F E A T U R E A R T I C L E

Cellulose Insulation in Oil-Filled Power

Transformers: Part I—History and
Development
Key Words: Transformer insulation, kraft paper, crepe paper, thermally upgraded paper,
synthetic paper, pressboard.

Overview Thomas A. Prevost

EHV-Weidmann, Inc.
C ellulose insulation has been the preferred choice for the
solid insulation in power transformers, but not because
it is the best. In fact, it would never have been the preferred T. V. Oommen
material if it were not available in plenty from natural renewable Consultant
source—soft wood.
In 1939, G. T. Kohan of Bell Telephone Laboratories in New
York wrote an article in AIEE Transactions on cellulose as an
insulating material for various electrical applications: paper
capacitors, paper-insulated power cables, telephone cables [1]. Part I covers briefly the development
He observed, “Although the use of cellulose does not go back to of electrical grade paper/pressboard
the Garden of Eden as do some of its applications, it is nearly as
old as the electrical industry itself.” The same year, the annual
for transformer use, starting from the
consumption of cellulose insulation in the United States was raw materials and including the
estimated by Kohan at 18 million kg (40 million pounds). Since improvements made, for example,
then, the annual consumption has increased many fold. Oil-filled
HV power cables, condenser bushings, and power transformers thermally upgraded papers.
consume gigantic quantities of cellulose insulation measured in
millions of tons.
The chief disadvantage of cellulosic material for electrical
use is that it is hygroscopic and needs to be processed and main-
tained dry. For power transformers, the processing is elaborate over the past 70+ yr to understand degradation processes, deter-
and time-consuming. Once in the transformer, the insulation be- mine end-of-life criteria, and investigate methods to prolong in-
gins to age over many years. Its water content increases because sulation life. With a few hundred thousand power transformers in
of the degradation of the molecular chain by thermal stresses and use, a large proportion of which is in a severely aged stage, the
oxidative processes. Depolymerization of the cellulose chain concern over transformer failures is real, and the condition as-
lowers the chain length and mechanical strength. The insulation sessment of these units has become a high priority. Therefore,
finally becomes brittle and carbonaceous with no short circuit despite our familiarity with cellulosic insulation for years and
withstand capability. We may call this the absolute end of life. all of the understanding we have so far, new studies are launched
The dry-out is worth the effort because dry cellulosic insulation every year.
has excellent dielectric properties. As far as improvements are concerned, the insulation papers
It is instructive to review the use of cellulose in transformers we have now show acceptable thermal stability and mechanical
from a historical perspective, the elaborate studies conducted strength for present-day applications. This has been achieved

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by the use of better pulps, optimized fiber length, and thermal Before the 1920s, a variety of fibrous materials, both cellulo-
upgrading. Blending cellulose fibers with synthetic fibers is yet sic and non-cellulosic, were used for electrical insulation: cot-
another improvement, although not widely applicable. ton rag, silk, jute, asbestos, etc. [4], [5]. Although varnished
cambric cloth and other textiles were used in cables, varnished
Cellulosic Insulation in Transformers or ‘boiled-in-oil’ pressboard made up of cotton rags and paper
Cellulosic insulation is used primarily in oil-filled transform- clippings was used in transformers. In 1920, blends of kraft wood
ers from distribution to large power units covering a wide range fibers and manila-hemp fibers began to be used for telephone
from 10 kVA to 1500 MVA and from line voltage to 1000 kV. In insulation. In capacitors, linen was used until the late 1920s.
terms of physical size, it ranges from the pole and pad-mounted The 1920s and 1930s were periods of much experimentation on
units on our streets to large substation units that can have several how to improve the dielectric performance of the paper-oil sys-
tons of cellulosic insulation (paper and pressboard) immersed in tem. A better understanding of fibers and impurities in the pulp
40,000 to 100,000 L (~10,000 to 30,000 gallons) of oil. Fig. 1 resulted in better insulation. It seems that by the late 1920s and
through 3 show views of the insulation structure in transformers early 1930s, kraft paper insulation began to be used in combina-
[2]. Fig. 1 shows the cut-outs of a large shell form and a core tion with insulating oil in transformers. This combination was
form transformer, which clearly show the coil structures, ‘pan- needed to satisfy the increasing insulation requirements as the
cake,’ in shell and discs in the core forms. voltage ratings escalated. In the 1940s, kraft paper in combina-
Fig. 2 gives a close-up view of a paper tape-wrapped HV trans- tion with oil was the dielectric material of choice for HV use as
former coil (core type). The LV insulation in distribution and evidenced by the number of cellulose material studies done.
small power transformers is a layer-wound coil as shown in Fig. Much more information on paper chemistry was generated in the
3. The total insulation would amount to tens to hundreds of 1950s and later at the Institute of Paper Chemistry. But interest
kilograms in distribution and small power transformers. The dia- in synthetic dielectric materials slowly developed in the late
mond patterns are epoxy dots that enable bonding of the layers 1950s, and such materials began to replace cellulosic insulation
after the coil has gone through a curing process. The layer thick- in power cables and capacitors. Mixtures of cellulosic and syn-
ness is typically 10 mil (0.254 mm). thetic materials are now used in many transformer insulation
The insulation structure consists of not only the HV and LV applications.
insulation but also support structures, winding tubes, spacer
blocks, and formed items for end closing. These are illustrated in Paper and Pressboard from Wood Pulp
Fig. 4. These items are available as prefabricated items from press- Electrical grade paper and pressboard are mostly made from
board suppliers [3]. wood pulp processed by the kraft chemical process, hence, kraft

Figure 1. Cut out of large shell and core form transformers.

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 Figure 2. Power transformer coil structure (core form).

paper and kraft board (kraft is German for strong). The starting
material is wood, both soft wood and hard wood. Wood is a
natural composite material that is made up of flexible tubes of Figure 4. Formed items from pressboard.
cellulose bound together by lignin, a brownish aromatic poly-
mer that is mostly removed during the pulping process. A sche-
matic representation of the fine structure of wood pulp is shown
in Fig. 5 [4]. is the degree of polymerization (DP). The repeating unit, how-
Cellulose, the essential component of paper and pressboard, ever, is cellobiose, consisting of two glucose units.
is a polymer of glucose units linked to one another in a special The DP values for paper samples can be estimated by speci-
manner as shown in Fig. 6. It may be represented simply as fied methods such as ASTM D-4243. The DP of kraft pulps ranges
[C5H10O5]n, ignoring the extra atoms on the end groups, where n from 1100 to 1200, but mixed pulp fibers can have much higher
DP, e.g., 1400 to 1600.
Soft woods (e.g., southern pine, Douglas fir, spruce, all coni-
fers) contain typically 42% cellulose and 28% lignin; hardwoods
(e.g., birch, aspen, red gum) contain 45% cellulose and 20%
lignin [6]. In addition to cellulose, wood contains hemicellulose
composed of mixed sugars, e.g., glucose and mannose
(glucomannan) with smaller chain length than cellulose. Soft-
wood may contain, on average, 27% hemicellulose. Both the
lignin and the hemicellulose need to be removed from the fin-
ished pulp as much as possible. The most significant differences
between soft and hard woods are fiber length (softwoods, 2 to 6
mm; hardwoods, 0.6 to 1.5 mm) and coarseness (soft woods, 15
to 35 mg/100 mm; hardwoods, 5 to 10 mg/100 mm). Softwood
fibers provide strength; hardwood fibers provide more smooth-
ness and evenness in machine and cross-machine directions.
Therefore, mixed pulps are advised in making paper and press-
board.
In the chemical process for making kraft pulp, wood chips are
digested in a pressure cooker-type digester with ‘white liquor,’ a
mixture of sodium hydroxide and sodium sulfide solutions Lig-
nin is selectively dissolved and removed, although about 5%
remains. For electrical grade pulp, no bleaching is done, but
careful washing is required to remove ionic materials. The pulp
is made into easily breakable sheets.
The pulp sheets are fed into a large vat, where the fibers are
separated and mixed to the right consistency; then, they are fed
Figure 3. LV insulation, distribution transformer (ABB onto the moving mesh belts on revolving drums. Water is sucked
brochure; reprinted with permission). off by suction pumps. For papermaking, a Fourdrinier press is

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 large and medium power transformers. It may be pointed out that
high strength fibers derived from hemp and cotton are some-
times mixed with the kraft pulp for improved mechanical strength.
Examples are hemp-kraft paper (60:40) once used in conductor
taping, and paper sheets made from a mixed pulp of kraft and
cotton fibers from used clothing. The hemp-kraft paper has been
found to degrade faster than pure kraft paper because of impuri-
ties, although the initial tensile strength is higher than for pure
kraft paper.
The percentage of pulp used for electrical grade material is
only a tiny fraction of the total wood pulp produced annually.
Some statistics on total U.S. pulp production in 1991 cites about
80 million tons produced annually. More than one-half (52%)
goes for mostly unbleached packaging materials [8]. Electrical
grade paper is perhaps only 1% of the total unbleached pulp.
Although a significant amount of paper and board materials are
recycled in the U.S. (40%), the pulp used for electrical grade
material comes from virgin pulp.

Transformer Insulation Development

It may be noted that transformer insulation had to be devel-

oped almost concurrently with transformer development, but it
took a few decades before the paper-oil combination became
reliable and well accepted. The transformer had been invented
as far back as 1885 by a team of Austrian engineers and further
developed by other inventors, especially George Westinghouse
and his team [9]–[12]. The one built by George Westinghouse in
1885 based on the work of his team of experts in the U.S. was, in
principle, similar to theirs, and was a dry-type distribution trans-
former with 500-V primary and 100-V secondary. It used air as
Figure 5. Cellulose macro and micro structure (reprinted from coolant. Cellulose-oil insulation was critical for all transformers
[4], with permission). developed since the 1920s. Transformer oil itself had been intro-
duced for transformer use in 1892 by GE and underwent im-
provement from paraffinic to naphthenic by 1925 [13]. Vacuum
commonly used. For pressboard, a cylinder press is preferred. filling of oil was introduced in 1932.
Both types of presses use cylinders, but the Fourdrinier press
uses several of these. Fig. 7 shows a cylinder press for pressboard A. Kraft Paper and Board
making [7]. It is difficult to pinpoint the time when electrical grade paper
Pressboard sheets may be calendered or multiple sheets com- was introduced, but it is known that such papers were used for
pressed to form denser and stronger (precompressed) boards that capacitors and cables extensively before becoming the primary
find application in making strong support items, such as spacer solid insulation in transformers. The use of resin-impregnated
blocks and laminated blocks. The calendered board is used for paper for transformer insulation was introduced at the turn of the
washers, tubes, and formed items in transformers. Needless to 20th century. The introduction of oil impregnation of paper led
say, several tons of pressboard and paper insulation are used in to the discontinuation of resin-impregnated paper.

Figure 6. Cellulose polymer.

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 Figure 7. Cylinder press for pressboard manufacture.

Although resin-impregnated cylinders functioned remarkably a tear-free paper for taping. The tough hemp-kraft paper used for
well in the earlier days, they were not desirable in high-stressed taping at the time had very little stretch. The crepe paper has as
areas such as angles and corners (boundary areas) as the voltage much as 20% stretch (elongation). The creping is done on the
rating increased. By the late 1920s in Switzerland, Weidmann regular sheet of paper, as a drum of it unrolls and is picked up by
had developed transformerboard (now called pressboard) from another drum revolving at a slower speed; the paper goes through
kraft pulp, which could be easily fabricated into formed items, an aqueous bath containing a creping compound. The crepe pa-
and these were ideal for high-stressed areas. The wet sheets, built per described here should not be confused with the 100% stretch
up from a number of required plies, pass through compressing lead tape used in transformers that was available earlier. The
and drying cylinders and emerge as dry sheets. The calendered introduction of the crepe paper was a few years after thermal
pressboard is ideal also for washers and tubes used in power upgrading agents were put into paper (see subsequent), so the
transformers. The calender press was already shown in Fig. 7. crepe paper could be thermally upgraded at the same time from a
Another European manufacturer of calendered board, based in non-upgraded paper.
Sweden, is Figeholm, which started its operation in 1931. Other
companies once in production have been acquired by other com- C. Thermal Upgrading of Paper
panies or shut down. Figeholm itsef is now owned by ASEA in As the rating of transformers climbed in the 1950s and 1960s
Sweden. and as transformers were occasionally overloaded, the concern
Mention had also been made of the special transformerboard for transformer life, or rather, paper insulation life, was raised.
known as precompressed board, another Weidmann development Thermal upgrading of the paper insulation was considered one
in the early 1950s, to meet the needs for strong support blocks remedy and was attempted by several research groups associated
and spacers to replace more conducting materials, such as lebanite with transformer or paper manufacturing in the late 1950s through
(derived from saw dust, etc.) and even micrata. The precompressed the 1970s; upgraded paper began to be used in the U.S. since the
board is tougher and denser than the regular calendered board, mid 1960s. An EPRI Report on thermal upgrading agents re-
with a specific gravity about 1.2 [14]. It is tougher to impregnate leased in 1987 gives both historical and ongoing studies [15].
with oil for the same reason. Laminates are made in a press with The upgrading systems developed include Insuldur
special adhesives. (Westinghouse), Cyanoethylate (GE), Thermacel (McGraw
Edison), Celloflex (Allis Chalmers), Mannitherm (Manning Pa-
B. Creped Paper Turn Insulation per Co.), HAS (McGraw Edison), Hovotherm (Hollingsworth &
Although plain kraft paper is widely used for conductor insu- Vose), and Rigel 65oC Rise (Rigel Products). The superiority of
lation in transformers in many countries, creped kraft paper is the upgraded papers was demonstrated by both short-term and
used for such purposes in the U.S. Crepe paper for turn insulation long-term aging.
was introduced by Dennison Paper Company in Framingham, The purpose of upgrading is to increase the insulation life.
MA in the 1970s with the blessing of the Westinghouse Large Accelerated aging studies confirmed that cellulose degradation
Power Transformer Plant in Muncie, IN, which was interested in is considerably slowed by upgrading agents [16]. Transformers

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rated at 55°C oil rise could be upgraded to 65°C oil rise, which
meant the insulation life was extended by at least three times.
Although several upgrading agents were tested by different re-
searchers, the most successful formulas used amine compounds,
particularly dicyandiamide (“dicy”). Westinghouse Electric re-
searchers introduced Insuldur in 1958, which was improved fur-
ther in 1960 [16]–[18]. The major component of this is “dicy”
(>60%); the others are melamine (>30%) and polyacrylamide.
The Insuldur content should be in the 2.75 to 4.0% range, corre-
sponding to a nitrogen content of 1.74 to 2.54% in paper. How-
ever, manufacturers allow a 2% lower limit. This combination of
the chemicals has been found to be more effective than just the
“dicy.” However, some transformer papers are made with only
“dicy” upgrading. The nitrogen content of the various upgrad-
ing systems ranged from 0.3 to 2.7%. Insuldur is at the high end
regarding nitrogen content.
With the widespread use of upgrading agents containing
“dicy,” processes such as cyanoethylation (developed by GE)
were discontinued [19].
Long-term aging studies were conducted on several upgraded
papers in the 1960s to generate life plots. Morrison’s life tests
showed that long-term life varied considerably among the up-
graded papers, and the better ones lasted 10 times longer than
regular kraft paper based on an end point of 60% tensile strength
and /25% bursting strength retention [20]. Westinghouse studies
on Insuldur paper showed that the upgraded paper could take a
temperature rise of 20 to 30°C greater as compared with non-
upgraded paper. It is now generally accepted that upgraded pa-
per designated as 65°C rise insulation should have at least a
12oC thermal improvement. End-of-life criteria will be discussed
in more detail in Part II.

D. Cellulose Modification Attempts Figure 8. Moisture absorption curves for paper.

Another attempted improvement of cellulosic paper was to
reduce its hygroscopicity. Dry paper can absorb (a better term is
‘adsorb’ because of surface absorption) a considerable amount of
water, which is a function of relative humidity and temperature, ture. However, the reduced moisture absorption came with a price:
as shown in Fig. 8 [21]. the paper was more brittle, had higher thickness, and the dissipa-
Paper and pressboard, if left exposed to air at room tempera- tion factor was higher than for paper. Economic factors also have
ture, can pick up anywhere from 4 to 10% water depending on to be considered in developing such material.
the humidity of the environment. Therefore, transformer insula- Another attempted modification was to develop a low permit-
tion requires rigorous dry out before oil impregnation. Oil-im- tivity pressboard to bring it closer to that of transformer oil with
pregnated paper slows down moisture absorption considerably, a permittivity of 2.2 [23]. The best results were achieved by
but it is not desirable to leave impregnated insulation exposed blending cellulose fibers with various polymer fibers, including
for long periods. Once moisture is adsorbed, it is not easy to dry Aramid (Nomex®), achieving permittivity of about 3.2 (cf. per-
out by simple heating because of the oil presence. Chemical mittivity of pressboard = 4.5) The higher cost of the blends
modification, such as cyanoethylation mentioned previously, makes these products uneconomical.
not only improves thermal performance but also reduces hygro-
scopicity. Fresh attempts made in the mid 1990s by Oommen E. Synthetic Materials
and Andrady [22] to reduce hygroscopicity included by graft Special synthetic formulations such as Aramid (an aromatic
polymerization, polymer deposition, and alkylation, yielded a polyamide) developed by DuPont under the trade name Nomex®
less hygroscopic material. The grafted material had the lowest are being used for making paper sheets and pressboard for lim-
moisture absorption. For example, grafted cellulose, which had a ited transformer use. Nomex® has a considerably higher thermal
polymer chain of acrylonitrile attached to the cellulose polymer, rating (220 vs. 105°C for cellulosic paper). Moisture absorption
picked up only 2.5% moisture at room temperature and 50% by Nomex® paper is significantly lower than for cellulosic pa-
relative humidity, whereas cellulosic paper picked up 6.5% mois- per, e.g., for 0.075-mm (3-mil) thick papers, saturation values at

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 Summary
Table 1. Paper/pressboard characteristics in specifications.
Part I has covered briefly the development of electrical grade
Physical and Mechanical Electrical paper/pressboard for transformer use from the raw materials, im-
Thickness Dielectric breakdown strength, provements made, and particularly the use of thermal upgrading
60 Hz agents to extend the useful life of transformers.
Apparent density Impulse strength Part II will cover practical measures to preserve insulation
Tensile strength Hold strength, 60 Hz
integrity by maintaining the insulation dryness level and by
(pressboard) efforts to minimize aging by controlling the factors that influ-
ence it. Aging mechanisms and load-related life will be discussed.
Edge tear strength (paper) Same, Impulse (pressboard)
Shrinkage (pressboard) Dissipation
References
Stretch under tension (paper) Factor at 25°C
Air resistance (porosity) [1] G.T. Kohman, “Cellulose as an insulating material,” Ind. Eng. Chem.,
vol. 31, no. 7, pp. 807–817, 1939.
[2] ABB Brochures on Transformers, used with permission.
[3] EHV-Weidmann brochure, The Complete Insulation Package.
[4] M. Schaible, “Electrical insulation papers—An overview,” IEEE
Elect. Insul. Mag., vol. 3, no. 1, Jan. 1987, pp. 8–12.
[5] H.R. Sheppard, “A century of progress in electrical insulation,” IEEE
Elect. Insul. Mag., vol. 2, no. 5, Sep. 1986, pp. 20–30.
room temperature at 50% humidity are as follows: Nomex®, 4%; [6] L. Blum, ‘The production of bleached kraft pulp,” Environmental
cellulose paper, 6.5%. Hybrid insulation structures in distribu- Defense Fund, 1996, www.rfu.org/KraftPulp.htm.
tion, mobile, and small power transformers containing both [7] EHV-Weidmann Industries, St. Johnsbury, VT.
Nomex® turn insulation and cellulosic structural parts are in com- [8] The U.S. Pulp, Paper & Pressboard Industry Publication, “Paper:
mercial use. The higher cost of Nomex® insulation prevents its Linking people and nature.”
widespread use in medium and large power units. [9] A.A. Halacsy and G.H. Von Fuchs, “Transformer invented 75 Years
The use of enamel-coated conductors in transformers, espe- Ago,” A.I.E.E. Trans, Part III, Power Apparatus & Systems, Jun.
cially high voltage conductors, has reduced the consumption of 1961, pp. 121–128.
[10] S. Jeszensky, ‘History of transformers,” IEEE Power Eng. Rev.,
cellulosic turn insulation significantly. However, older transform-
Dec. 1996, pp. 9–12.
ers in the field contain mostly cellulose insulation. Several types [11] J.R. Lucas, “Historical development of the transformer,” Chairman’s
of wire enamels are currently in use for transformer HV windings: Lecture, The Institution of Electrical Engineers, Sri Lanka Centre,
1) Fromvar enamels, which have a thermal index of 105 to 120oC Nov. 14, 2000.
and 2) high temperature enamels containing epoxies and polya- [12] J.W. Coltman, “The electric power transformer,” Westinghouse R&D
mide/imide. Epoxy coating by electrostatic powder coating is a Report. 87-1RO-RPLAN-R1, Feb. 1988, used with permission.
fast and reliable coating method. In power transformer HV wind- [13] A Guide to Transformer Maintenance. S.D. Myers Publication,
ings, CTC (continuously transposed conductors), which are ep- 1981, pp. 139–142.
oxy-coated to reduce eddy losses, are common. [14] Transformerboard. EHV-Weidmann Publication, 1979
[15] “Improved cellulosic insulation for distribution and power trans-
formers,” EPRI Report EL-4935, Mar. 1987, McGraw Edison Com-
F. Paper/Pressboard Specifications pany.
Material specifications stipulate all of the essential proper- [16] J.G. Ford, A.M. Lockie, and M.G. Leonard, “A new and improved
ties of these materials for transformer use. These may be divided heat-stabilized insulation,” Conf. Paper 60-936, Summer meeting of
into 1) pulp composition and characteristics and 2) mechanical the A.I.E.E., Atlantic City, NJ, June 22, 1960.
strength properties, physical properties, and electrical behavior. [17] L.E. Feather, “A new Insuldur turn insulation for large power trans-
Detailed specifications may be found in standards related to the formers,” Proc. Elect./Electron. Insul. Conf., 1969, pp. 155–158.
[18] “Insuldur,” Westinghouse/ABB brochure.
use of these materials. The paper/pressboard manufacturer strives
[19] W.A. Wink, K. Ward, Jr., and H.A. Swensen, “Improving the ther-
to meet the requirements. The transformer manufacturer also keeps mal stability of paper by chemical modification,” Tappi, vol. 51, no.
a set of specifications. 10, pp. 155–158.
A typical set of specifications may contain the items shown in [20] E.L. Morrison, “Evaluation of the thermal stability of electrical insu-
Table 1. In addition to these properties, certain critical proper- lating paper,” IEEE Trans. Elect. Insul. vol. EI-13, no. 3, Aug. 1968,
ties are sometimes specified by the material’s buyer (transformer pp. 76–82.
manufacturer), depending on the type of unit and the type of [21] T.V. Oommen, “Moisture equilibrium curves—Use and misuse,”
insulation paper/pressboard used. Thus, for paper, the initial DP Doble Conf. Paper, Apr. 2003.
value of humidity conditioned and dried paper may be speci- [22] T.V. Oommen and T.L. Andrady, “Graft polymerization and other
methods to reduce the hygroscopicity of cellulose insulation,” Conf.
fied. The thermal upgrading agent and its content will be speci-
Rec. Int. Symp. Elect. Insul., Montreal, Quebec, Canada, Jun. 16-19,
fied for upgraded papers. For pressboard, bend and ply adhesion 1996, pp. 538–541.
tests may be included.

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[23] “Advanced concepts for transformers. Pressboard dielectric constant T. V. Oommen is a consultant mainly
and mechanical strength,” Report by EHV-Weidmann Industries Inc., with ABB Power Technology Division of
St. Johnsbury, VT, for U.S. Dep. of Energy, DOE/ET/29307-1, Mar. ABB Inc. He worked as a R&D engineer/
1982. scientist for 24 yr at Westinghouse Electric
and the ABB Power Transformer Division
and retired in October 2000. During this
period, he led research projects related to
Thomas A. Prevost is an active member insulation degradation, gas generation,
of IEEE. He is currently the secretary of the moisture equilibrium in transformers, bubble generation from
IEEE PES Transformers Committee. He is overload, and biodegradable natural ester fluids; some of these
Past Chair of the IEEE PES Standards Coor- were funded by EPRI. He earned his Bachelor’s and Master’s
dinating Committee and served on the degrees in chemistry in India and his Doctorate degree in chem-
IEEE-SA Board of Governors from 2002 to istry at the University of Washington in the U.S. in 1970. His did
2004. Thomas is the Vice President of Tech- postdoctoral work in spectroscopy and electrochemical synthe-
nical Service at EHV Weidmann Industries sis at the University of Washington and Southern Illinois Uni-
in St. Johnsbury, VT, where he has been versity in Carbondale before he joined Westinghouse in 1977.
employed since 1985. Prior to that, he worked at Tampa Electric Dr. Oommen has published over 70 technical papers in IEEE and
Company as an engineer in distribution and production. Tho- CIGRE electrical journals and magazines and has given sympo-
mas received his BSEE from Virginia Polytechnic Institute. Tho- sia and seminars on electrical insulation and transformer diag-
mas is also active in ASTM D-9 Committee on Solid Insulating nostics. He is a Senior Member of IEEE, member of PES and
Materials. He has written several technical papers on the subject DEIS, and also a member of the Insulation Life and Insulating
of Electrical Insulation Materials. E-mail: Tom.Prevost@EHV- Fluids Subcommittees. He and his wife reside in Raleigh, NC. E-
Weidmann.com. mail: tv.oommen@ieee.org.

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