andar d99¢EEE ste 3003.1-2019 IEEE Recommended Practice for System Grounding of Industial and Commercial Power Systems Inn ungrounded system, itis possible for destructive transient overvoltages to occur throughout the system during restriking ground faults. These overvoltages, which can be several times normal in magnitude, result froma resonant condition being established between the inductive reactance of the system and the distributed capacitance to ground, Experience has proven that these overvoltages may cause failure of insulation at ‘multiple locations in the system. particularly at motors. Transient overvoltages from restriking ground faults are the main reason why ungrounded systems are no longer recommended and grounded systems of some ‘orm are the predominant choice. To reduce transient overvoltages during restriking ground faults, one should {ground the system using either solid or impedance grounding as indicated in Figure 10. ‘Various detection schemes are used to detect the presence of a single line-to-ground fault. The simplest scheme employs three light bulbs rated for lin-to-line voltage. each connected between line voltage and ground, Under normal operation the three bulbs ae illuminated with low equal intensity. When a single line- to-ground fault occurs, that bulb connected to the faulted phase is extinguished. The remaining two bulbs {nerease in intensity since the voltage on the phases without a fault inereases trom line-to-neutral to line-to- line. I should be noted thatthe light bulbs are a high resistance and to some extent provide a ground reference {or the ungrounded system, Another scheme frequently used takes the form of three voltage transtormers with their primary windings connected in wye and the neutral point grounded. The secondary windings of the transformers are connected {in broken delta, with a voltage relay connected in the open corner and used to operate an indication or alarm circuit. Using this scheme. loading resistors may be required either in the primary neutral or secondary circuit toavoid terroresonance. Locating a single line-to-ground fault on an ungrounded system can be time consuming. Usually. the first step isto open the secondary feeders, one ata time, to determine which feeder on which the fault is located, This is verified by observing the three lights to determine when the ground fault has been cleared. This process is repeated downstream until the faulted device is detected, Ifa ground cannot be located before a second line-to-ground fault occurs on a different phase, a line-to- line fault will result. The current must be carried either by the protective conductor, metalic riceways, oF by the earth. This will be contrasted later to @ grounded system that develops enough fault current to clear, automatically and selectively, each faulted circuit 24 Copynght © 2019 EEE Allights reserved ‘et andar dooEEE sts 3003.1-2019 IEEE Recommended Practice for Systm Grounding of Indusial and Commercial Power Systems. 115 KV SYSTEM Ls A a ‘TYPICAL GROUNDING OF 34.5 KV SYSTEM 3f 345 KV SYSTEM 3f Le, L,rypicaL GROUNDING OF 4.16 KV “4 System ate qvsvstem ‘TYPICAL GROUNDING OF 480 V Ls A i —< SYSTEM 480 VOLT SYSTEM 3f Figure 10—Independent grounding of each voltage level 4.3 Resistance grounding Ina resistance-grounded system, the neutral of the transformer or generator is connected fo ground through a resistor. A typical resistance-grounded neutral system is shown in Figure 11. As commonly installed, the resistance has a considerably higher ohmic magnitude than the system reactance at the resistor location. Consequently, the ine-to-ground-fault current is primarily limited by the resistor iselt The reasons for limiting the current by resistance grounding include: a) Toreduce burning and melting effects in faulted electric equipment, such as switchgear. transformers cables, and rotating machines b) Toreduce mechanical stresses in circuits and apparatus carrying fault currents €) To reduce electric-shock hazards to personnel caused by ground-fault currents in the ground-return path, 25 Copynght© 2019 IEEE Allights reserved ‘et andar dooEEE sts 3003.1-2019 IEEE Recommended Practice for System Grounding of Industial and Commercial Power Systems 4d) To reduce the risk of an are blast or flash hazard to personnel by’ limiting the energy produced in a single phase-to-ground fault. This will greatly reduce the risk of the fault propagating toa three phase fault €) To reduce the momentary line-voltage dip occasioned by the occurrence and clearing of a ground aul, 1) Tosecure control of transient overvoltages while at the same time avoiding the shutdown of a faulted circuit on the occurrence of the first ground fault (high-resistance grounding), Resistance grounding may be either of two classes. high resistance or low resistance, distinguished by’ the ‘magnitude of ground-fault current permitted to flow: Although there are no recognized standards forthe levels ‘of ground: fault current that define these wo classes, in practice there isa clear difference, ‘Systems grounded through resistors require surge arrester suitable for use on ungrounded neutral circuits. Metal-oxide surge arrester ratings must be chosen so that neither the maximum continuous operating voltage capability nor the one-second temporary overvoltage capability is exceeded under system ground fault conditions, Figure 11—Resistance grounded system 4.3.1 High resistance grounding High-resistance grounding employs a neutral resistor of high ohmic value, The value of the resistor i selected tolimit the current, I, toa magnitude equal to or slightly greater than the total capacitance charging current, 3 Faye a shown in Figure 12, ‘Typically, the ground-fault current, ,.is limited to 10.4 or less although some specialized systems at voltages in the 15 KV class may require higher ground fault levels. In general, the use of high-resistance grounding ‘on systems where the line-to-ground fault exceeds 10 A should be avoided because of the potential damage caused by an arcing current larger than 10 A in a confined space. Several references {B3] are available which give typical system charging currents for major items in the electrical system, These will allow the value of the neutral resistor to be estimated inthe project design stage. ‘The actual system charging current may be measured prior to connection of the high-resistance grounding equipment following the manufacturer's recommended procedures, % Copynght © 2019 EEE Allighs reserved ‘et andar dooEEE sts 3003.1-2019 IEEE Recommended Practice for System Grounding of Industial and Commercial Power Systems High-tesistance grounding usually does not require immediate clearing ofa ground fault since the fault current is limited to a very law level. The protective scheme associated with high-resistance grounding is usually detection and alarm rather than immediate trip. For this eason, the resistor is rated for continuous operation Atypical scheme for detecting a ground fault in a high-resistance grounded system is shown in Figure 13, with resistor connected directly to the neutral ofthe power source. Under normal operation, the neutral point of the transformer is at near zero potential. When a single line-to-ground fault occurs, the neutral point israised to approximately line-to-neutral voltage. The resistor i sized to limit the current to the desired value, ‘An alternative method is shown in Figure 13, where a step-down transformer is typically used to reduce the line-to-neutral voltage of the system to a level acceptable to the protective device. The resistance RI is the reflected resistance of Rin the secondary ofthe transformer. High-resistance grounding has the following advantages: Service continuity is maintained. The frst ground fault does not requite process equipment to be shut down, — Transient overvoltage due to restriking ground faults is reduced (to 173% of normal line-to-ground potential), —_Apulse system will facilitate locating a ground fault, This is achieved by cyclically altering the resistor in the neutral-to-ground path between two or more values. This in effect will cause the ground-fault, current 10 change. This change can be detected using a zero sequence current sensor to follow the ‘faulted path to the very point ofthe fault, The fault signature will be present only inthe faulted path. — Flash hazards to personnel associated with high ground-fault currents are eliminated, —_ Theneed forand expense of coordinated ground fault relaying is eliminated h-tesistance grounding is generally employed in the following: — Low voltage (where permitted). i¢., commercial and industrial locations where there are no line-to- neutral loads — Medium voltage systems where capacitive char ing current is not excessive, — Retofts of previously ungrounded systems where it is desired to reduce transient overvoltages potentially caused by restriking ground faults, — For protection of generator windings, 27 Copynght© 2019 EEE. Allighs reserved ‘et andar dooEEE sts 3003.1-2019 IEEE Recommended Practice for System Grounding of Indusial and Commercial Power Systems, fh3 too ul GROUND te frau Raat fe Pe Bip Am Figure 12—Single line-to-ground fault on a high-resistance grounded system GROUND FAULT |e Figure 13—Scheme for ground fault on a high-resistance grounded system using voltage transformer 4.3.2 Low-resistance grounding Low-resistance grounding is designed to limit ground-fault current to a range between 0.A and 1000.8. The level of fault current is optimally chosen as the lowest value that helps ensure reliable tripping of protective devices with 400 A being typical. The neutral resistor. R, shown in Figure 4, is selected according to R= Vi [,,where V, isthe system line-to-neutral voltage and I, isthe desired ground-fault current. Figure 15 illustrates the flow of currents for a single round fault on a low resi y Since the combined effects of charging current and system source impedance will affect the ground current value less than 0.5% in the typical range of uility supplied systems. ignoring these effects in calculating the ‘ground fault resistance value is permissible. The general practice is to consider thatthe fall system lin. 8 Copynght © 2019 IEEE Allights reserved ‘et andar dooIEEE sts 3003.1.2019 IEEE Recommended Practice for Systm Grounding of Industial and Commercial Power Systems neutral voltage appears across the grounding resistor. Only inthe case of systems supplied by small generators should departure trom this general practice be considered LLow-resistance grounding has the advantage of facilitating the immediate and selective clearing of a grounded circuit. This requires that the minimum ground-fault current be large enough to be detected by ground fault relay. When a ground fault occurs, the neutral potential is raised to approximately line-to-neutral volta resulting in current low through the resistor. Upon indication that aground fault has occurred, action would be initiated to disconnect the transformer from the secondary circuit Since the intent is that the ground-fault current supplied by low-resistance grounding be promptly and automatically cleared by protective relaying, the grounding resistor can be rated for intermittent duty. Normal practice is to rate it for 10 s or 30 s, depending upon the degree of security appropriate for the application, In cases of faults that are not, or cannot be, disconnected by secondary breakers, the ability for prompt and ‘automatic disconnection of the primary source is required. Suitable relaying and switching devices for this purpose are an integral part ofthe low-esistance system design, Low-resistance grounding finds application in medium voltage systems of 35 kV and below. particularly ‘where large rotating machinery is used. By limiting ground-fault currents to hundreds of amperes, instead of thousands of amperes, damage to expensive equipment is reduced. Figure 14—Low-resistance grounded system 29 Copyight © 2019 IEEE. Alnghts reserved et andar d99¢EEE Sts 3003.1-2019 IEEE Recommended Practice for System Grounding of Indusial and Commercial Power Systems fi. Figure 15—Single line-to-ground fault on a low-resistance grounded system 4.3.3 Hybrid grounding The hybrid grounding scheme combines both high-resistance (IIRG) and low-resistance grounding (LRG) as shown in Figure 16 (hybrid high-resistance grounding = IINRG). The scheme adaptive! ‘grounding inthe generator neutral to HIG when a generator ground fault is detected by ope switch to remove the LRG source. switches the high-speed 5 Generator Windings HRG Less than 108 Figure 16—Generator hybrid ground x0 Copynght © 2019 IEEE. Allights reserved ‘et andar dooEEE ste 3003.1.2019 IEEE Recommended Practice for System Grounding of Industial and Commercial Power Systems “The need tir hybrid grounding stems from the two contributors to internal Fault current, the system andl the ‘generator itself. The system fault current contribution is quickly interrupted when the generator breaker is tripped after four to six-cycle delay, which assumes athree or five-cyele breaker, respectively. with one cycle of relay time, Figure 17 plots the watt-second energy trom both sources of ground-fault current. Itean be seen from this plot thatthe vast majority of damage occurs from the generator current source after tripping has ‘occurred, Even with one cycle fault recognition, the resulting fault decay'time of the generator current results inthe vast majority of damage. The more system sources of ground current, the higher the energy sill be from the system contribution: but clearly if fault damage isto be reduced, the contribution from the generator must be reduced (128). [B29], B31) (B32). Gonerator Damage due to Generator Fault Current i [Total Damage =| cat H Geran dn H Syste 0001 0.01 01 1 10 Time (s) Figure 17—Watt-second fault energy versus time ‘Simply high-resistance grounding the generator is not a viable option because during emergency situations ‘when the utility source is unavailable when the utility breaker is open and the generator can be the sole source cof power tothe industrial facility shown in Figure 18. A sufficient level of ground current must be maintained to: — Stabilize neutral shit on the un-faulted phases — Provide enough ground current to allow proper operation of ground fault protection on the industrial system ‘Those objectives require a ground current in the range of 200 A to 1000 A, Only for internal generator ground faults is the high-speed switch ripped to change the grounding scheme from low resistance to high resistance. uM Copyight © 2019 IEEE. Alnights reserves ‘st andar d99¢EEE sts 3003.1.2019 IEEE Recommended Practice for System Grounding of Indusial and Commercial Power Systems Figure 18—Typical hybrid grounding schematic, 4.4 Reactance grounding ‘The term reactance grounding describes the case in which a reactor is connected between the system neutral nd ground, as shown in Figure 20, Since the ground fault that may flow in a reactance-grounded system is a function of the neutral reactance, the magnitude of the ground-fault current is often used as a criterion for describing the degree of grounding. In a reactance-grounded system, the available ground-fault current should be at least 25% (X, = 10X,) and preferably 60% (X, = 3X,) of the three-phase fault current to prevent serious transient overvoltages, The term X,.as used, isthe sum of the source zero-sequence reactance, X,, plus three times the grounding reactance, 3X,. (X, = X, Source ~ 3X,). This value is considerably higher than the level of fault current desirable in a resistance-grounded system, and therefore reactance grounding is usually not considered an altemative to low-resistance grounding, Reactance grounding is typically reserved for applications where there isa desire to limit the ground fault duty to.a magnitude that is relatively close to the magnitude of a three-phase fault, Use of neutral grounding reactors to provide this fault limitation will often be found to be a less expensive application than use of grounding resistors ifthe desired current magnitude is several thousand amperes. ‘These circumstances may arise in one of two possible instances. One potential setting is where a large substation feeds a medium voltage distribution system, and the total zero sequence impedance of the step- down transformers in the station causes the single-fine-to-ground-fault current to greatly exceed the magnitude ‘ofa three-phase fault and ground fault Limitation is desired wo keep the total fault current within the reasonable limits These conditions tend to occur most often in electric utility distribution practice. ‘The second instance is where there is a desire to serve single-line-to-neutral-connected load directly at the terminal voltage of generators, i¢.. without an intervening generator isolation transformer. In this instance, a current will flow in the generator neutral asa result of unbalance between the loads on the three phases. A ieural circuit of the generator will limit the flow ofthis unbalance, thereby limiting the ability ‘of the system to carry unbalanced single-phase load, Medium voltage generators are typically not designed to ‘withstand the unbalanced mechanical forces associated with supplying ground-fault currents that exceed the magnitude of current that the machine would produce to a three-phase fault at its terminals, thereby making solid grounding ofthe neutral undesirable, Use of low-reactance grounding to limit the ground fault magnitude to a level slightly lower than the three-phase level is a way to resolve these application constraints, The fons that favor low-reactance grounding of generators are relatively rare, so this practice is somewhat obscute. x Copynght © 2019 IEEE Allighs reserved ‘et andar dogEEE sts 3003.1.2019 IEEE Recommended Practice for System Grounding of Industial and Commercial Power Systems. 4.5 Resonant grounding (ground-fault neutralizer) A ground-fault neutralizer isa reactor connected between the neutral ofa system and ground. The reactor, X,. is specially selected. or tuned. to resonate with the distributed capacitance, X,, ofthe system so thata resulting ‘eround-fault current is resistive and low in magnitude. A resistance. r. is shown depicting reactor losses. The resulting ground-fault current i in phase with the line-to-neutral Voltage so that current zero and voltage zero ‘occur simultaneously. Ifthe ground fault isi ar, uch as an insulator flashover, it may be sell-extinguishing. Operation ofa ground-fault neutralizer is explained with reference to Figure 19. The distributed capacitance per phase is assumed to be balanced. When one phase of the system is grounded (assume phase C) a to-neutral voltage, Veg. is impressed across the reactor. This produces a lagging inductive current, I, that flows from the neutralizer through the transformer, to the fault, then to the ground. At the same time a leading ‘capacitive current, 3 flows from the wo unfaulted lines through the capacitance to ground and tothe Fault ‘The lagging current from the inductor and the leading current from the distributed capacitance are practically 180° out of phase, By properly tuning the reactor (selecting the right tap), the inductive and capacitive components of eurrent can be made to neutralize each other, leaving only a relatively small component of resistive current, I to flow inthe faut Figure 19—Single line-to-ground fault on a reactance-grounded system ‘This method of grounding was occasionally seen in high-voltage transmission practice. Today, itis rarely encountered in North America. There area few instances in which it has been applied for generator grounding in lange central stations, especially in the New England area, However, itis relatively common in electric utility distribution practice inthe UK and Europe. A key requirement is that because the resonant circuit must be retuned ifthe distributed parameters of the associated circuit are changed, the ideal application is one that does not involve frequent circuit switching or reconfiguration, 4.6 Solid grounding Solid grounding refers to the connection of a system conductor, usually the neutral of a generator, power transformer, or grounding transformer directly to ground, without any intentional intervening impedance. Two examples of solidly grounded systems ate shown in Figure 20. Acknowledging the impedance of the source nd the unintentional impedance inthe connection to ground leads to reference of these systems as effectively rounded u Copynght© 2019 EEE Allights reserved ‘et andar dooEEE sts 3003.1-2019 IEEE Recommended Practice for System Grounding of Industial and Commercial Power Systems “To assess the benefits of a solid connection to ground, determining the degree of grounding provided in the system is necessary. A good guide in answering this question is the magnitude of ground-fault current as ‘compared tothe system three-phase faull current. The higher the ground-fault current in relation to the three- phase fault current, the greater the degree of grounding in the system. Effectively grounded systems are systems whose line-to-ground short-circuit current (I) 8 atleast 60% of the three-phase, short-circuit value (ya 4.6.1 Effectively grounded ‘A system is effectively grounded when grounded through a sufficiently low impedance (inherent oF {intentionally added, or both) so that the coetficient of grounding (COG) does not exceed 80%. The term coetficient of grounding (COG) is defined asthe ratio of E/E, expressed as a percentage. ofthe highest rms line-to-ground power frequency voltage (E,,,) on an unfaulted phase, ata selected location. during a fault to earth affecting one or more phases tothe line-to-line power frequency voltage (E,,) that would be obtained, atthe selected location, with the fault removed. Coefficient of grounding may be calculated from the known {impedances of the system and the fault, ‘This value is obtained approximately when, forall system conditions. the ratio of the zero-sequence reactance to the pasitive-sequence reactance, (X, /X;), is positive and « 3. andthe ratio of zero-sequence resistance to positive-sequence reactance, (R, 'X,), 1s positive and < 1 In formulae’ 1.2069, Thus: BEX, +24, 206E/X, hence, X,/X, 53 Further condition is ®,<%, ‘The X, component used in the above equations is the Thevenin equivalent positive-sequence reactance of the complete system, including the subtransient reactance of all rotating machines: R, and X, are the Thevenin {equivalent zero sequence resistance and reactance of the complete system, The above equations must exist at all points in the system, This is seen in Figure 20, M Copynght © 2019 IEEE. Allighs reserved ‘et andar dooEEE sts 3003.1-2019 IEEE Recommended Practice for System Grounding of Industial and Commercial Power Systems Maximum Voltage to Ground When R1/X: 3.00 Mulipie of Phase to Ground Voltage 0.00 30 20 40 ° 10 20 30 Xu —Rox1= 0 —ROXI= 05 —ROXI= 1 — RoXI=2 —ROR! Figure 20—Transient overvoltage Because the reactance of a solidly grounded generator or transformer is in series with the neutral circuit, solid connection does not provide a zero impedance circuit Ifthe reactance of the system zero-sequence ircuit i too great with resjpect tothe system positive-sequence reactance, the objectives sought in grounding, principally freedom from transient overvoltages. may not be achieved. If Ry is too high, it may not create transient voltages, but it may also not provide desired suppression of voltage to ground on the unfaulted phases. 8 Copyight © 2019 IEEE. Allnights reserved st andar d99¢IEEE sts 3003.1.2019 IEEE Recommended Practice for Systm Grounding of Industial and Commercial Power Systems _ x3 ‘ aan : « ‘ a Figure 21—Solidly grounded systems a) Grounded wye b) Corner grounded delta ‘This condition is rarely a problem in typical industrial and commercial power systems. A sufficiently low resistance to earth may be difficult to achieve, but the ground to which faults occur will be the bonded conductive electrical enclosures. The zero-sequence impedance of most generators used in these systems is ‘much lower than the positive-sequence impedance of these generators, The zero-sequence impedance of @ delta-wye transformer will not exceed the transformer’s positive-sequence impedance. There are, however, conditions under which relatively high zero-sequence impedance may occur. One of these conditions is a power system fed by several generators andor transformers in parallel. Ifthe neutral of only one source is grounded. i is possible for the zero-sequence impedance of the grounded source toexcced the effective positive-sequence impedance of the several sources in parallel ‘Another such condition may occur where power is distributed to remote facilities by an overhead line without a metallic ground retum path. In this ease. the return path for ground-fault current is through the earth, and even though both the neutral of the source and the non-conducting parts at the load may be grounded with ‘well-made electrodes, the ground return path includes the impedance of both of these grounding electrodes. ‘This impedance may be significant. Another significant souree of zero-sequence impedance is the large line- to-ground spacing ofthe overhcad line, Solid grounding is generally recommended forthe following: a) Low-voltage systems(750 V and below} where automatic isolation of faulted circuit can be tolerated. b)Medium- or high-voltage systems (above 15 kV) in order to permit the use of equipment with insulation levels to ground rated for less than line-to-line voltage ¢) Medium-or high-voltage applications where the desire fora higher magnitude of ground-fault current inorder tobe able to provide selective ground fault detection on lengthy distribution feeders outweighs cconcems about ac flash and potential gradients as personnel hazards in a workplace setting % Copyright© 2019 IEEE. Allnights reserved et andar d99¢EEE sts 3003.1-2019 IEEE Recommended Practice for System Grounding of Industial and Commercial Power Systems 4.7 Characteristics of grounding methods ‘The advantages and disadvantages ofthe various methods of grounding are summarized in Table | Table 1—Characteristics of grounding methods Ungrownded | Solid | Reactancegrounding | Ground- | Resistance grounding fault Low | High value Low High value | reactor | PMA | sesistance | resistance reactor Carenttor | Lessthan 1's | Varies, | Usually Nearly ro | 20%and | Less tan phase-to- be | des faulleurent | downward | 1% but not ‘ground fal or | topreduce TOOAto | tess than inpereent of areater | 28%.t0 TOA” | system three-phase 100% charging fault cutent sure 3, Transient | Veryhigh | Nov Not Now Not Not Not inet | Notsupporied | Supported | Supported | Not Not Not Now neutral ‘eurrent | supported | supported | supported | supported loads sreater ‘Surge Ungrounded= Ungrounded arresters_ | neutral ype neutral type Remarks | Not “Generally wsedion | Not used due | Best Generally | Usedion recommended | systems (1) 600 toercessive [suited tor | usedon | systems.up duet Vand below and overvoliges | application | systems [10S kV cvervoliges | 2hover ISkV inmost | of24 Ky and medium — | wiSkV romscgregation voltage | particulary offal industrial | where large and rovating feomnmercial | machines are ‘Systems that | connected ate isolated From their electric wuliy Systemby “Caution should be appied in using this form of grounding with industrial generation (see IEE Sid 367). This form of grounding is deal forse on mieim-vollage generators, Also accasionaly found on mission-critical 24 kV or 4,16 KV. Indusval or commercial distribution systems, 5. Obtaining the system neutral Locating a point ata source of electrical power to which a connection to ground may be atached is generally desirable, There are several exceptions (e423 wite delta, 4 wire delta) that are covered later. The most ‘common location isthe system neutral point, I should be noted that the neutral point is used forthe purpose of system grounding, The fact that there tsa neutral point does not imply that a neutral conductor, forthe purpose ‘of supplying single-phase loads, can be or shoul be connected tothe neutral point While resistance grounding provides increased safety it precludes operation of Tine-to-neutral loads. Where single-phase loads are determined to be necessary or desirable. one alternative is to develop a new solidly grounded system that is supplied trom the original resistance grounded system, as shown in Figure 22, A delta-wye transformer can be inserted fo obtain the system neutral for grounding purposes in three-phase systems, The neutral is then readily available with the added advantage in applications lke lighting and enabling use of breakers and panels with reduced short circuit ratings. Such transformers are available for A Copynght© 2019 IEEE Allights reserved ‘et andar dooEEE sts 3003.1.2019 IEEE Recommended Practice for System Grounding of Indusial and Commercial Power Systems, practically all voltages except 240 V. (240 V transformers typically have a delta secondary with a grounded splitphase winding on one side. See 5.2.2.) On new systems, 208/120 V or 480¥ 277 V.delta-wye-connected transformers may be used to good advantage. Wye-connected source transformers for 2400 V, 4160 V. and 13 '800 V systems are commonly available, while other voltages, such as 4800 V or 6900 V, may be available as ‘options. The alternative is grounding transformers. SERVICE BUS a A Joen SINGLE 8 PHASE Loaps c NOR ‘ Oe Figure 22—Transformer to obtain neutral where system is resistance grounded 5.1 Grounding transformers System neutrals may not be availabe, particularly in many older systems rated 600 V or less and in many existing 2400 V, 4800 V, and 6900 V systems, When existing delta connected or ungrounded systems are to be grounded, groun sformers can be used to obtain a neutral, The most commonly used grounding transformers are the zigzag and wye-delta type. 5.1.1 Zigzag grounding transformers One type of grounding transformer commonly used is a three-phase zigzag transformer with no secondary ‘winding. The intemal connection of the transformer is illustrated in Figure 23, The impedance of the transformer to balanced three-phase voltages is high so that when there is no fault on the system, only a small ‘magnetizing current flows in the transformer winding, The transformer impedance to zero-sequence voltages, however, is low so that it allows high ground-fault currents to flow: The transformer divides the ground: fault current into three equal components: these currents are in phase with each other and flow in the thrce windings ‘of the grounding transformer, The method of winding is seen from Figure 23 a be such that when these theee {equal currents flow; the current in one section of the winding of each leg of the core isin a direction opposite tothat in the other section ofthe winding on that leg, This tends to force the ground-fault current to have equal division inthe three lines and accounts forthe low impedance of the transformer-to-ground currents, ‘A zigzag transformer may be used for effective grounding. or an impedance can be inserted between the derived neutral ofthe zigzag transformer and ground to obtain the desited method of grounding w Copynght© 2019 IEEE. Allights reserved ‘et andar dogIEEE sts 3003.1.2019 IEEE Recommended Practice for System Grounding of Indusial and Commercial Power Systems TO UNGROUNDED 3 PHASE VOLTAGE SOURCE Hh it |t t v lcrouno at Ly GROUND FAULT Figure 24—Resistance grounding of a system through a zigzag grounding transformer 9 Copyright© 2019 IEEE. Alnights reserved st andar d99¢IEEE sts 3003.1-2019 IEEE Recommended Practice for System Grounding of Industial and Commercial Power Systems, 5.1.2 Wye-delta grounding transformers. ‘Avwye-delta connected three-phase transformer or transformer bank can also be utilized for system grounding, 1s shown in Figure 25. As in the case of the zigzag transformer, t can be used for effective grounding oF to accomplish resistance-type grounding of an existing ungrounded system. The delta connection must be closed to provide a path for the zero-sequence current, and the delta voltage rating is selected for any standard value. A resistor inserted between the primary neutral and ground, as shown in Figure 24, provides a means for limiting ground-fault current to a level satisfying the criteria for resistance-grounded systems. For this arrangement, the voltage rating of the wye Winding need not be greater than the normal line-to-neutral system voltage. For the wye-broken delta grounding configuration, the grounding bank must consist of three single- ‘phase transformers with the primary wye neutral connected directly to ground, The secondary delta is closed through a resistor that effectively limits the primary ground-fault current to the desired low level. For this alternative application, the voltage rating of each ofthe transformer windings forming the wye primary should not be less than the system line-to-line voltage ‘The rating ofa three-phase grounding transformer or hank, in klovoll ampere (kVA), isequal tothe rated line- to-neutral voltage in kilovolts times the rated neutral current. Most grounding transformers are designed to carry their rated current for a limited time only, such as 10 $ oF I min. Consequently they are much smaller in size than an ordinary three-phase continuously rated transformer wit the same rating. Its generally desirable to connect a grounding transformer directly o the main bus of a power system without intervening circuit breakers or fuses. This prevents the transformer feom being inadvertently removed trom service by the operation of the intervening devices. (In this case. the transformer is considered part of the bus and is protected by the relaying applied for bus protection.) Alternatively, the grounding transformer should be served by a dedicated feeder circuit breaker, as shown in pratt a) of Figure 27, oF connected herween the ‘main transformer and the main switeligear. a illustrated in part b) of Figure 27. I the grounding transformer is connected as shown in part b) of Figure 27, there should be one grounding transformer for each delt connected bank supplying power to the system, of enough grounding transformers to assure at least ane grounding transformer on the system at all times. When the grounding transformer is so connected, itis included inthe protective system of the main transformer. 40 Copymght© 2019 IEEE. Allnghts reserved ‘st andar d99¢IEEE sts 3003.1.2019 IEEE Recommended Practice for System Grounding of Indusial and Commercial Power Systems TOUNGROUNDED | PHASE VOLTAGE SOURCE => ‘GROUND FAULT {He Figure 25—Low-resistance grounding of a system through a wye-delta grounding transformer with ground sensing current relay 41 Copyight © 2019 IEEE. Alnghts reserved et andar d99¢EEE Sts 3003.1-2019 IEEE Recommended Practice for Systm Grounding of Indusial and Commercial Power Systems. 3f Lo na GROUNDING TRANSFORMER @ ‘GROUNDING RESISTOR GROUNDING sah TRANSFORMER wy i GROUNDING Uresistor a) ) Figure 26—Connection of grounding transformers in delta connected or ungrounded power ‘system to obtain neutral for system grounding a) Circuit feeder breaker b) Connected between main transformer and main switchgear 5.2 Grounding at points other than system neutral, In some cases, low-voltage systems (600 V and below) are grounded at some point other than the system neutral obtain a grounded electrical system. This approach ts done because delta transformer connections do not provide aecess tothe three-phase system neutral, Two systems are in general use 5.2.1 Corner-of-the-delta grounded systems ‘Some low-voltage, ungrounded systems have been conceived, as shown previously in part b) of Figure 21 using della connected supply transformers with no readily available neutral grounding, Vollages to ground of other than the grounded corner are line-to-line values requiring derating of circuit breakers along with cable 2 Copynght© 2019 IEEE Allights reserved et andar dooIEEE sts 3003.1.2019 IEEE Recommended Practice for Systm Grounding of Industial and Commercial Power Systems insulation ratings of 173%, Because of its limitations, this type of grounding is no longer popular and is not widely used in industrial systems. 5.2.2 One phase of a delta system grounded at midpoint In some areas where the utility has both a single-phase 120/240 V load and three-phase 240 V loads, they have supplied a larger single-phase 120/240 V transformer and one or two smaller 240 V transformers. (One small transformer is used in an open delta configuration for maximum savings.) All transformers are connected in dela with the midpoint of the 120/240 V grounded for a 240/120 V three-phase four wire system. This provides neutral grounding for the single-phase 120-240 V and also grounding for the 240 V three-phase system. Itis not recommended for voltages ovet 240 V ‘The advantages ofthis type of grounding scheme are — First cost for transformers and overcurrent protection can be less than for separate single phase transformers and three-phase systems. Mid-phase grounding effectively controls, to sate levels, the transient overvoltages to ground. ‘These diverse loads can be served from a single service, ‘The disadvantages are: “The shock hazard ofthe high phase leg to ground is 208 V, which is 1.73 times the voltage ofa neutral grounded 240 V system. Since this voltage can appear across a single pole of a breaker. 277 V rated breakers may be required. — There must be positive identification of the conductor with the highest voltage to ground to avoid connecting 120 V loads to that conductor. — The fault currents on the single-phase system may be higher than normally expected forthe size of the system. possibly requiring higher rated panelboards. 6. Location of system grounding p 6.1 Derived systems Each system as described inthis commended practice is characterized by its isolation from adjacent systems, ‘whether grounded or ungrounded, The isolation is provided either by the electrical isolation of transformer primary and secondary windings or by the physical isolation of generator windings. This approach does not preclude considering separate power sources, connected in parallel, to have each one separately grounded. Generators and/or transformers are often connected in parallel for increased reliability or to increase the available system power, The secondary of a transformer, with no electrical connections to the primary has derived a new separate system, Similarly, a generator isa separate system having no electrical connection to any other system. The term “separately derived” is generally defined as one whose power is derived from a ‘generator, transformer. or converter windings and that has no direct electrical connection, including a solidly connected grounded circuit conductor, to supply conductors originating in another system. The new derived system created by a transformer or generator should then be considered for grounding and type of grounding {depending upon the application requires the establishment of a new system ground if itis required or desired that this system be grounded. The system ground point should generally be located at the power source in ‘order to minimize the impedance in the lightning current path to the earth and to minimize the impedance in higher voltage fault currents thus permitting faster fault current clearing a Copyight © 2019 IEEE. Alnghts reserved et andar d99¢EEE sts 3003.1-2019 IEEE Recommended Practice for System Grounding of Industial and Commercial Powe Systems. 6.2 Transformer configurations While comer grounded deltas or midpoint grounds provide a reference to earth, line-to-zround voltages approaching line-to-line values preclude operation of typical line-to-line loads. There are wo requirements that must be met for @ transformer to provide a functional system ground, The first requirement is fairly inwitive: the transformer winding at the voltage where a ground is desired must be connected in wye (sometimes referred to as star in European practice). Altematively. transformers with windings connected in the interconnected star or zigzag configuration also provide a neutral point that can be grounded. ‘The second requirement is a bit more involved, Table | lists a number of options for the mode of system grounding. n order for these options to exit. the impedance of the transformer to ground-fault current must be significantly lower than the impedance of the connection between the neutral and earth such that this neutral impedance governs the selection of grounding mode (B15, Essentially. this configuration translates into a requirement thatthe transformer contain a second winding that is connected in delta. Thus. a transformer thatis intended to provide a system ground must provide a wye-connected winding atthe voltage of the system to be ‘grounded, and must also contain a delta winding, The most common configuration that meets this requirement in industrial and commercial applications is @ transformer that has a delta-connected primary winding and a ‘wye-connected secondary winding. Wye-uye transformers alone cannot be used to enable a separately derived system ground for industrial and commercial power systems. In special cases. using wye-wye transformers that are equipped with delta- connected tertiary windings to provide system grounding is possible. This arrangement canbe designed for low- resistance grounding as well 3s effective grounding. Iti also possible to use wye-connected autotransformers provided they also have a delta-connected tertiary winding, although this isa relatively uncommon practice nd should only be used t provide effective (solid) grounding. Applying a neutral grounding resistor between ‘ground and the neutral of autotransformers can lead to undesirable neutral Voltage excursions, Using wye-wye connected transformers with special five-leg magnetic cores to serve commercial applications ‘on effectively grounded (utility) distribution systems is a common practice, This connection is chosen to address concerns with ferroresonance that come about duc to single-phase switching (its a common practice that utility distribution systems use single point load-break switching devices, typically hook-stick operated), ‘and this connection minimizes concerns with erroresonance that would otherwise be present in that situation. Rather than provide system grounding itself, the five-leg core wye-wye transformer provides a continuous path for ground-fault currents trom the primary distribution system into the commercial load on the secondary. ‘The system ground is actually established by the transformer that supplies the host distribution system, This practice results in the commercial system also being effectively grounded 6.2.1 Delta-wye transformer In a delta-wye connceted transformer. with the load side neutral grounded, zero-sequence components of current can flow in the secondary wye-connected windings due to a ground fault, Zero-sequence current is then induced into the primary windings of the transformer and circulates in the delta conneetion. Positive and negative-sequence curtents pass through the transformer combining to produce high current in two of the primary phase conductors. A ground fault onthe secondary of the delta-wye connected tans former appears as aline-to-line fault on the primary. [the neutral of the wye-connected windings isnot grounded. then zero-sequence current cannot flow and the system becomes ungrounded 44 Copynght© 2019 EEE. Allights reserved ‘et andar dogEEE sts 3003.1-2019 IEEE Recommended Practice for Systm Grounding of Industial and Commercial Powe Systems, SRSOTS—— SOMEONES EDR CARRE ORTS PB 2, Q 23h pa yy rh A e @ z, eife = —— ® AY REFERENCE BUS. sf 3 : seal [Ss 1 RErEREIGE BS [NOTE—Configurations a ande) perm the Now of 7ero-sequence curren: b) doe asto the grounding ofthe source ) @ rd) requires farther examination Figure 27—Zero-sequence impedance of different transformer configurations Zero-sequence components of current can flow through a wye-wye connected transformer if a neutral path exists on both sides of the transturmer. An example is shown in Figure 29, where a delta-wye connected transformer. supplies power toa wye-svye connected transformer, T,. fault onthe load side of T; produces ~zero-sequente current, which flows inthe primary and secondary windings of that transformer, Zero-sequence {current is permitted to flow inthe primary of T. because a path exists inthe delta-wye connected transformer T,, Disconnecting any of transformer neutrals, on either T, or T., would prevent the flow af zeru-sequence current in both transformers. except as allowed by magnetizing reactance. Depending upon the connections to the transformer, the use of 4 wye-wye transformer can result in a single system, or its load side may be a separately derived system, Figure 29 shows a single system, 45 Copynght © 2019 EEE. Allights reserved ‘et andar dooEEE sts 3003.1.2019 IEEE Recommended Practice for System Grounding of Indusial and Commercial Power Systems. " TOLoAD Figure 28—Transformer connections illustrating the flow of zero-sequence current resulting from a line-to-ground fault 6.2.2 Wye-wye transformers A wye-wye transformer, T, is shown in Figure 29 with the primary and secondary neutrals interconnected through their separate connections to ground. This transformer configuration is used on solidly grounded utility distribution systems, particularly underground systems, to reduce the likelihood of ferroresonance when the supply switches can be operated one phase at a time, The utilities ground the primary neutral point {to minimize the neutral-to-earth voltage throughout the length of the distribution line and by default on ‘underground systems using bare concentric neutral cables, They ground the secondary neutral to provide an effectively grounded low-voltage service. Note that this multiple grounding ofthe primary at each transformer is not essential to prevent ferroresonance or provide secondary grounding as long as the fourth conductor is brought to the primary neutral of the transformer. The-neutral-to-transformer case and ground connection ‘minimizes secondary neutral-to-ground voltage during a fault between primary and transformer case In an industrial distribution system, the physical length of the circuit will usually be short enough so that excessive neutral-to-ground voltages will not be present even itthere is no ground at the wye-wye transformer ‘common neutral terminals, as shown in Figure 29, The schematic shown in Figure 29 can be considered a separately derived system. Ifthe neutral is grounded at the source, T, the output of the wye-wye transformer will be a continuation ofthe grounded system, though at the secondary voltage of the transformer. A fault, F.,on the load side of the wye-wye connected transformer. ‘T, will produce zero-sequence components of current in its primary windings. This zero-sequence current will flow back to the secondary neutral terminal of source transtormer. 46 Copynght © 2019 IEEE Allights reserved ‘et andar dooEEE sts 3003.1-2019 IEEE Recommended Practice for System Grounding of Indusial and Commercial Power Systems, " n TOLOAD 2 Figure 29—Non separately derived wye-wye transformer ‘This transformer connection utilizes the standard wye-wye transformer that contains an internal primary-to- secondary neutral connection suitable for utility practices as shown in Figure 29. Wye-wye transformers are typically avoided for industrial and commercial facilities because fault clearing may result in greater system interruption than would otherwise oceur with delta-wye transformation, ‘The circuit supplied by the wye-wye connected transformer shown in Figure 30 cannot be considered @ separately derived system since there are no direct metallic connections between the primary and secondary of the transformer, Primary and secondary ground faults are separately measured and relayed. The secondary of the transformer will not be grounded unless a connection to earth is made. The secondary could be impedance ‘grounded, Secondary neutral grounding will also require a connection from the neutral of the primary source to the primary neutral of the wye-wye transformer to supply zero-sequence current. Unlike the delta-wye transformer, the wye-wye transformer itself is not a source of zero-sequence current. Grounding can be achieved without a primary neutral connection ifa phase ofthe secondary rather than the neutral is grounded since no zero-sequence current is involved. The effect is then identical to corner grounding of a delta-delta transformer, 6.3 Single power source ‘When a system has only one source of power (generator or transformer) grounding may be aceomplished by connecting the source neutral to earth either directly or through a neutral impedance as shown in Figure 31 Provision of a switch or circuit breaker to open the neutral circuit is not recommended. Operating the system ungrounded by’ having the ground connection open while the generator of transformer is in service is not desirable, In the event that some means of disconnecting the ground connection is required for measurement, esting, or repair. a disconnecting link should be used and only opened when the system is de-energized. 6.4 Multiple power sources For installation of interconnected multiple power sources (i.e. generators or power transformers) operated in parallel, system grounding can be accomplished using one ofthe two following methods: ) Each source grounded, with or without impedance (see Figure 32) 47 Copyright© 2019 IEEE. Alnghts reserves ‘st andar d99¢EEE ste 3003.1.2019 IEEE Recommended Practice for System Grounding of Industial and Commercial Power Systems. b) Each source neutral connected to a common neutral bus, which is then grounded, with or without impedance (see Figure 33) For solidly grounded systems with multiple sources where all sources must be solidly grounded, separately ground each power source as shown in part a) of Figure 31 unless third harmonics are present or if results in exceeding the fault capability of the generators. Levels of fault current in systems where generators are paralleled with transformer sources on a four-wire basis must be calculated using symmetrical component ‘sequence values forthe sources appropriately combined in the system [B24]. Commercial computer programs are now available that will ealeulate branch currents for unbalanced faults in systems with both utility and {generator sources. There can be a significant increase in the total system ground-fault current as compared to the sum of the fault current available from sources when not in a combined system, while the increase in ‘generator currents can be proportionally even greater. ‘Where sources are in close proximity, or where the system is four wire, the common neutral or ground bus 1s shown in part a) of Figure 33 should be used. In a four-wire system, the sources would not be considered as separately derived. If the power sources are not in close proximity, a common ground point is not recommended, The impedance in the neutral bus connection may become large enough to prevent effectively grounding the neutral of the source at the remote location. The interconnection may inadvertently become ‘open. allowing the transformer to operate ungrounded, For impedance grounded systems, separately connecting each neutral to ground through an individual impedance [part b) of Figure 31] is acceptable. Individual neutral switching devices (automatic or manual) are not recommended since incorrect operation ‘may allow a power source to operate ungrounded ‘System relaying is more complex when there are multiple ground fault sources, The fault current sensed by the feeder is variable, depending on the number of ground-tault current sources that are connected at the time of the faut When individual source impedances are used for low or high-resistance grounding. circulation of third harmonic currents between paralleled generators is usually not a problem since the impedance limits the circulating current to tolerable values. When the total ground-fault current from several individual impedances exceeds 1000 A, a common ground point and single impedance should be considered to provide a single acceptable value of ground-tault current [part b) of Figure 33]. The advantage of this connection is thatthe ‘maximum fault current is known, and selective relaying can be used to open tie breakers and selectively isolate the faulted bus. ‘The primary purpose of neutral disconnecting devices in impedance grounded systems, as shown in part b) of Figure 31. isto isolate the generator or transformer neutral from the neutral bus when the source is taken out of service because the neutral bus is energized during ground faults. A generator or transformer disconnected from the power bus, but with an unbroken connection of its neutral to the neutral bus, would have all of its terminals elevated with respect to ground during a ground fault. Disconnecting devices should be metal enclosed and interlocked in such @ manner as to prevent their operation except when the transformer primary and secondary switches or generator main and field circuit breakers are open, On low-voltage systems, the use of tour-pole breakers may’ provide adequate interlocking, In this case, ine-to-neutral voltage should not be used for synchronizing Inthe case of multiple transformers. all neural isolating devices may be normally closed because the presence of delta-connected windings (which are nearly always present on at least one side of each transformer) :minimizes the citculation of harmonic current between transformers. Generators that are designed to Suppress zero-sequence harmonics, usually by the use of a two-thirds pitch winding, will have negligible circulating currents when operated in parallel. Therefore, operating these types of generators with the neutral di 48 Copyight © 2019 IEEE. Alnghts reserved ‘st andar d99¢IEEE sts 3003.1.2019 IEEE Recommended Practice for Systm Grounding of Industial and Commercial Power Systems device closed is often found practical. This method simplifies the operating procedure and increases assurance thatthe system will be grounded at all times because interlocking methods can be used. Operating with only one generator neutral disconnecting device closed at a time to eliminate any circulating harmonic or zero-sequence currents is sometimes desirable. In addition, this method provides control over the maximum ground-fault current and simplifies ground relaying. When the generator whose neutral 1s grounded is to be shut down, another generator is grounded by means of its neutral disconnecting device before the main and neutral disconnecting device of the first one are opened. This method has some inherent safety considerations that must be recognized and addressed in order to ensure continual safe operation. The procedures required to permit only one disconnecting device to be closed with multiple sources generally do ‘not permit the use of conventional interlocking methods to ensute that at least ane neutral disconnecting device wil be closed, Therefore, this method should only be used where strict supervision of operating procedures is assured NEUTRAL L NEUTRAL L CONNECTION TRANSFORMER — CONNECTION TRANSFORMER RORZ Figure 30—Grounding for systems with one source of power: a) Solidly grounded, b) Ror Z grounded 49 Copyight © 2019 IEEE. Alnghts reserved et andar d99¢IEEE Sts 3003.1-2019 IEEE Recommended Practice for System Grounding of Industial and Commercial Power Systems. dd Oo) © Figure 31—Grounding for systems with multiple power source ‘grounded, b) R or Z grounded (Method 1): a) Solidly 6.5 Utility to user interface High-voltage and medium-voltage systems may have multiple neutral grounds where the conductors are overhead outdoors or where they are directly buried with a bare neutral conductor. Given the expansive scope of utility circuits, atthe expense of some level of ground (earth) currents, multiple ground points ensure reference to local earth throughout the length of the circuit. To limit stray currents within a user's facility. there is typically a transition from a combined neutral/ground to separate neutral and ground conductors. This transition is illustrated well by the IEC TN-C- configuration of Figure 34, so CCopynght© 2019 IEEE. Allights reserved ‘et andar doo(EEE Std 30091-2019 IEEE Recommended Practice for System Grounding of Indusial and Commercial Power Systems dk Oo) © Figure 32—Grounding for systems with multiple power sources (Method 2) a) Solidly ‘grounded, b) R orZ grounded st Copyright© 2019 IEEE. Alnghts reserved standard99%EEE ste 3003.1-2019 IEEE Recommended Practice for System Grounding of Industial and Commercial Power Systems u 2 LaRRALLS Bs . . PEN N | Fe R t t cP ecp Figure 33—IEC TN-C-S configuration ¢ insulated cable systems, in addition to the change in grounding configuration, there typically used cable, The eable of choice for most utilities has a concentric neutral as seen in Figure Sa). Commercial and industrial facilities typically use cables with the tape shield shown in Figure 35). The cable difference is critical during design because the concentric neutral isa circuit conductor {that funetions as both neutral and ground. A three (3) wite cone sutral circuit must transition to @ four (4) wire plus ground circuit at the user's transition to cable with a taped shield. @ oy) Figure 34—a) Concentric neutral cable b) Taped shield cable Inaddition o providing the functional properties of both phase and neutral conductors, cables with concentric neutrals can withstand the higher fault currents of solidly grounded systems, These values can be calculated using Equation (1) to enable comparison of short circuit operational capabilities of both concentsic neutrals and tape shields for cable sizes presented in Figure 34, ak ae a r Ais the (otal cross-sectional area of concentric neutral, tape shield, lead sheath or phase conductor (circular mils) 1 is fault current (amperes) 1 is duration of fault (seconds) ‘ ‘Copyright © 2019 IEEE. Alright reserves st andar d99%EEE sts 3003.1-2019 IEEE Recommended Practice for System Grounding of Industial and Commercial Power Systems T, is final temperature of copper after fault (°C) Tis initial temperature of copper before fault (°C) Effective cross-sectional area in cmil, of tape (4) including overlaps of helically applied tape shield is determined by Equation (2) 2 7, istane thickness (mils) S,, is shield diameter (mils) 2. istape overlap (percent ‘Typical tape thickness is 5 mils ‘While a conductor-to-shield fault will likely damage any cable beyond repair at the point of fault, high currents can damage a taped shield for the length of the cable un. Decreased protective relay trip time is typically required where taped shields are used. Where utility distribution voltages are stepped-down at the point of industrial services, esistance grounding is often applied on the transformer secondary to ensure fault current levels are within operating levels of taped shields 7. Grounding of industrial and commercial generators 7.4 Industrial and commercial generator characteristics Generators have several characteristics that are significantly different from transformers, the other common souree of power. As compared tothe transformer, the generator has itl ability to withstand the heating effects ‘or mechanical forces of short circuits. The generator may be required by standards to withstand a Jess than 10-per-unit short circuit, and the imposition of higher currents is defined as unususl service by the National Electrical Manufacturers Association (NEMA) MG 1. whereas a transformer may be required to withstand 2 25-per-unit current, The generator may be capable of withstanding less than 25% of the heating effect of this current as compared tothe transformer. If the current is unbalanced, this capability may be reduced wo less than 10% of the transtormer capability (B27). Unlike the transformer, the three sequence reactance of a generator are not equal. The zero-sequence reactance hhas the lowest value, and the positive-sequence reactance varies asa function of time. Thus. a generator will usually have higher initial ground-fault current than a three-phase fault current if the generator has a solidly grounded neutral. According to NEMA, the generator is required to withstand only the three-phase fault current level unless itis otherwise specified (see NEMA MG 1).Also, NEMA states that the neyative-sequence current thermal withstand limit isa product of time in seconds and the square of per-unit negative-sequence current (1) equaling 40 (B27), With a solidly grounded neutral, the steady-state ground-Fault current will be bout eight times that of full-load current, while the steady-state three-phase fault current is three to six times full-load current, Because of the negative-sequence content ofthe ground-fault current, the generator has less thermal withstand capability than it would for atheee-phase Fault Generators produce slightly non-sinusoidal voltages because of saturation and imperfect winding and flux distribution [B41 Industrial generators therefore produce odd harmonic voltages, with the third harmonic voltage being as much as 10%. These harmonic voltages can cause heating from circulating currents in 2 closed loop. This heating is one reason why most industrial generators have their internal windings connected in wye rather than delta. The third harmonic voltages produced in the generator’s windings are in phase and additive. This causes third harmonic current to circulate within the delta-connected windings, as shown in 33 Copyright© 2019 IEEE. Allright reserved ‘st andar d99¢IEEE Sts 3003.1-2019 IEEE Recommended Practice for System Grounding of Industrial and Commercial Power Systems Figure 36. The circulating current creates additional heating within the generator thereby reducing some of its thermal capacity. Generators that operate ina delta connection allow for this additional heating in their design. ‘Where generator windings are designed with a two-thirds pitch, the third harmonic voltage ean be suppressed {B3], but the zero-sequence impedance will be lowered increasing the ground-fault current, A grounded generator connected toa delta-wye transformer is shown in Figure 37. Any third harmonic voltage, 'V3, produced by the generator would be impressed on the primary ofthe transformer. Since the third harmonic voltages are in phase, the voltage difterence across each winding of the transformer’s delta will equal zero and ‘no third harmonic, of multiples ofthe third harmonic, current ean be expected to How. ‘Any current lowing asa result ofa ine-to-ground fault on the secondary side of the transformer will appear. as shown in Figure 38, asa line-to-lne fault at the generator output. This type of fault isthe most damaging to the generator because ofits negative-sequence content. There will be no zero-sequence current flow in the generator even though the generator is grounded, Zero-sequence current will circulate inthe delta winding of this transformer ‘The physical limitations imposed by generator construction result in less available insulation thickness, with a resulting reduction in voltage-tmpulse withstand as compared to nonrotating electrical equipment, Special attention should be given to limiting voltage to ground by the grounding of generator neutrals, Internal ground faults in solidly grounded generators can produce large fault currents. These currents can damage the laminated core, adding significantly tothe time and cost of repair. Such currents persist until the ‘generator voltage decay’ since they are not capable of being interrupted by the generator circuit breaker (B24). Limiting the magnitude ofthese currents is the goal of hybrid grounding presented in Figure 16, ratortated current Figure 35—Circulation of third harmonic current in a delta connected generator 54 Copyight © 2019 IEEE Allnights reserved st andar d99¢EEE sts 3003.1.2019 IEEE Recommended Practice for System Grounding of Indusial and Commercial Power Systems. Figure 37—Single unparalleled generator 7.2 Single-unparalleled generator A single-unparalleled generator may offer the most options for grounding. The distribution system may be particularly designed for flexibility n applying grounding by having only three-wire loads connected directly to the generator or even having only a single transformer connected to the generator (unit bank). Thus the design may employ high-resistance grounding to minimize damage from internal ground faults. or low= resislance grounding if needed to operate selective ground relays, In either case, the ground-current level should be substantially less than the phase-current fault levels, ‘The generator may also be applied to a four-wire load without transformation. Ifthe generator is rated for solidly grounded service, the neutral may be connected directly tothe grounded eireuit conductor. Ifa standard tor is used. a reactor should be connected between neutral and the grounkled circuit conductor so a8 to limit the momentary ground-fault current to ne more than the momentary three-phase Fault current ((B4] and NEMAMG 1). When 3 =1°, the value ofthis neutral reactor, X., should be as shown in Equation (3) @XI-x,-%) o isthe ground-fault current and equals: 55 Copynght © 2019 IEEE. Allights reserved ‘et andar dooEEE sts 3003.1-2019 IEEE Recommended Practice for System Grounding of Indusial and Commercial Power Systems 3-4, yay taney a OTN EN FIN) where if isthe three-phase subtransient fault current, which is XY isthe goncratorsubtransient reactance 1X; the eencratornegative-sequence reactance isthe generator zero-sequence reactance 1, isthe phase to neural voltage [Note that a resistor should not he used fortis punose since its impedance is in quadrature withthe machine reactance and thus would require a much anger value of resistance than reactance. This resistance would incur lange losses from the ow of ether auto load current. The zeroseaence load curent would also proce an objectionable voltage drop since the load is primarily resistive (On the other hand, the neutral reactor will cause little voltaze drop to be produced by in-phase zero-sequence load current. The total zero-sequence current will bea small value because the generator has limited unbalanced current capacity. The continuous negative-sequence current capability of generators covered in ANSI C30 standards is 88% or 109%, For salicnt-pole generators covered under NEMA MGI. the limit is 10% at fll load. “The use ofthe reactor between the generator neutral and the neutral circuit conductor does not affect the need for the neutral circuit conductor being solidly grounded. If generators are solidly grounded, the system’s circuit breaker duty must be calculated atthe fault duty. ler ground Ifthe wye side ofa delta-wye transformer is connected to a generator that is configured for four-wire service, the generator should be designed with a two-thirds pitch winding. This transformer will act asa short circuit to third harmonic currents, and without cancellation of third harmonic voltage, the resultant current may adversely affect ground-fault relaying and generator capacity 7.3 Paralleled generators in an isolated system This subclause covers only those generators that are paralleled to other generators onthe same bus, Generators paralleled through transformers would be considered a paralleled toa separate source (B35) 7.3.1 Circulating harmonic current ‘There isa possibility of circulation of third harmonic current between solidly grounded generators if any of the generators do not have two-thirds pitch windings. For generators of other than two-thieds pitch oF identical design, there will be little circulation of third harmonic current while the generators are being operated at idemtical power and reactive current outputs, non two-thirds pitch generators are not of identical design, third hharmonie circulating current becontes an issue as is also the case if identical non two-thirds pitch generators ‘are operated with unequal loading. ‘This issue is demonstrated in Figure 39, where two generators are shown solidly connected to a neutral bus (B24}, Due to differing electrical parameters and construction details, each generator produces 2 different amount of third harmonic voltage, cy, and e.,, tits terminals, As a result, a third harmonic current circulates between the generators. The magnitude of this current depends on the third harmonic loop voltage. ¢,. and the third harmonic loop impedance, Z. Since the generators are solidly connected to the neutral bus, the thied hharmonic loop impedance can be small. The resulting circulating current produces additional heat in each 56 Copymght © 2019 IEEE. Allnights reserved ‘st andar d99¢IEEE sts 3003.1-2019 IEEE Recommended Practice for Systm Grounding of Industial and Commercial Power Systems, ‘generator. More important, the 2ero-sequence third harmonic current circulating through the loop may pick up ground relays causing false tnpping of the generator circuit breakers [B24] While producing no third harmonics, generators with two-thirds pitch windings have the minimum impedance tothe flow of third harmonic currents generated elsewhere due to their low zero-sequence impedance. High-resistance grounding of the generators will adequately limit these harmonic currents, Thus, it 1s advantageous to use high-resistance grounding on the generators, as shown in Figure 40, even if there are load teeders directly connected (0 the generator bus, and fo use low-resistance bus grounding to provide selective relaying on the load feeders. Low-resistance grounding of the generators at values not exceeding 25% of generator rating will normally suppress third harmonic current to adequate values even with dissimilar generators, but the variable ground-fault current available with multiple generators may pose a relay- coordination problem. While resistance grounded generators are unable to directly support line-to-neutral loads, such loads are easily accommodated by addition ofa delta-wye isolation transformer. NEUTRAL BUS PLANT DISTRIBUTION BUS, Figure 38—Two parallel generators solidly connected to a neutral bus. 57 Copynght© 2019 EEE. Allights reserved ‘et andar dooEEE ste 3003.1-2019 IEEE Recommended Practice for Systm Grounding of Industial and Commercial Power Systems by 2.7 ene. 2 —_ 2g I. ~ PLANT DISTRIBUTION US. Figure 39—Two parallel generators with grounding resistors 7.3.2 Ground fault limitations NEMA MG I places a requirement on the design of synchronous generators that windings shall be braced to withstand the mechanical forces resulting trom a bolted three-phase shott circuit at the machine terminal. Generator phase currents to ground can actually exceed these three-phase values causing possible machine damage (B41, This condition can be illustrated by Equation (5) considering a generator with typical per unit impedances of O.dpy. X, ~ O.08pu (5) where X,, X:.and X, are the positive, negative, and zero-sequence reactance. respectively. The three-phase {ult current, ly. atthe generator terminals, asa function ofthe line to neutral voltage is shown in Equation (6) Ew 1 x, Od Loy Tl4pu 6 lithe generator neutral i solidly grounded, the line-to-ground-tault current. ly. tits terminals, as given by Euston 7) oe TNFR) WTO FOR The ground fault current is therefore 8.3/7 14~ 1.17 times the equred generator design capability Since ‘ground faults are more likely to occur than phase fauls, they pose ae ater potential threat to the system, If two generators are connected in parallel 3s shown in Figure 41 and only one is solidly grouncded, then the sground-fault current increases to 1.91 times three-phase fault current of one generator. The current in the 58 Copyght © 2019 IEEE. Allights reserves ‘et andar d99¢EEE sts 3003.1-2019 IEEE Recommended Practice for System Grounding of Industial and Commercial Power Systems ‘aulted phase of the grounded generator further increases to 1.27 times the required design value, Both can be seen by considering the phase A current at the fault. as shown in Equation (8): 1 (007+ 0.07 +008) 4545 pu (8) L=1+h+l,=13.63pu where 1.,and I, are the positive, negative, and zero-sequence components ofthe fault current, Inthe grounded generator [see Equation (9) 1, = A SAS pu 0 and the ground-fault currents 13,63/7.14~ 1.91 times the calculated three-phase fault current of one generator ‘The phase A current in the grounded generator is now 9.0917.14 = 1.27 times the three-phase faulted level of ‘one generator ‘The preceding example provides reasons for not solidly grounding generator neutrals. Where the neutrals are tobe grounded, impedance should be added, ‘Where multiple generators are solidly grounded but have switches inthe neutral, there has sometimes been the practice of grounding only one of the generators in parallel to limit ground: fault current duty or circulating third harmonic current, This will increase the faull-current inthe grounded generator above that for which it ‘would be customarily rated. A chart showing this difference appears in [B15]. The ability to switch neutrals also invites operational errors that could affect integrity of grounding. Ungrounded operation during switching allows overvoltage on four-wire loads leading to possible equipment damage. 39 Copynght © 2019 IEEE Allighs reserved ‘et andar dooIEEE sts 3003.1.2019 IEEE Recommended Practice for Systm Grounding of Industial and Commercial Power Systems 2zpu Tabu -- —_ 3 ° sssseuf A {omru. Lee > Ground Faut ‘389Pu| | © 4 Positive NEGATIVE ZERO ® Figure 40—Ground fault on a system with two parallel generators 7.4 Generators as unparalleled alternate sources ‘This category covers emergency and standby generators that are connected tothe loads by transfer switches, which precludes paralleling with the normal source, With three-wire systems, the generators would be considered a separately derived source since there would be no continuous connection through 2 system neutral Where four-wite systems are involved, neutral currents can flow between the system and generator neutral ‘grounding points ifathree-pole transfer switch is used, Whether or not the neutral is grounded at the generator 60 Copyright© 2019 IEEE. Alnights reserved et andar d99¢EEE sts 3003.1-2019 IEEE Recommended Practice for System Grounding of Industrial and Commercial Power Systems aswell as atthe normal service, ground-faull relaying errors can occur. Where service ground fault protection is required, as in services above 1000 A for 480 V and 600 V systems, a four pole transfer switch is required ‘Neutral grounding at a generator is typically not required when it has a common neutral with the grounded utility service neutral conductor. This scheme stil provides an altemate path for neutral current, Also, repair or testing of system grounding may involve disconnection from ground of the neutral conductor. Should there be only one connection and the generator is operating, there isthe hazard that workers performing such repair. or tests, may not be aware that the generator is operating. This type of hazard can be avoided by the separation ‘of normal and generator grounding which provides merit for use of a four-pole transfer switch even where ‘ground fault protection is not an issue 7.5 Generators paralleled with other sources ‘This category describes generators connected to transformers that are, or ean be, connected to other power sourees, While the primary consideration isthe generator grounding, decisions can be affected by the necessity of providing the desired grounding on the other side ofthe transformer while other generating sources may be disconnected. ‘The use of a delta-wye transformer, as shown in Figure 42, with the wye facing the generator offers the advantage of providing neutral grounding, solid or impedance, to the generator-fed bus when the generator is ‘not connected, The use of this type of transformer has the disadvantage of not offering grounding to the system connected to the delta side of the transformer. In the event that the transtormer is removed from service, an lternate ground source would be needed. This alternate grounding source does present a hazard if both the transformer and generator neutrals are solidly grounded. “The wye winding witha delta primary isa shor citcuit to any third harmonic curtent produced by the generator, ‘The ground-faule duty on the bus wil be greater than the arithmetical sum of the ground-fault currents supplied by the transformer and generator when each is connected tothe bus independently. The ground: fault current in the generator will exceed that which would occur when the generator is not paralleled. The fault curtents must bee calculated using symmetrical component techniques rather than simply using the sum of the admittances of the transformer and generator sources. A generator rated for grounded service 1s normally rated only for the ground-fault current lowing when not paralleled ‘A generator neutral reactor can be used to limit the generator-fault duty to an acceptable value as calculated but may not limit any generated third harmonic current to an acceptable value. Thus, suppression of third hharmonic may be necessary to facibitate adequate ground-fault relaying, Ir the delta of a delta-wye transformer is connected to the generator bus, as shown in Figure 43, neutral grounding isavailable onthe wye side ofthe transformer. However, the generator bus will be ungrounded until such time as the generator is grounded or independent bus grounding is employed, Some type of grounding transformer (wye-delta or zigzag transformer) can be used to produce either effective or impedance grounding ‘of the bus. If grounding transformer is connected to the bus, the generator may be high-resistance grounded “These methods of grounding are also described in IEEE Std C37.101"™, which covers generator ground-fault protection as well. It should be noted that this standard was developed primarily for utility generators and does ‘not contain some of the considerations for industrial applications, ot Copynght© 2019 EEE Allights reserved ‘et andar dooIEEE sts 3003.1.2019 IEEE Recommended Practice for System Grounding of Indusial and Commercial Power Systems mt T ) ) Gen Prant Bus, ee Figure 41—Generator in parallel with a transformer. GC Copyight © 2019 IEEE. Allnights reserved et andar d99¢IEEE sts 3003.1-2019 IEEE Recommended Practice for System Grounding of Indusial and Commercial Power Systems. Gen Unity Plant Bus ) ABS coe vs ZigZag Transformer Figure 42—Grounding transformers in a distribution system 8. Autotransformers Occasionally autotransformers are used to modify voltage, usually to reduce transformer cost, or perhaps tw avoid creating a new grounding system, Unless the system grounding is suitable for the use of an autotransformer and the autotransformer is properly applied, is use may seriously reduce grounding and ‘ground relaying effectiveness and expose equipment to voltage-to-ground level higher than that for which it is designed, ‘The three-phase wye autotransformer with no delta tertiary has extremely high zero-sequence impedance if no connection is made to its neutral, Figure 44 shows that a ground fault at A will cause the source line-to-ground voltage to be imposed across the AA’ section of the autotransformer. Should that section of the winding be able to support this voltage, then the voltage to ground at N. the neutral ofthe autotransformer, would rise in [proportion tothe turns ratio of A'-N to A-A’, and Band C' would have voltages to ground higher than B and C, the high-voltage level. The secondary line-t-line voltage can also be increased. In normal practice, winding A-A' would not support the full voltage, but would instead saturate, thus passing certain amount of zero-sequence current. Inthe process. this type of installation will create high-frequency 63 Copynght© 2019 EEE. Allights reserved ‘et andar dooEEE Sts 3003.1.2019 IEEE Recommended Practice for Systm Grounding of Indusial and Commercial Power Systems components of voltage, at which frequency the winding can support a voltage proportional to that frequency. ‘Thus, a very high voltage to ground could still exist at N. Even ifthe secondary of the autotransformer isthe higher voltage, it will still be overvoltaged by a secondary line-to-ground fault. This reference also points out that overvoltages can also be caused by transient surges. such as from switching or lightning. being impressed across the section of winding between the primary and secondary connections, Figure 44 shows that when a source toa step-down autotransformer is impedance grounded, a ground on the source side ofthe autotransformer ean cause the voltage from BY and C’to ground to approach the line-to-line voltage of the source. Ifthe autotransformer steps up the voltage. the voltage to ground on the lower voltage system will lie between that shown in Figure 45 and what might be achieved in Figure 46, depending upon the relation of the grounding impedance to the exciting impedance ofthe autotranstormer. AUTOTRANSFORMER, SOURCE TRANSFORMER ) NORMAL FAULTED, N Figure 43—a) Ungrounded wye step down autotransformer with load fault, b) Normal and faulted voltage phasors 64 Copynght© 2019 IEEE. Allighs reserved ‘et andar doo