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SPORTS IN SOCIETY

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chapter

1
(Christof Stache; AP/Wide World Photos)

THE SOCIOLOGY OF SPORT

What Is It and Why Study It?

THE DANGER, when fans view players as simply

objects of entertainment, and when we don’t
need them to have opinions, is that they’re simply
drones out there for our pleasure. We objectify
them.
—Sally Jenkins, sports journalist, Washington Post
(2005)

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chapter outline

About This Book OLC

Visit Sports in Society’s Online Learning
About This Chapter
Center (OLC) at www.mhhe.com/coakley10e
Using Sociology to Study Sports for additional information and study material
Key Sociology Concepts
Sociological Knowledge Is Based on Research for this chapter, including the following:
and Theory • A complete chapter outline
Defining Sports • Learning objectives
A Precise Definition of Sports
An Alternative Approach to Defining Sports • Practice quizzes
Sports as Contested Activities • Internet resources
R E F L E C T O N S P O R T S : Who Plays and Who
Doesn’t: Contesting a Place in Sports • Related readings
What Is the Sociology of Sport? • Essays
Differences Between Sociology and Psychology • Student projects
of Sport
Using the Sociology of Sport
Controversies Created by the Sociology
of Sport HOW DO YOU distinguish sports from
B R E A K I N G B A R R I E R S : Cultural Barriers: entertainment, fakery from reality, when the two
Aren’t We Athletes? are so inseparable?
Why Study Sports in Society? —Selena Roberts, sports journalist, The New
Sports Are Socially Significant Activities York Times (2007)
for Many People
Sports Reaffirm Important Ideas and Beliefs SPORTS ARE . . . a multi-billion dollar business that
in Many Societies saturates the mass media; young people’s clothes
Sports Are Integrated into Major Spheres are splattered with swooshes and team logos;
of Social Life
school activities and year books point to sport’s
R E F L E C T O N S P O R T S : The Body Is More than
Physical: Sports Influence Meanings Given centrality in the social life of schools.
to the Body —Mike Messner, Sociologist, University
of Southern California (2006)
Summary: Why Study the Sociology of Sport?
NOW THAT THE sports business is a massive arm
of the international entertainment industry . . .
there’s no way we can escape its economic, social
and environmental footprints. . . . [T]he growing
involvement of big business, of the media and of
advertisers has helped reshape the rules of many
games—and, in the process, fuelled new forms
of exclusion.
—John Elkington, environmentalist, president
of Sustain Ability (2004)

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4 SPORTS IN SOCIETY: Issues and Controversies www.mhhe.com/coakley10e

ABOUT THIS BOOK of the social and cultural contexts in which we

live, and they provide stories and images that
Most of you reading this book have experienced many of us use to evaluate our experiences and
sports personally, either as athletes or spectators. the world around us.
You’re probably familiar with the physical and People who study sports in society are con-
emotional experiences of playing sports and the cerned with the deeper meanings and stories asso-
rules and strategies of certain sports. You may ciated with sports. They do research to increase
even follow the lives of high-profile athletes our understanding of (1) the cultures and soci-
at your school or on the national sports scene. eties in which sports exist, (2) the social worlds
Most of you have watched and read about sports created around sports, and (3) the experiences of
and discussed them with family and friends. individuals and groups associated with sports.
This book assumes that you’re interested in
some facet of sports, but it is written to take you
ABOUT THIS CHAPTER
beyond scores, statistics, and sports personali-
ties. The goal is to focus on the “deeper game”
This chapter is organized to answer the follow-
associated with sports, the game through which
ing four questions:
sports become part of the social and cultural
worlds in which we live. 1. What is sociology, and how is it used to
Fortunately, we can draw on our emotions study sports in society?
and experiences as we consider this deeper game. 2. What are sports, and how can we identify
Take high school sports in the United States as them in ways that increase our understand-
an example. When students play on a high school ing of their place and significance in society?
basketball team, we know that it can affect their 3. What is the sociology of sport, and how does
status in the school and the treatment they receive it differ from other approaches to studying
from both teachers and students. We know it can sports?
also have implications for their prestige in the 4. Why do sociologists study sports in society?
community, self-images and self-esteem, future The answers to these questions will be our
relationships, opportunities in education and the guides for understanding the material in the rest
job market, and their overall enjoyment of life. of the book.
Building on this knowledge enables us to
move further into the deeper game associated
with high school sports. For example, why do so USING SOCIOLOGY TO STUDY SPORTS
many Americans place such importance on sports
and accord such high status to elite athletes? Are Sociology provides useful tools for investigat-
there connections between high school sports ing sports as social phenomena. This is because
and widespread beliefs about masculinity and sociology is the study of the social worlds that peo-
femininity, achievement and competition, plea- ple create, organize, maintain, and change through
sure and pain, winning and fair play, and other their relationships with each other.1 The term
important aspects of U.S. culture?
Underlying these questions is the assump- 1
Important concepts used in each chapter are identified in
tion that sports are more than games, meets, and boldface. Unless they are accompanied by a footnote that
contains a definition, the definition will be given in the text
matches. They’re important parts of social life itself. This puts the definition in context rather than sepa-
that have meanings going far beyond scores and rating it in a glossary. Definitions are also provided in the
performance statistics. Sports are integral parts index (p. xxx).

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CHAPTER 1: The Sociology of Sport 5

social world refers to an identifiable sphere of Key Sociology Concepts

everyday actions and relationships. Social worlds
When sociologists study sports and the social
are created by individuals, but they involve
worlds associated with them, they focus on cul-
much more than individuals doing their own
ture, social interaction, and social structure. Cul-
things for their own reasons. Our actions, rela-
ture consists of the shared ways of life and shared
tionships, and collective activities take the form
understandings that people develop as they live together.
of identifiable ways of life and social arrange-
Social Interaction consists of people taking each
ments that we could not predict simply with
information about each of us as individuals. other into account and, in the process, influencing each
These ways of life and social arrangements other’s feelings, thoughts, and action. Social Struc-
continue to exist as people collectively repro- ture consists of the established patterns of relation-
duce them through their interactions with each ships and social arrangements that take shape as people
other. They change as people question, oppose, live, work, and play with each other.
and replace them with alternative ways of life These three concepts—culture, social interac-
and social arrangements. tion, and social structure—represent the central
Social worlds can be as large and impersonal interconnected aspects of all social worlds. For
as an entire nation, such as the United States or example, a professional sport team is a social world
Brazil, or as personal and intimate as your own formed by players, coaches, and team adminis-
family. But regardless of size, they encompass all trators. Over time every team creates and main-
aspects of social life: the values and beliefs that tains a particular culture or way of life. Everyone
we use to make sense of our lives; our everyday involved with the team engages in social interac-
actions and relationships; and the groups, orga- tion as they take each other into account during
nizations, communities, and societies that we their everyday activities on and off the playing
form as we make choices, develop relationships, field. Additionally, the recurring actions, rela-
and participate in social life. tionships, and social arrangements that emerge
The goal of sociology is to describe and as people interact with each other make up the
explain social worlds—how we create, re-create, social structure of the team. This combination of
and change them; how they are organized; and culture, social interaction, and social structure
how they influence our lives and our relation- comprises the team as a social world.
ships with each other. In the process of doing Peer groups, cliques, and athletic teams are
this, sociologists identify the social factors that social worlds in which participants are known
enable us to see our lives and the lives of others to one another. Communities, societies, concert
“in context”—that is, in connection with com- crowds, and online chat rooms are social worlds
plex and constantly changing social worlds. in which participants are generally unknown to
When we do this, we become aware of social each other. This means that the boundaries of
circumstances that set limits and create pos- social worlds may be clear, fuzzy, or overlap-
sibilities in people’s lives. This awareness is ping, but we generally know when we enter or
valuable because it helps us to anticipate and leave a social world because each has identify-
sometimes work around the constraints we ing features related to culture, social interaction,
face at the same time that we look for and take and social structure.
advantage of the possibilities. Ideally, it helps We move back and forth between familiar
us gain more control over our lives as well as social worlds without thinking. We make nearly
an understanding of other people and the con- automatic shifts in how we talk and act as we
ditions that influence their lives. accommodate changing cultural, interactional,

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and structural features in each social world. “ratings.” In the process, I hope that you will
However, when we enter or participate in a new develop or extend your critical thinking abilities
or unfamiliar social world, we usually take the so that you can assess the merits of what people
time to get a sense of what is happening. We say about sports in society.
watch what people are doing, how they interact
with each other, and the recurring patterns that
exist in their actions and relationships. If you’ve DEFINING SPORTS
done this, you’re ready to use sociology to study
sports in society. Most of us know enough about the meaning of
sports to talk about them with others. However,
when we study sports, it helps to precisely define
Sociological Knowledge Is Based our topic. For example, is it a sport when young
on Research and Theory people choose teams and play a baseball game in
Each time that I rewrite this book, my goal is to the street or when thirty people of various ages
accurately represent research in the sociology of spend an afternoon performing and learning
sport and discuss issues of interest to students. As tricks at a skateboard park? These activities are
I consider those issues, I seek information from sociologically different from what occurs at major
research that is published in journal articles and league baseball games and the X Games skate-
books. I use newspaper articles and other media board competitions. These differences become
as sources for examples, but I depend on research significant when parents ask if playing sports
findings when making substantive points and builds the character of their children, when com-
drawing conclusions. This means that my state- munity leaders ask if they should use tax money
ments about sports and sport experiences are to fund sports, and when school principals ask if
based, as much as possible, on studies that use sports are valid educational activities.
surveys, questionnaires, interviews, observations, When I say that I study sports, people ask
content analyses, and other accepted research if that includes jogging, double-dutch (jump
methods in sociology. rope—as pictured on the cover of this book),
The material in this book is different than weight lifting, hunting, scuba diving, darts, auto
material in blogs, talk radio, television news racing, chess, poker, ultimate fighting, paintball,
shows, game and event commentaries, and every- piano competitions, ballroom dancing, and so
day conversations about sports. It is organized to on. To respond is not easy, because there is no
help you critically examine sports as they exist single definition that precisely identifies sports in
in people’s lives and the social contexts where all cultures at all times. Some people use a precise
people live, play, and work. I use research find- definition for practical reasons, whereas many
ings to describe and explain as accurately as pos- others use a flexible approach and define sports
sible the important connections between sports, in a way that fits the customs and traditions in
society, and culture. I try to be fair when using particular societies at particular points in time.
research to make sense of the social aspects of
sports and sport experiences. This is why there
A Precise Definition of Sports
are over 1,400 books and articles listed as refer-
ences for this book. Of course, I want to hold Although definitions vary, many scholars iden-
your attention as you read, but I don’t exagger- tify sports as well-established, officially governed
ate, purposely withhold, or present informa- competitive physical activities in which participants
tion out of context to impress you and boost my are motivated by internal and external rewards.

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CHAPTER 1: The Sociology of Sport 7

This definition enables people to generally In more general terms, a precise definition
distinguish sports from other activities. For helps us distinguish sports from play and dramatic
example, it is sociologically useful to distinguish spectacle. The idea that people participate in sports
a women’s World Cup soccer match from what for a combination of internal and external rewards
occurs when three girls kick a soccer ball around means that sports involve the internal satisfac-
a backyard. Each of these activities involves dif- tion associated with spontaneous play as well as
ferent social dynamics, organization, and impli- the external satisfaction associated with displaying
cations. The soccer played during the World physical skills to gain public approval and other
Cup has official rules that standardize matches rewards. This is illustrated in Figure 1.1, where
and make them comparable, regardless of who play is an expressive activity done for its own sake,
plays. Additionally, World Cup matches are and dramatic spectacle is a performance meant to
controlled by FIFA (Fédération Internationale entertain an audience. An example of play is four
de Football Association), the official governing children spontaneously running around a kinder-
organization that develops and enforces rules for garten playground, yelling joyfully while throwing
international soccer. The backyard soccer has no playground balls in random directions. These five-
rules unless the three girls create them, and the year-olds are motivated almost exclusively by the
girls answer to no governing organization. Both personal enjoyment and expression that is intrin-
official soccer matches and informal games are sic to their actions. On the other hand, an example
important social phenomena, but sociologists of dramatic spectacle is four professional wrestlers
know that it’s important to distinguish between paid to entertain spectators by staging a skilled and
them because they have few sociological similar- cleverly choreographed tag-team match in which
ities (Mindegaard, 2007; Peterson, 2008). outcomes are prearranged to excite an audience.

Sports involve a balance between the elements of play and spectacle.

When sports emphasize elements of play, they are participant-oriented;
when they emphasize elements of spectacle, they are spectator-oriented.

PLAY SPORTS SPECTACLE

Focus: Participants ----- Spectators

Participants: “Players” ----- Characters (heroes & villains)
Rewards: Intrinsic ----- Extrinsic
Basis for action: Authenticity ----- Staged personas (cheats & spoilsports)
Action theme: Spontaneous expression ----- Choreographed drama
Structure: Open/self-created ----- Fixed by management
Dynamics: Free flowing ----- Anticipated and planned
Goal: Personal enjoyment ----- Entertain audience

FIGURE 1.1 Sport involves elements of play and spectacle. (Adapted from material in Stone, 1973)

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3. Who is advantaged and disadvantaged by the

OLC On the OLC: accepted definition of sports and the priori-
See the OLC—Additional Readings for ties used to allocate resources to sports?
Chapter 1—for the author’s article on the Asking these questions opens the sociology of
differences between play, games, and sports. sport to a greater range of issues than is possible
when using a static, precise definition. Seeking
answers to these questions forces researchers
Sports differ from play and spectacle in that to learn about the social, cultural, and histori-
participation is motivated by intrinsic enjoyment cal contexts in which people create and organize
and extrinsic rewards. Sports, therefore, contain physical activities and integrate them into their
elements of play and spectacle. This way of iden- lives. We need this knowledge to accurately
tifying sports is useful today when some spectator explain why sports exist and how they affect peo-
sports focus so much on entertaining an audience ple’s lives.
that events lose the element of play and become Those using this alternative approach assume
dominated by the element of dramatic spectacle. that there are many ways to define sports, and
Using a precise definition of sports has practi- that definitions vary over time and from one
cal advantages, but it also has potentially serious place to another. For example, people in England
problems. For example, when we focus attention who played cricket and hunted foxes during the
only on official competitive events, we overlook 1870s would be astonished that Americans define
the existence of physical activities among people NFL football as a sport when the oversized play-
who have neither the resources to formally orga- ers spend nearly 45 minutes of every 60-minute
nize their physical activities nor the desire to make game walking to and from and standing in hud-
them competitive. In the process, we uninten- dles, where they receive directions from a coach
tionally fail to understand the full range of social who does not play the game. Similarly, Ameri-
and cultural factors that influence how and when cans today looking back at nineteenth-century
particular forms of physical activities are created British sports might say that they weren’t “real”
and made an important part of people’s lives. sports because the participants did not strive to
Most people in the sociology of sport are aware set records or win championships. Looking ahead
of this possibility, so they use precise definitions one hundred years, people might be playing vir-
of sport cautiously. At the same time, many tual sports in challenging virtual environments
scholars reject the idea that a single definition and say that NFL football was not “real” sport
can be used to study sports in all cultures at all because it lacked continuous action and damaged
points in history. They prefer an alternative defi- the health and well-being of participants.
nitional approach based on the assumption that An alternative definitional approach based
sports and the meanings given to them change on the three questions listed earlier takes into
over time and from one culture to another. account that there are social, cultural, and his-
torical differences in the ways that people define
An Alternative Approach to Defining Sports sports and include them in their lives. For
instance, in cultures where cooperative relation-
Those who reject the validity of a single defini-
ships are highly valued and necessary for group
tion identify sports by asking three questions:
survival, competing with others for rewards is
1. What activities are defined as sports in a par- likely to be seen as disruptive and even immoral
ticular group or society? (Kohn, 1986; Rosenau, 2003); therefore, their
2. Whose sports are most strongly supported sports would be organized around the chal-
and funded, especially with public facilities lenge of achieving a tie to end a game. At the
and money? same time, people in cultures where competition

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CHAPTER 1: The Sociology of Sport 9

is highly valued would describe cooperative eliminating other participants. In the face of such
games with no winners and losers as pointless differences, using a single definition of sports
and boring; therefore, their sports would be orga- would clearly limit research and our understand-
nized around the challenge of outperforming or ing of sports and society.

Is this a sport? Rather than debating this question, most

sociologists explain why certain ideas and beliefs about
sports come to be widely accepted in a social world.
According to many sport fans in the United States, “real”
sports involve conquest, power, and physical domination
of others—as in American football. In cultures where sports
are defined in terms of the values and experiences of men,
rhythmic gymnastics is not taken seriously as a sport, despite
fitting most definitions. (Source: Efrem Lukatsky; AP/Wide
World Photos)

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Sports as Contested Activities to improve health and fitness for everyone, then
funding should go to sports that are organized
As scholars move away from a single definition of
to provide widespread recreational participa-
sports, they see sports as contested activities—
tion that has net positive effects on physical
that is, activities for which there are no timeless and
well-being. On the other hand, if people see
universal agreements about meaning, purpose, and
sports as “wars without weapons” with the pur-
organization. This means that people disagree
pose of pushing the limits of human capability,
and sometimes struggle over whose ideas about
then funding should go to sports organized to
sports will become generally accepted by oth-
produce high-performance athletes who can
ers in a group or society. The most significant
achieve competitive victories. This issue is regu-
struggles are created by disagreements on one or
larly contested at the national and local levels of
more of three issues: government, in universities and public school
1. The meaning, purpose, and organization districts, and even in families, as parents decide
of sports how to use household resources.
2. The people allowed to play sports, and the The idea that sports are contested activities
conditions under which they will play is most vividly demonstrated in disagreements
3. The people and organizations that sponsor over who is allowed to play sports and the condi-
and provide the resources needed to play tions under which certain people can play. The
sports cases that have involved extended struggles are
listed in the box titled, “Who Plays and Who
Heated debates can occur when people dis- Doesn’t.”
agree on these issues. History shows that some The third issue making sports contested activ-
of these debates have caused bitter feelings and ities focuses on who should sponsor and provide
led to lawsuits, government intervention, and the resources needed to play them. When people
the passage of laws. For example, people in many value the “common good” of a community and
states disagree about the meaning, purpose, and see sports contributing to the common good, it
organization of cheerleading in U.S. high schools. is likely that sport facilities and programs will be
Most school officials say that cheerleading is not supported by public/government agencies and
a sport because its primary purpose is to sup- public/tax money. When people value individu-
port high school teams. But others argue that the alism and see sports in terms of their contribu-
cheerleaders at many schools are now organized tions to individual development, it is likely that
as teams that compete in championships and sport facilities and programs will be supported
bring recognition and rewards to their schools. by individuals, families, and private-corporate
This debate over the purpose of cheerleading will sponsors. However, in both cases there will be
continue because the stakes are high: being desig- struggles over the extent to which sponsors con-
nated an official high school sport brings funding trol sports and the extent to which sports are
and other support that affects the organization of organized to be consistent with general commu-
cheerleading and the meaning it has in schools, nity values.
communities, and American society. Struggles related to these three issues show
Disagreements and struggles over the pur- that using a single definition of sports may lead
pose, meaning, and organization of sports occur us to overlook the issue of why many people
most often when they involve the funding prior- accept one definition of sports more than oth-
ities of government agencies (Eichberg, 2008). ers in a particular social world. Many social fac-
For example, if the primary purpose of sport is tors, including who has power and resources,

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CHAPTER 1: The Sociology of Sport 11

reflect on Who Plays and Who Doesn’t

SPORTS Contesting a Place in Sports
Being cut from a youth sport team is a disappointing Will people of different ages have the same access
personal experience. But being in a category of people to participation opportunities?
that is wholly excluded from all or some sports is more • Will able-bodied people and people with
than disappointing—it is unfair and occasionally ille- disabilities have the same opportunities to
gal. Most cases of categorical exclusion are related to play sports, and will they play together or
gender and sexuality, skin color and ethnicity, ability separately? What meanings will be given to the
and disability, age and weight, nationality and citizen- accomplishments of athletes with disabilities
ship, and other “eligibility” criteria. Struggles occur compared to the accomplishments of able-bodied
in connection with questions such as these: athletes?
• Will females be allowed to play sports and, if they • Will gay men and lesbians play alongside
are, will they play the same sports at the same time heterosexuals and, if they do, will they be
and on the same teams that males play, and will the treated fairly?
rewards for achievement be the same for females • Will athletes control the conditions under which
and males? they play sports and have the power to change
• Will sports be open to people regardless of social those conditions to meet their needs and interests?
class and wealth? Will wealthy and poor people • Will athletes be rewarded for playing, what
play and watch sports together or separately? form will the rewards take, and how will they be
• Will people from different racial and ethnic determined?
backgrounds play together or in segregated Federal and local laws may mandate particular
settings? Will the meanings given to skin color answers to these questions. However, traditions, local
or ethnicity influence participation patterns or customs, and personal beliefs often support various
opportunities to play sports? forms of exclusion. The resulting struggles illustrate
• Will age influence eligibility to play sports, and that sports can be hotly contested activities. What do
should sports be age integrated or segregated? you think?

influence the forms of sport that exist and the each of the following chapters summarizes the
meanings given to them. Being aware of these findings of much of this research.
factors enables us to put sports into context and
understand them in the terms used by those
who create, play, and support them. It also WHAT IS THE SOCIOLOGY OF SPORT?
helps us see that the definition of sports in any
particular context usually represents the ideas The sociology of sport is primarily a subdisci-
and interests of some people more than others. pline of sociology that studies sports as social
In the sociology of sport, this leads to questions phenomena. Most research and writing in the
and research on whose ideas and interests count field focuses on “organized, competitive sports,”
the most when it comes to determining (1) the although people increasingly study other forms
meaning, purpose, and organization of sports; of physical activities that are health and fit-
(2) who plays under what conditions; and (3) ness oriented and informally organized. These
who sponsors and controls sports. Material in include recreational, extreme, adventure, and

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virtual sports as well as fitness and exercise activ- constructions—that is, as parts of the social world
ities (Atkinson, 2007b; Eichberg, 2008; Honea, that are created by people as they interact with one
2007; Martin and Miller, 1999; Mindegaard, another under particular social, political, and eco-
2007; Peterson, 2008; Rinehart, 2000; Rinehart nomic conditions. To stress this point, I gener-
and Syndor, 2003). ally use the term sports rather than sport. This
Research in the sociology of sport generally emphasizes that the forms and meanings of
seeks to answer the following questions: sports vary from place to place and time to time.
I want to avoid the inference that “sport” has an
1. Why are some activities, and not others,
essential and timeless quality that exists separate
selected and designated as sports in particu-
from the contexts in which people create, play,
lar groups and societies?
and change sports in society.
2. Why are sports created and organized in dif-
The idea that sports are social constructions
ferent ways at different times and in different
makes some people uncomfortable because they
places?
benefit from sports as they are currently defined,
3. How do people include sports and sport
organized, and played. They don’t want people
participation in their lives, and does partici-
to see sports as socially constructed activities
pation affect individual development and
that people can change if they wish to define,
social relationships?
organize, and play them differently.
4. How do sports and sport participation affect
our ideas about bodies, human movement,
masculinity and femininity, social class, race Differences Between Sociology
and ethnicity, work, fun, ability and disabil- and Psychology of Sport
ity, achievement and competition, pleasure
and pain, deviance and conformity, and For those new to sociology, a good way to
aggression and violence? understand the sociology of sport is to com-
5. How do various sports compare with other pare it to the psychology of sport. Psychologists
physical activities in producing positive study behavior in terms of attributes and pro-
health and fitness outcomes? cesses that exist inside individuals. They focus on
6. How is the meaning, purpose, and organiza- motivation, perception, cognition, self-esteem,
tion of sports related to the culture, social self-confidence, attitudes, and personality. They
structure, and resources of a society? also deal with interpersonal dynamics, includ-
7. How are sports related to important spheres ing communication, leadership, and social influ-
of social life such as family, education, poli- ence, but they usually discuss these things in
tics, the economy, media, and religion? terms of how they affect attributes and processes
8. How do people use their sport experiences that exist inside individuals. Therefore, they ask
and knowledge about sports as they interact research questions such as, “How is the motiva-
with others and explain what occurs in their tion of athletes related to their personality traits
lives and the world around them? and self-perception of physical abilities?”
9. How can people use sociological knowledge Sociologists, on the other hand, study actions
about sports to understand and participate and relationships in terms of the social contexts
more actively and effectively in society, in which people live their lives. They focus on
especially as agents of progressive change? the reality outside and around individuals and
deal with how people form relationships with
Understanding the sociology of sport is one another and create social arrangements
easier if you learn to think of sports as social that enable them to control and give meaning

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CHAPTER 1: The Sociology of Sport 13

If sports are social constructions, it means that we create them

and can change them. The sociology of sport helps people identify
aspects of sports that could or should be changed; other people,
including many associated with sports, resist the idea that sports
are social constructions because they benefit from sports as they are
currently defined and organized, and they don’t want them changed.

to their lives. Sociologists ask questions about burnout among adolescent athletes, psychologists
the ways that actions, relationships, and social look at factors that exist inside the athletes them-
life are related to characteristics that people selves, such as the stress experienced by individual
define as socially relevant in their group or soci- athletes and its impact on their motivation and
ety. Therefore, sociological research focuses on performance (Cresswell and Eklund, 2006, 2007;
the social meanings and dynamics associated Hodge, Lonsdale, and Ng, 2008; Smith, 1986).
with age, social class, gender, race, ethnicity, When applying their knowledge to prevent burn-
(dis)ability, sexuality, and nationality. It seeks to out, they help athletes manage stress through
answer questions such as, “How do prevailing goal setting, personal skill development, and the
cultural beliefs about masculinity and feminin- use of relaxation and concentration techniques.
ity affect the organization of sport programs and Sociologists, on the other hand, study burn-
the experiences of those who play sports?” out in connection with the social reality that
When psychologists apply their knowledge, surrounds adolescent athletes (Coakley, 1992;
they focus on the experiences and problems of Ingham et al., 1999, 2002; Maslach and Leiter,
particular individuals, whereas sociologists focus 1997). They focus on the organization of sport
on group experiences and social issues that affect programs and the relationships between athletes
entire categories of people, such as Latinos, white and other people, including family members,
men, lesbians, young people, high school stu- peers, and coaches. Because athletes are influ-
dents, and so on. For example, when studying enced by the social context in which they play

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sports, sociologists emphasize that reducing approval of their worth as human beings. And it
burnout requires changing the way youth sports also shows that this strategy increases the will-
are organized and altering athletes’ relationships ingness of young men to play aggressively and
with parents and coaches so that the young peo- put their bodies in jeopardy “for the good of the
ple have more control over their lives and more team”—an outcome that some coaches want to
opportunities to be involved in experiences and achieve.
relationships outside sports. This football coach example shows that the
Both approaches have value, although many sociology of sport, like other scientific disci-
people see a sociological approach as disruptive plines, is neither a pure nor objective enter-
and difficult to apply. They feel that it’s easier prise. Like others who produce and distribute
to change individual athletes and use stress knowledge, those of us who study sports in soci-
management strategies than it is to change the ety must consider why we ask certain research
relationships that influence athletes’ lives and questions and how our research findings might
the social conditions in which athletes play affect people’s lives. We can’t escape the fact
their sports. Therefore, people who control that social life is complex and characterized by
sport programs often prefer psychological over inequalities, power differences, and conflicts of
sociological approaches. They don’t want to interests between different categories of people.
change the organization and structure of their Therefore, using knowledge in the sociology
programs because it may jeopardize their status of sport is not a simple process that automati-
or power. Similarly, many parents and coaches cally brings about equal and positive benefits
prefer a psychological approach that focuses on for everyone. In fact, it must also involve criti-
stress management rather than a sociological cal thinking about the potential consequences of
approach that focuses on changing their rela- what we know about sports in society. Hopefully,
tionships with athletes and the control they have after reading this book you will be prepared and
over athletes’ lives. willing to do the following:

1. Think critically about sports so that you can

Using the Sociology of Sport identify and understand issues and contro-
Sociology of sport knowledge is used in many versies associated with sports in society.
ways. For example, it informs parents and 2. Look beyond performance statistics and
coaches about the conditions under which youth win–loss records to see sports as social
sport participation is most likely to produce constructions that can have both positive
positive developmental effects. It explains why and negative effects on people’s lives.
some sports have higher rates of 3. Learn things about sports that
violence than others and the ways The rituals of sport enable you to make informed
to most effectively control sports engage more people in choices about your sport
violence. However, unless sociol- a shared experience than participation and the place of
ogy of sport knowledge is com- any other institution or sports in your community and
bined with concerns for fairness cultural activity today. society.
and social justice, it can some- —Varda Burstyn, author, The Rites 4. See sports as social construc-
times be used in negative ways. of Men (1999) tions and be able to change
For example, it can show a football them so they don’t system-
coach that one way to effectively control young atically disadvantage some
men in U.S. culture is to threaten their mascu- categories of people as they
linity and make them dependent on coaches for privilege others.

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CHAPTER 1: The Sociology of Sport 15

Controversies Created by the 5. Most sport programs around the world are
Sociology of Sport organized around the values, interests, and
experiences of men.
Research in the sociology of sport is usually con-
troversial when it provides evidence that there
These reasons all contribute to the fact that many
should be changes in the organization of sports
women worldwide don’t see sports as appropri-
and the structure of social relations in society.
ate activities for them to take seriously.
Such evidence threatens some people, especially
those who control sport organizations, benefit
from the current organization of sports, or think
that the current organization of sports is “right OLC ON THE OLC:
and natural.” People in positions of power know See the OLC—Additional Readings for
that social and cultural changes can jeopardize Chapter 1—for the author’s article on the
their control over others and the privileges that
origins of the sociology of sport and the
come with it. Therefore, they prefer approaches
to sports that blame problems on the weaknesses professional associations in the field.
and failures of individuals. When individuals are
identified as the problem, solutions emphasize
the need to control individuals more effectively It is easy to see the potential for controversy
and teach them how to adjust to society as it is. associated with these findings. They suggest
The potential for controversy created by a that opportunities and resources to play sports
sociological analysis of sports is illustrated by should be increased for women, that women and
reviewing research findings on sport participa- men should share control of sports, and that new
tion among women around the world. Research sports organized around the values, interests,
shows that women, especially women in poor and resources of women should be developed.
and working-class households, have lower They also suggest that there should be changes
rates of sport participation than do other cat- in ideas about masculinity and femininity, gen-
egories of people (Donnelly and Harvey, 2007; der relations, family structures, the allocation
Hargreaves, 1994, 2000; Tomlinson, 2007). of child-care responsibilities, the organization
Research also shows that there are many reasons of work, and the distribution of resources in
for this, including the following: society.
People who benefit from sports and social
1. Women are less likely than men to have the life as they are currently organized are likely to
time, freedom, and money needed to play oppose and reject the need for these changes.
sports regularly. They might even argue that the sociology of
2. Women have little or no control of the sport is too critical and idealistic and that the
facilities where sports are played or the “natural” order would be turned upside down
programs in those facilities. if sociological knowledge were used to organize
3. Women have less access to transportation social worlds. However, good research always
and less overall freedom to move around at inspires critical approaches to the social condi-
will and without fear. tions that affect our lives. This is why studying
4. Women often are expected to take full-time sports with a critical eye usually occurs when
responsibility for the social and emotional researchers have informed visions of what sports
needs of family members—a job that seldom and society could and should be in the future.
allows them time to play sports. Without these visions, often born of idealism,

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breaking Cultural Barriers:

BARRIERS Aren’t We Athletes?
Randy Snow won his first international track medal in This imagination exercise is not meant to evoke
1984. He is a ten-time U.S. Open Wheelchair Tennis guilt. Our views of the world are based on personal
Champion, an International Tennis Federation Cham- experiences, and our experiences are influenced by the
pion, U.S. Tennis Association Player of the Year, and meanings given to age, gender, race, ethnicity, social
winner of many athletic awards. Today he’s a film pro- class, sexuality, (dis)ability, and other characteristics
ducer and social activist who has received national citi- that are defined as socially significant in our culture.
zenship awards. Asked about the Paralympics for elite Neither culture nor society forces us to think or do
athletes with physical disabilities, he says this: certain things, but the only way to mute cultural and
Paralympians are better athletes than our able-bodied social influence is to critically examine social worlds
counterparts. We work just as hard, do it for a lot less and understand that cultural meanings and social
money, carry education to our venue as well as competi- organization create constraints and opportunities in
tion, and have overcome [physical challenges to do our people’s lives, including people with disabilities.
sports]. Our stories display . . . true resiliency . . . there- In each of the following chapters, a “Breaking Bar-
fore better matching us with the way life really exists (in riers” box presents the voices and experiences of peo-
Joukowsky and Rothstein, 2002a, p. 39). ple with disabilities. If you are currently able-bodied,
Snow’s comment plus the relative invisibility of sports each box alerts you to social and cultural barriers that
for athletes with a disability raises a series of socio- constrain the lives of people with disabilities. If you
logical questions: have a disability, each box acknowledges the barriers
that you, Randy Snow, and millions of others face in
1. Whose ideas and beliefs about sports come to be
the pursuit of sport participation.
accepted as the correct ideas and beliefs in society?
These barriers, according to many currently able-
2. Who is included and excluded from the processes
bodied people, are “just the way things are.” Eliminat-
through which ideas and beliefs are promoted and
ing them is impossible or idealistic, they say, because
legitimized?
they require changes in physical environments as well
3. Who is advantaged and disadvantaged by deci-
as the organization of relationships, schools, commu-
sions based on prevailing ideas and beliefs?
nities, and societies. However, this approach turns all
4. How can decision-making processes be revised so
of us into victims of culture and society. The alterna-
that decisions about sports are more representa-
tive is to have informed and idealistic visions of what
tive of all people in society?
sports could and should be, making it possible to iden-
Most readers of this book don’t have friends whose tify and eliminate barriers that prevent some people
physical or intellectual impairments make them “dis- from playing sports.
abled” nor have they ever met athletes from the Para- Fung Ying Ki, a triple gold medal winner in the
lympic Games or the Special Olympics. This means 2000 Sydney Paralympics, knew that it was possible to
that if I asked you to close your eyes and imagine break barriers when she said, “I hope that, in the future,
five different sport scenes, few of you would picture there will no longer be ‘disabled athletes’ in this world,
a scene involving athletes with an amputated limb, in only ‘athletes’” (in Joukowsky and Rothstein, 2002a,
wheelchairs, blind, with cerebral palsy, or with intel- p. 115). Working to achieve this future will make all of
lectual disabilities. us more human and humane.

what would motivate and guide us as we partici-

pate in our communities, societies, and world? and unafraid of promoting structural changes
People who make a difference and change the in societies. This is illustrated in the “Breaking
world for the better have always been idealistic Barriers” box above.

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CHAPTER 1: The Sociology of Sport 17

Are these athletes? Their times in the 100- and 200-meter sprints are better than all but a handful of sprinters
worldwide. Why are some sports defined as more real or more important than others? Who determines this?
These three sprinters run on Ossur’s Cheetah Flex-Foot. Does this matter in terms of a definition of sport?
(Source: David Biene; photo courtesy of Ossur)

Regardless of controversies, research and and produce knowledge that people find useful as
interest in the sociology of sport has increased sig- they seek to understand social life and participate
nificantly in recent years. This growth will con- effectively as citizens in their communities and
tinue as long as scholars in the field do research societies.

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WHY STUDY SPORTS IN SOCIETY? the street. Relationships often revolve around
sports, especially among men, and increasingly
We study sports because they are socially signifi- among women. People identify with teams and
cant activities for many people, they reinforce athletes so closely that the outcomes of games
important ideas and beliefs in many societies, and matches influence their moods, identities,
and they’ve been integrated into major spheres and sense of well-being. In a general sense,
of social life such as the family, religion, educa- sports create opportunities for conversations that
tion, the economy, politics, and the media. enable people to form and nurture relationships
and even enhance their status as they describe
and critique athletes, games, teams, coaching
Sports Are Socially Significant Activities
decisions, and the content of media commen-
for Many People
taries. When people use sports this way, they
As we look around us, we see that the Olym- often broaden social networks related to work,
pic Games, soccer’s World Cup, American politics, education, and other spheres of their
football’s Super Bowl, the Rugby World Cup, lives. This increases their social capital, that is,
the Tour de France, the tennis championships the social resources that link them positively to social
at Wimbledon, and other sport megaevents worlds (Harvey, 2007).
attract global attention and media coverage. When people play sports, their experiences
The biggest of these events are watched by bil- are often remembered as special and important
lions of people in over two hundred countries. in their lives. The emotional intensity, group
The media coverage of sport megaevents pro- camaraderie, and sense of accomplishment that
vides vivid images and stories that entertain, often occur in sports make sport participation
inspire, and provide for people the words and more memorable than other activities.
ideas they use to make sense of their experi- For all these reasons, sports are logical topics
ences and the world around them. Even people for the attention of sociologists and others con-
with little or no interest in sports are forced to cerned with social life today.
make them a part of their lives when family and
friends insist on taking them to games and talk-
Sports Reaffirm Important Ideas and Beliefs
ing about sports.
in Many Societies
We also study sports because many people
use them to reaffirm ideas and beliefs that are
OLC ON THE OLC: important to them and widely accepted by oth-
See the OLC—Additional Readings ers. In fact, a key research topic in the sociology
of sport is the relationship between sports and
for Chapter 1—for articles written or
cultural ideologies.
cowritten by the author on sports as social Ideologies are webs of ideas and beliefs that peo-
phenomena. ple use to give meaning to the world and make sense
of their experiences. They are important aspects
of culture because they embody the principles,
People worldwide increasingly talk about perspectives, and viewpoints that underlie our
sports—at work, at home, in bars, on dates, at feelings, thoughts, and actions. However, ide-
dinner tables, in school, with friends, and even ologies seldom come in neat packages, espe-
with strangers at bus stops, in airports, and on cially in highly diverse and rapidly changing

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CHAPTER 1: The Sociology of Sport 19

societies. Various groups of people often fostered in many cultures a form of “common
develop their own ideas and beliefs for giving sense” and a vocabulary that defines female infe-
meaning to the world and making sense of their riority in sports as “natural.” Therefore, when a
experiences, and they don’t always agree with person throws a ball correctly, people learned to
others. This can lead to struggles over whose say that he or she “throws like a man.” Throw-
ideologies provide the most accurate, useful, or ing incorrectly means that a person “throws
moral ways of giving meaning to and explaining like a girl.” The same has been true when run-
the world and the everyday events that affect ning abilities and general sports abilities are
people’s lives. evaluated. If sports are played correctly, they
As various people use and promote their are played as a man would play them. If they
ideologies in society, sports become socially are played incorrectly, they are played as a girl
relevant. As social constructions, sports can be would play them.
organized to reinforce or challenge prevailing The belief that playing sports, especially
ideologies. People create and organize sports contact sports, would make boys into men has
around their ideas and beliefs about bodies, also been fostered by dominant gender ideol-
relationships, abilities, character, gender, race, ogy in many cultures. Consequently, when girls
social class, and other attributes and charac- and women played these sports, many people
teristics that they define as important. Usually, described them as “unfeminine” or as “unnatu-
the most popular forms of sports in a society ral” or “immoral.” Many people could not make
reinforce and reproduce the ideologies favored sense of strong, competent women athletes, so
by people with the most power and influence. they assumed that such women must be “male-
This helps these ideologies become dominant like” or lesbians (Griffin, 1998; 2008). When this
because so many people in a society learn to use assumption was combined with related ideas and
them as interpretive guides for making sense beliefs about nature and the body many people,
of the world and their experiences. When this including physicians and political and religious
occurs, sports help to produce forms of social leaders, discouraged sport participation for girls
organization that benefit powerful and wealthy and women and restricted their opportunities to
people. play sports (Hargreaves, 1994; Lenskyj, 1986;
Vertinsky, 1990, 1994).
Gender Ideology We can use gender ideology This gender ideology was so widely accepted
to illustrate the social significance of sports. through most of the twentieth century that
Gender ideology consists of a web of ideas and being female meant being a failure in sports
beliefs about masculinity, femininity, and male- (Lenskyj, 1986). Coaches of men’s teams even
female relationships in the organization of social used this idea to motivate players by “accusing”
worlds. People use it to guide their definitions them of “playing like a bunch of girls” when
of what it means to be a man or a woman, they made mistakes or did not play aggressively
their evaluations of people and relation- enough. Most important, this ideology led peo-
ships, and their sense of what is “natural” and ple to exclude girls and women from sports and
“moral” when it comes to performing gender in to give nearly all funding to programs for boys
their lives. and men. Although many people have chal-
Dominant gender ideology in most societies lenged and discredited this ideology in recent
emphasizes that men are naturally superior to years, its legacy continues to privilege many
women in activities that involve strength, physi- boys and men and disadvantage many girls and
cal skills, and emotional control. This belief has women.

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Fortunately, ideology can be and sometimes organization and cultural practices. This and
is changed. History shows that people regularly related issues are discussed in Chapter 9.
resist ideologies that they define as unfair, and
sometimes organize social movements to change Class Ideology Class ideology consists of a
them. For example, many girls and women have web of ideas and beliefs that people use to understand
used sports as sites or “social places” for chal- economic inequalities and make sense of their own
lenging dominant ideas and beliefs about what positions and the positions of others in an economic
is “natural and feminine.” This has led others to hierarchy in society. In the United States, for exam-
question the validity of traditional ideology, form ple, class ideology is organized around the beliefs
new ideas and beliefs about gender, and support that all people have opportunities to achieve
structural changes in the gendered organization economic success and that American society is a
of sports and society as a whole. meritocracy where deserving people become successful
Issues related to gender ideology are discussed and where success is achieved by those who deserve it.
in all of the following chapters, and especially Sports provide many stories and slogans empha-
Chapter 8. The box “The Body Is More Than sizing that people can achieve anything through
Physical” deals with a related ideological issue in discipline and hard work, and that failure awaits
our lives: What do we consider “natural” when it the lazy and undisciplined. By extension, this ide-
comes to the body? ology supports the assumption that wealth and
power are earned by qualified and hardworking
Racial Ideology Sports often are sites for either people of good character, whereas poverty and
reaffirming or challenging racial ideology, that dead-end jobs signal a lack of character, qualifica-
is, the web of ideas and beliefs that people use to give tions, and a willingness to work.
meaning to skin color and evaluate people and forms This way of thinking legitimizes class
of social organization in terms of racial classifica- inequality. It connects sports positively with
tions. Racial ideologies vary around the world, capitalism and the belief that economic rewards
but they are powerful forces in many societies. identify deserving winners in a competitive
They’re used to place people into racial catego- world. This and related issues are discussed in
ries that are tied to assumptions about character Chapters 8 to 10.
traits and abilities, both intellectual and physical.
These assumptions then serve as the foundation Sports and Ideologies: Complex Connections
for important social practices and policies that When we think about sports and ideologies, it is
affect people’s lives. important to know that ideology is complex and
The connections between sports and racial sometimes inconsistent and that sports come in
ideologies are complex. However, many peo- many forms and have many meanings associated
ple in the United States have long used widely with them. Therefore, sports are connected with
shared ideas and beliefs about skin color to eval- ideologies in various and sometimes contradic-
uate athletic potential and explain athletic suc- tory ways. We saw this in the example showing
cess and failure. The beliefs that light-skinned that sports are sites for simultaneously reproduc-
people lack certain running and jumping abili- ing and challenging dominant gender ideology
ties, whereas dark-skinned people excel in certain in society.
sports due to “natural” abilities, are expressions Additionally, sports can have many differ-
of what has been dominant racial ideology for ent social meanings associated with them. For
at least a century in the U.S. This ideology has example, baseball is played by similar rules in
been challenged and discredited, but its leg- Japan and the United States, but the mean-
acy has shaped many aspects of existing social ings associated with baseball and with athletes’

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CHAPTER 1: The Sociology of Sport 21

performances are different because of ideologi- of social life, including family, economy, media,
cal differences between the two cultures. Team politics, education, and religion. These connec-
loyalty is highly prized in Japan, and emotional tions are discussed through this book, but it is
displays by players or coaches are frowned upon, useful to highlight them here.
whereas individualism is high prized in the
Sports and the Family Family life in North
United States, and emotional displays are seen
America is often influenced by sports. Millions
as entertaining. Japanese baseball games can
of children play organized sports and parents
end in ties, but games in the United States must
often administer programs, coach
have winners and losers, even if it
teams, attend games, and serve as
means playing extra innings. [Sports] are why some
chauffeur for child athletes. Fam-
The complex connections people get out of bed.
ily schedules are altered to accom-
between sports and ideologies Sports define many of
modate practices and games, and
make it difficult to generalize
us. Some superstars watching sports can disrupt fam-
about the role and consequences
command as much ily life or bring family members
of sports in society. Sports have
together. In some cases, rela-
the potential to influence social attention as heads of
tionships between family mem-
worlds in many ways. This is state and other leaders.
bers are nurtured and played out
another reason for studying them Whether you weigh the
during sport activities or in con-
as contested activities and social good or bad of it—it’s a
versations about sports. Family
constructions.
fact. —Bob Davis, vice president, issues are discussed in Chapters
American Program Bureau (1999) 4 and 5.
Sports Are Integrated into
Major Spheres of Social Life
Sports and the Economy People in wealthy
A reason for using sociology to study sports is postindustrial societies spend billions of dollars
that they are clearly connected to major spheres each year on game tickets, sports equipment,

“This won’t take long will it?”

Families and family schedules often are shaped by sport involvement, sometimes interfering with family
relationships (left) and sometimes creating enjoyable time together (right).

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reflect on The Body Is More than Physical

SPORTS Sports Influence Meanings Given to the Body
Until recently, most people viewed the body as a fixed cultural definitions of age, sex, sexuality, race, ethnic-
fact of nature; it was biological only. But many schol- ity, and disability, among other factors.
ars and scientists now recognize that a full understand- Definitions of the body are strongly related to
ing of the body requires that we view it in social and sports in many societies. For example, our concep-
cultural terms (Blake, 1996; Brownell, 1995; Butler, tion of the “ideal body,” especially the ideal male
2004; Cole, 2000a; Hargreaves and Vertinsky, 2006; body, is strongly influenced by the athletic body. In
Petersen, 2007; Shilling, 1993, 2007; Turner, 1997). fact, the bodies of athletes are used widely as mod-
For example, medical historians explain that the body els of health and fitness, strength and power, control
and body parts have been identified and defined dif- and discipline, and overall ability. In today’s competi-
ferently through history and from one culture to tive sports, the body is measured, classified, condi-
another. This is important because it affects medical tioned, trained, regulated, and assessed in terms of
practice, government policies, social theories, sport its performance under various conditions. Instead of
participation, and our everyday experiences (Fausto- being experienced as a source of pleasure and joy, the
Sterling, 2000; Laqueur, 1990; Lupton, 2000; Preves, body is more often viewed as a machine that achieves
2005; Weil, 2006). instrumental goals. As a machine, its parts must be
The meanings given to the body and body parts in developed, coordinated, maintained, and fixed when
any culture are the foundation for people’s ideas and broken. Additionally, when the athletic body fails due
beliefs about sex, sex differences, sexuality, beauty, to injuries, impairments, and age, it is reclassified in
self-image, body image, fashion, hygiene, health, ways that dramatically alter identity, relationships,
nutrition, eating, fitness, age and aging, racial clas- and status.
sification systems, disease, drugs and drug testing, Socially constructing the body in this way emphasizes
violence and power, and other factors that affect our control and rationality. It leads people to accept and
lives. Cultural definitions of the body influence deep even seek forms of body assessment and regulation
personal feelings such as desire, pleasure, pain, and such as weigh-ins, measuring body-fat percentage,
other sensations that we use to assess personal well- testing for aerobic and anaerobic capacity, observing
being, relationships, and quality of life. For example, physiological responses to stressors, doing blood anal-
people in Europe and North America during the ysis, dieting, using drugs and other substances, drug
nineteenth century identified insensitivity to physi- testing, and on and on.
cal pain as a sign that a person had serious character The cultural conceptions of body as machine and
defects, and they saw a muscular body as an indicator sport as performance make it likely that athletes will use
of a criminal disposition, immorality, and lower-class brain manipulations, hormonal regulation, body-part
status (Hoberman, 1992). replacements, and genetic engineering as methods of
Cultural definitions of the body have changed so disciplining, controlling, and managing their bod-
that today we see a person’s ability to ignore pain, ies. Measurable performance outcomes then become
especially in sports, as an indicator of strong moral more important than subjective experiences of bodily
character, and we see a muscular body as proof of pleasure and joy (Pronger, 2002). As a result, the abil-
self-control and discipline rather than immorality and ity to endure pain and stay in the game is an indicator
criminal tendencies. But in either case, our identities of the “disciplined body;” and bodies that are starved
and experiences are inherently embodied, and our to reduce body fat to unhealthy levels are viewed as
bodies are identified in connection with social and “fit” and “in shape.”
Continued

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CHAPTER 1: The Sociology of Sport 23

Once we realize that human life is embodied and

that bodies are socially constructed in the context of
our culture, those who think critically ask the follow-
ing questions:
1. What are the origins of prevailing ideas about
natural, ideal, and deviant bodies in sports and
in society?
2. What are the moral and social implications of
the ways that the body is protected, probed,
monitored, tested, trained, disciplined, evaluated,
manipulated, and rehabilitated in sports?
3. How are bodies in sports marked and categorized
by gender, skin color, ethnicity, (dis)ability, and
age, and what are the social implications of such
body marking and categorization?
4. How are athletic bodies represented in the media
and popular culture, and how do those representa-
tions influence identities, relationships, and forms
of social organization?
5. Who owns the body of an athlete, and what
happens when it is sold as a billboard for advertis-
ing products and services?
These questions challenge taken-for-granted ideas
about nature, beauty, health, and competitive sports.
But learning about sports in society requires this form
of critical inquiry to be done. What do you think?

The steroid-enhanced body of Arnold Schwarzenegger

made bodybuilding popular worldwide. A cutout of his
pose as Mr. Olympia inspires the workouts of men who
come to this gym in Ghazni, Afghanistan (in 2007).
Although public displays of bodies are traditionally
discouraged in Afghan culture, the notion that bodies
can be sculpted to change men’s lives is increasingly
accepted. (Source: Musadeq Sadeq, AP Worldwide
Photos)

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24 SPORTS IN SOCIETY: Issues and Controversies www.mhhe.com/coakley10e

participation fees, athletic club membership Sports and Politics People in many societies
dues, and bets placed on teams and athletes. This link sports to national pride and identity. In the
affects local and regional economies. Through- aftermath of the terrorist attacks of 9/11/01,
out much of the world, sports and commerce many Americans used sport events as sites for
have joined together so that corporate logos are reaffirming their collective sense of “we-ness.”
now linked with sport teams and athletes, and There were passionate expressions of unity and
they are displayed prominently in school gyms, patriotism, combined with memorials to com-
arenas, stadiums, and other sports places. memorate the victims of the attacks. This allowed
Some athletes now make impressive sums spectators, even those watching on television, to
of money from salaries, appearance fees, and reaffirm their sense of national identity.
endorsements. Corporations paid up to $3 Sports are widely used by nation-states wishing
million for thirty seconds of commercial time to gain global recognition or present a show of
during the 2009 telecast of the Super Bowl and power and wealth to the rest of the world. China
the International Olympic Committee takes in spent over $40 billion to host the 2008 Olympics
about $4 billion every four years from corporate in the hope of achieving these goals. Political
sponsors. Sport stadiums, arenas, and teams are leaders at various levels of government promote
named after corporations, and corporate logos themselves by demonstrating personal interest in
are so pervasive that many people associate cer- sports, and former athletes have used their name
tain sports, teams, and events with corporations recognition and reputations from sports to be
and their products. Overall, sports are integrally elected to political positions in the United States.
tied to material and economic conditions in soci- Additionally, sports themselves are political
ety. These issues are discussed in Chapters 10 in that they involve decisions related to the
and 11. control and sponsorship of events, eligibil-
ity and team selection, rules and rule changes,
Sports and the Media Television networks and rule enforcement, and the allocation of rewards
cable stations pay billions of dollars for the rights and punishments. Sport organizations exercise
to televise sports. NBC paid the International power over people’s lives—a reason they often
Olympic Committee (IOC) $2.3 billion for the are described as governing bodies. These issues
rights to the 2004 and 2006 Summer Games and are discussed in Chapter 13.
the 2006 Winter Games. Five media compa-
nies pay the NFL over $3.75 billion per year to Sports and Education Sports are widely in-
televise their games. Commercial sports seldom cluded in physical education, and interscholastic
prosper without media coverage and collecting sport teams in some nations attract widespread
rights fees from media companies. attention. Some U.S. universities use intercol-
The images and stories represented in media legiate teams as public relations and often make
coverage of sports emphasize particular ideo- or lose millions of dollars in the process. U.S.
logical themes, and they influence what people schools often sponsor high-profile sport pro-
think and talk about every day. The media have grams and teams, whereas schools in most other
converted sports into a major form of entertain- nations sponsor low-profile, club-based teams
ment, athletes are now global celebrities, and emphasizing participation and student control.
corporations that sponsor media sports inscribe These issues are discussed in Chapter 14.
their logos in people’s minds and use sports to
promote lifestyles based on consumption. These Sports and Religion There is an emerging rela-
issues are discussed in Chapter 12. tionship between sports and religion in certain

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CHAPTER 1: The Sociology of Sport 25

Table 1.1 Publication sources for sociology of sport research

JOURNALS DEVOTED PRIMARILY TO JOURNALS IN RELATED FIELDS THAT
SOCIOLOGY OF SPORT ARTICLES SOMETIMES INCLUDE ARTICLES ON
International Review for the Sociology of Sport OR RELATED TO SOCIOLOGY OF SPORT
(quarterly) TOPICS
Journal of Sport and Social Issues (quarterly) Adolescence
Sociology of Sport Journal (quarterly) Aethlon: The Journal of Sport Literature
Sociology of Sport Online (sosol) Athletic Insight—The Online Journal of Sport
Psychology
SOCIOLOGY JOURNALS THAT The British Journal of Sport History
SOMETIMES INCLUDE ARTICLES Canadian Journal of the History of Sport
ON OR RELATED TO SPORTS Coaching: An International Journal of Theory,
American Journal of Sociology Research and Practice
American Sociological Review European Sport Management Quarterly
British Journal of Sociology The European Sports History Review
Sociology of Education International Journal of the History of Sport
Theory, Culture and Society International Journal of Religion and Sport
International Journal of Sport Communication
INTERDISCIPLINARY, SPORT SCIENCE, International Journal of Sport and Health Science
AND PHYSICAL EDUCATION JOURNALS International Journal of Sports Psychology
THAT SOMETIMES INCLUDE ARTICLES International Review of Sport and Exercise Psychology
ON OR RELATED TO SOCIOLOGY OF Journal of Coaching Education
SPORT TOPICS Journal of Human Movement Studies
Adapted Physical Activity Quarterly Journal of Leisure Research
Avante Journal of the Philosophy of Sport
Canadian Journal of Applied Sport Sciences Journal of Popular Culture
Exercise and Sport Sciences Reviews Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology
International Journal of Eastern Sports and Physical Journal of Sport History
Education Journal of Sport Media
Journal of Physical Education, Recreation, and Dance Journal of Sports Economics
Journal of Intercollegiate Sports Leisure Sciences
Journal of Issues in Intercollegiate Athletics Leisure Studies
Journal of Sport Management Olympika: The International Journal
Journal of Sport Sciences of Olympic Studies
Journal for the Study of Sports and Athletics in Education Soccer and Society
Physical Education Review Society and Leisure
Quest Sport, Ethics and Philosophy
Recreational Sports Journal Sport History Review
Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport Sport Management Review
Sport, Education, and Society Sport in Society
Sport in Society (formerly Culture, Sport, and Society) The Sport Psychologist
Sport Science Review Sporting Traditions
The Sport Journal (formerly Journal of Sport Behavior) The Sports Historian
Women in Sport & Physical Activity Journal Youth & Society

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26 SPORTS IN SOCIETY: Issues and Controversies www.mhhe.com/coakley10e

societies. Local churches and church groups in groups into context. This makes us aware of the
the United States and Canada sponsor teams and circumstances that set limits and create possi-
leagues. Parishes and congregations revise Sun- bilities in people’s lives. For most sociologists,
day worship schedules to accommodate mem- the ultimate goal is to create the knowledge
bers who won’t miss an opening NFL kickoff. that enables people to understand, control, and
Athletes in the United States regularly express change the conditions of their lives so that needs
their religious beliefs, and nondenominational are met at both individual and group levels.
religious organizations use sports to attract and Sociologists use the concepts of culture, social
convert people to Christianity. Other U.S.-based interaction, and social structure as they system-
religious organizations commonly use athletes atically investigate social worlds. Sociological
as spokespersons, and some athletes now define knowledge about sports and other social worlds
their sport participation primarily in religious is based on information collected in research.
terms. These issues are discussed in Chapter 15. This makes it different from statements about
sports that are based only on personal experi-
Sports and Everyday Life Data on youth sport ence and opinions.
participation, attendance at events, media cover- Defining sports presents a challenge. Some
age of sports, the number of people who con- scholars define sports as well-established, officially
sider themselves fans, the money spent on sports, governed competitive physical activities in which
and other information clearly indicate that the participants are motivated by internal and external
importance and visibility of sports has increased rewards. However, using a single, static defi-
dramatically over the past few decades. This is nition of sport is problematic if it leads us to
reflected in the rapid expansion of research and ignore or devalue the lives of people who have
scholarly discussions of sports in society. As I neither the resources nor the desire to develop
wrote this edition of Sports in Society, I included formally organized and competitive physical
over 700 new references to books, journal arti- activities. For this reason, many people in the
cles, and relevent articles in the popular press sociology of sport use an alternative definitional
that were not cited in the last edition. Keep- approach based on the assumption that popular
ing track of the literature is now a full time job. conceptions of sports vary over time and from
Table 1.1 on page 25 lists most of the journals one social world to another. These scholars try
that I used when seeking the latest research find- to explain why certain activities, and not oth-
ings on topics discussed in this book. ers, are identified as sports in a particular group
or society, why some sports are more strongly
supported and funded than others, and how vari-
summary ous categories of people are affected by the pre-
vailing definition of sports and related funding
WHY STUDY THE SOCIOLOGY priorities.
OF SPORT? This alternative approach emphasizes that
sports are contested activities, meaning that peo-
Sociology is the study of the social worlds that peo- ple often disagree about their meaning, purpose,
ple create, organize, maintain, and change through and organization. Furthermore, people often
their relationships with each other. Sociologists have different ideas about who should play sports
use concepts, research, and theories to describe and the conditions under which participation
and explain social worlds. In the process, they should occur. Debates over who plays and who
enable us to put the lives of individuals and doesn’t often create heated exchanges and bitter

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CHAPTER 1: The Sociology of Sport 27

feelings, because they are tied to notions of fair-

ness, inclusion, and the allocation of resources in
WEBSITE RESOURCES
social worlds. Finally, sports are contested when
people disagree over issues of sponsorship: the Note: Websites often change. The following URLs
sports that will be sponsored, who will sponsor were current when this book was printed. Please
them, and how much control the sponsors will check our website (www.mhhe.com/coakley10e) for
have over sports. updates and additions.
Learning to ask critical questions about sports
in society is easier when people view sports as www.alesde.ufpr.br/inicioen.html Asociación
Latinoamericana de Estudios Socioculturales del
social constructions—that is, parts of the social
Deporte (ALESDE) is a recently formed Latin
world that are created by people as they interact with
America sociology association dedicated to study-
one another under the social, political, and economic ing sports from social and cultural perspectives;
conditions that exist in their society. This forces us this site will contain information about research
to think about why sports take particular forms as the association hosts conferences and sponsors
and who is advantaged and disadvantaged by a journal.
prevailing ideas and the current organization of www.eass-sportsociology.eu/ The European Asso-
sports in a social world. ciation for Sociology of Sport (eass) provides
When sociologists study sports in society, they news, journal articles, policy information, and
often discover problems created by the structure sponsors an annual conference focused generally
and organization of either sports or the social on sports in European nations and the European
Union.
worlds in which they exist. When this happens,
www.issa.otago.ac.nz/ ISSA is the International
recommendations based on sociological research
Sociology of Sport Association; this organization
may threaten those with a vested interest in is a subcommittee of ICSSPE, the International
maintaining the status quo in sports. Although Council of Sport Science and Physical Educa-
this leads some people to see the sociology of tion, and is affiliated with UNESCO, the United
sport as controversial, most people in the field Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural
continue to do research and produce knowledge Organization.
that they and others use to promote fairness and www.mhhe.com/coakley10e Click on chapter 1;
social justice. also go to the Online Learning Center (OLC)
People study sports in society because sports at www.mhhe.com/coakley10e for an annotated
are socially significant activities for many people; list of readings and other materials related to this
chapter. The OLC contains a chapter-by-
they provide excitement, memorable experiences,
chapter list of key concepts, a graded review test,
and opportunities to initiate and extend social
and important sociology of sport information.
relationships. Sports also reaffirm important www.nasss.org/ The official site for the North
ideas and beliefs, especially those that comprise American Society for the Sociology of Sport; the
ideologies related to gender, race and ethnicity, Resource Center contains a list of experts in the
and social class. Finally, people study sports in field, along with graduate programs specializing in
society because sports are deeply integrated in the sociology of sport.
major spheres of social life such as family, econ- www.sociosite.net/topics/leisure.php#SPORT
omy, media, politics, education, and religion. This site, located in the Netherlands, provides
Overall, sports have become such an integral part excellent links to sites related to the sociology
of everyday life that they cannot be ignored by of sport.
anyone concerned with culture, social interac-
tion, and social structure in societies today.

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