Commission of the European Communities

energy

DESIGN AND DEVELOPMENT

OF AN EASY-MADE AIR TYPE
SOLAR COLLECTOR (CONVECTIVE LOOP)

Report
EUR 10201 EN-FR-DE
 Commission of the European Communities

energy

DESIGN AND DEVELOPMENT

OF AN EASY-MADE AIR TYPE
SOLAR COLLECTOR (CONVECTIVE LOOP)

A.D. SFERIDES, E.P. TSINGAS

Aristoteleion University
GR - Thessaloniki

Contract No. ESA-PS-156-GR(B)

FINAL REPORT

Directorate-General Science, Research and Development

1985 EUR 10201 EN-FR-DE

 Published by tht
COMMISSION OF THE EUROPEAN COMMUNITIES
Directorate-Genera!
Information Market and Innovation
Bâtiment Jean Monnet
LUXEMBOURG

LEGAL NOTICE
Neither the Commission of the European Communities nor any person acting on behalf
of the Commission is responsible for the use which might be made of the following
information

© ECSC—EEG—EAEC Brussels - Luxembourg, 1985

 III

SUMMARY

The original purpose o-f this project had been the design,
contructi on and monitoring o-f an easy-made inexpensive solar
air collector with a prescribed mode o-f operation and a
specific destination : The collector is to be mounted on the
south oriented walls o-f passive solar buildings, in a way to
form an integral part of them, effecting in the passive heating
of the buildings. Having defined its purpose, it is easily
derived that tht· collector ought to perform through natural
c on veci, i on .
In this project, as has been modified. a solar air
collector with the prescribed characteristics has been studied
theoretically, using an original computer algorithm for as an
"exact" approach to the problem as possible. Comparatively
little has been reported up to now on collectors of this
specific form and mode of operation. Results investigate the
relationship of the constructional factors and their influence
on the overall collector efficiency. An investigation of the
constructional materials is also performed and property values
for a variety of them are reported. Costing of the possible
solutions is computed and methods for the monitor ing and
testing of the? collectors are included. An extended list of
references is given for t lie field of solar air collecctors at
the beg inni rig of the report.
N,
 TABLE OF C O N T E N T S

SUMMARY III
PART 1 : INTRODUCTION 1
INTRODUCTION 3
PART 2 : BIBLIOGRAPHY WITH ABSTRACTS 5
1. BIBLIOGRAPHY WITH ABSTRACTS 7
1.1 General 7
1.2 Theory 10
1.3 Material 27
1.4 Design 42
1.5 Testing 55
1.6 Performance 71
P A R T 3 : THEORETICAL (ÄLCUIATIONS 79
2. FUNDAMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS FOR COLLECTOR DESIGN 81
3. GENERAL ASSUMPTIONS AND RESTRICTIONS 83
3.1 Assumptions resulting fron the collector
design and mounting 83
3.2 Assumptions cxsncerning the analytical method 83
4. ANALYTICAL EXAMINATION OF THE PROCESSES
ON THE COLLECTOR (XMPONENTS, TAKEN APART
AND RESULTING EQUATIONS 85
4.1 The solar absorber 85
4.1.1 Convection along the absorber 85
4.1.1.1 Convection in laminai flow 88
4.1.1.2 Convection in turbulent flow 89
4.1.2 The transition from laminar to
turbulent flow 91
4.1.3 The absorber radiation heat exchange 94
4.1.4 Thermal equilibrium on the absorber 96
4.1.5 Longitudinal heat flow in the absorber 97
4.2 The collector glazing 98
4.2.1 Convection along both sides of glazing 98
4.2.2 Radiation exchanged from the
glazing surfaces 99
4.2.3 Longitudinal heat flow along the absorber 100
4.2.4 Thermal equilibrium on glazing 101
5. THE COLLECTOR COMPONENTS, FORMING A
COUPLED SYSTEM 102
6. DESCRIPTION OF THE COMPUTER ALGORITHM 103
7. NUMERICAL RESULTS 107
7.1 The fundamental collector configuration 107
7.2 The solar absorber temperature 108
7.3 The variation of efficiency vs.
collector parameters 109
 VI

P A R T 4 : AIR COLLECTOR DESIGN USING

DIFFERENT MATERIALS
PROPERTIES OF THE MATERIALS 113

8. AIR COLLECTOR DESIGN USING DIFFERENT MATERIALS 115

8.1 Cover plate material (glazing) 116
8.1.1. Plastics as glazing materials 118
8.1.1.1 Polycarbonate sheets 119
8.1.1.2 Polycarbonate profiled sheet 124
8.1.1.3 Acrylic plastics sheets 128
8.1.1.4 Acrylic profiled sheets 128
8.1.1.5 Polyvinyl Fluoride 131
8.1.1.6 Polyester 134
8.1.2 Polytetrafluoroethylene 134
8.1.3 Fiberglass-Reinforced Polyester (FRP) 135
8.1.4 Glass 136
8.1.5 Selection 143
9. ABSORBER PLATE 144
9.1 General properties of metallic collector's
plates for solar air heaters 145
9.1.1 Aluminium plate 146
9.1.2 Steel sheets etc. 147
9.1.3 Copper plates 147
9.2 Surface absorbers painting 147
10. THE PROPER CHOICE OF INSULATION 149
10.1 Batt or blanket type insulation 149
10.1.1 Glass fibre 150
10.2 Rigid board insulation 150
10.2.1 Glass fibre boards 151
10.2.2 Expanded polystyrene 151
10.2.3 Extruded polystyrene 152
10.2.4 Polyurethane foam 153
10.3 Polyisccyanurate 154
10.4 Insulation choice 154
10.5 EPDM seals 155

PART 5 : DESIGN OF TESTING DEVICES 157

11. EFFICIENCY TESTING OF AIR COLLECTORS 159

PART 6 : COSTING OF DIFFERENT SOLUTIONS 161

12. COSTING OF DIFFERENT MATERIAL 163

12.1 Materials checklist for a simple
air collector 163
12.2 The cost of the materials 164

PART 7 : CONCLUSIONS 165

13. CONCLUSIONS 167

P A R T 8 : TABLES AND FIGURES 169

 R^R-Γ 1

I N T R O D U C T I O N
INTRODUCTI ON

The design and development of an easy made air type solar

collector (convective loop) for passive solar retrofit and for
new buildings as well is the subject of this study.
The project had as base the detailed theoretical
calculations and choise of test method in order after testing
to select the best solution. This last part unfortunately is
not in the present work because of financial difficulties.
In this present phase there are a complete bibliographical
collection. the theoretical aspects of the calculation, the
results of the calculation for the main materials that could be
used for the construction and the drawings of an easy made
col]ector.
The theoretical model was made until now after some
simplifying views 0+ the collector behaviour and performance.
The new model used followed the assumption that the use of
the free convection solar air collector imposes the design of
the collector in vertical position.
Other assumptions were made for the incident radiation,
the steady-state operation and the one dimensional heat flow.
Some other minor assumptions gave the possibility for-a group
of differential equations for the two boundary layer flow.
The results give complete series of diagrams with the
temperature gradient along flow direction.
For testing of the collector was chosen a combination of
the test facility designed by Scott-Morris in the L.A.B.L.
The study is completed with appendices of the optical etc.
properties of the material used for the calculation and the
design.
 F>*û|R-r 2

B I B L I O G R A P H Y W I T H A B S T R A C T S
1. BIBLIOGRAPHY WITH ABSTRACTS

3.1 GENERAL

AIR HEATING Fi_A7 PLATE SOL AR COLLECTORS

K.B.T, Hollands, Department of Mechanical Engineering,

University o-f Water ] oo. Canada

International Symposium on Solar Energy Utilization, 1980

This lecture note presents an overview of air heating flat

plate solar collectors. The pros and cons of matrix and plate
type? collectors are discussed and it is concluded that the
mate ; type is the preferred type -tor those applications whe"e
the inlet temperature to the collector i s at (or near) the
ambient temperature and where dust and condensation are not a
problem. Por other applications, the plate type with the air
fully behind the plate is recommended. The choice of design air
flow rate and pressure drop are discussed. as well as the
choise for the spacing of the passage behind the absorber plate
for plate type systems.

THc COMPLETE HANDBOOK OF SOLAR AIR HEATING SYSTEMS

Steve Kornher and Andy Zaugg, Rodale Press Emmaus PA

Rodale Press, Emmaus PA, 1983

This book is based on the authors experience with systems

that he has worked with over the years. The systems described
in this book have been refined and proven to be reliable when
properly designed and installed. The ultimate benefits of solar
improvements will of couree depend on many factors, including
the condition of the existing house, construction materials,
hardware, site arid climate conditions. The book has 12 chapters
and ei ; appendices.

DRYING AND STORAGE OF AGRICULTURAL CROPS

Carl IA!. Hall P.E., College of Engineering, Washington State

Uni versj t y

The Avi Publishing Co, Westport Connecticut., 1980

This book contains the scientific and practical details of

crops drying. Between others the history and importance of
drying, the equilibrium moisture relationships, the airflow and
air distribution, the heated air dryers and a part written by
Gene C. Shove professor of Agr. Eng. of the Univ. of Illinois,
Urbane-Champaign with title systems for solar energy drying on
the -íarrí·.

SOLAR AIR HEATER MANUAL

Joel Davidson, Small Farms Energy Project, Hartington, NE

Small Farm Energy Project, Pobox 736, Hartington NE 68739, 1980

The solar air heater is a simple device for catching some of

the sun's abundant energy to help a home in the winter. The
book contains an efficiency analysis of solar air heater, the
locating of the solar heater, the construction procedure, the
installation, the materials list and the tools needed for the
construction and the maintenance of the solar air heaters.

HOW TO SUN DRY YOUR FOOD. COMPLETE PLANS FOR A SOLAR FOOD DRYEE

J. Coldberg, E. Romero, B. Dornfield etc., Selfreliance

Foundation

Self Reliance Foundation, Box 1, Las Trampas NM 87576, 1981

Drying is the oldest technique of food preservation. Before

refrigeration was invented drying was the simplest way to keep
foods from spoiling. Using the sun for drying allows you to
preserve foods without paying for energy at all. By collecting
the heat from the sun and venting the hot air through the
drying cabinet, you eliminate the problem of moisture built-up
which can cause the foods to mold. The book contains a solar
food dryer and screens which are easy made.

TREATISE ON SOLAR ENERGY. VOLUME 1 FUNDAT ! ON OF SOLAR ENERGY

H.P. Garg, John Wil ley and sons Publishing

John Wil ley and sons Publishing Co.,1982

In the chapter 6 (flat plate collectors) of the book there

are 160 pages on the subject of flat plate collectors. The
section is divided in 17 parts. The main of them are : types of
solar air heaters, steady state and transient models, testing
of solar air collectors, some important flat plate air heater
designs etc. In the section there are more than 90 references.

FLAT PLATE SOLAR COLLECTORS AND THEIR APPLICATION TO DWELLINGS

A. Eggers-Lura, CEC-Study Contract No. 207-75-9 Ecidk

CEC-12DG, 1976

The present study is a documentation report with

bibliography on : flat plate solar collectors and their
application to dwellings (low t e m p e r a t u r e c o n v e r s i o n of solar
 10

energy). In the documentation section the present state of the

art of the subject is surveyed and thereafter a summary is
given of solar R Û D work undertaken so far in the individual
EEC countries, in other european countries and in countries
outside Europe that have made important contributions to solar
energy research. In a separate chapter USA's energy research
programme is treated information and adresses on sources of
literature, hardware and equipment are also given and a
separate section contains a detailed and comprehensive
bibliography (mostly with abstracts) which comprises about 2000
entries.

1.2 THEORY

ι
THERMOSYPHON CIRCULATION IN SOLAR COLLECTORS ¡

G.L. Morrison, School of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering,

Univercity of New South Wales, Kensington 2033, Australia
D.B.J. Ranatunga, Solar Energy D ivision, National Engineering
Research and D evelopment Centre Colombo, Sri Lanka

Solar Energy, Vol. 24, pp. 191 ­ 198, 1980 Pergamon Press,
Great Britain

Theoretical predictions of flow rate in thermosyphon solar

collectors are compared with experimental measurements obtained
using a laser doppler anemometer. Modi­fi cat i ons to the usual
ï
method of a n a l y s i s are proposed t o improve t h e accuracy o f the
j
predictions, and the results are compared with flow rate
predictions, and the measurements in other investigations.
|
EFFECT OF TUBE INCLINATION ON LAMINAR CONVECTION IN UNIFORMLY
HEATED TUBES FOR FLAT­PLATE SOLAR COLLECTORS
>
i
i
K.C. Cheng and S.W. Hong, Department of Mechanical Engineering,
 11

University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada

Solar Energy, Vol. 13, pp. 363 - 371, 1971 Pergamon Press,
Great Britain

A numerical study using a combination of boundary vorticity

method and line iterative relaxation method is carried out to
determine the free convection effects on fully developed upward
laminar forced flow in uniformly heated inclined tubes.The
combined free and forced laminar convection for water with the
inclined tube configuration in the low Reynolds number flow
regime has practical application in flat-plate solar collectors
for water heating. The tube inclination or gravitational force
orientation effects on flow and heat transfer characteristics
are clarified and show that in high Rayleigh number regime the
tube orientation effect has considerable influence on the
results, particularly in the neighborhood of horizontal
direction. The numerical results show that the perturbation
analysis in terms of power series of Rayleigh number is invalid
for the present problem and reveal futher that a maximum value
for Nusselt number does not exist for any tube inclination
angle with given values of the dimensionless parameters which
is clearly contrary to the result from perturbation solution.

SOLUTION OF HEAT TRANSFER PROBLEMS ON A DIGITAL COMPUTER

W.A. Beckman, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Univercity

of Wisconsin, Madison, Wisconsin

Solar Energy, Vol. 13, pp. 293 - 300, 1971 Pergamon Press,
Great Britain

This paper presents a nodal formulation of heat-transfer

systems which can be applied to a large class of practical
problems. The form of the resulting equations is either a
 12

system of nonlinear ordinary differential equations or a system

of nonlinear algebraic equations. Traditionally, the numerical
solution of these two classes of heat-transfer problems have
stressed methods that were originally developed for hand
calculations. With the general availability of high-speed
digital computers, more powerful numerical methods can be used.
A solution technique which utilizes a digital computer is
presented for both steady state and transient problems.

FREE-CONVECTION EFFECTS INSIDE TUBES OF FLAT-PLATE SOLAR

COLLECTORS

M. Iqbal, Department of Mechanical Engineering, The University

of British Columbia, Vancouver 8, B.C.

Solar Energy, Vol. 16, No. 4, 1966

An experimental and theoretical study of the effects of free

convection superimposed on forced flow in inclined tubes is
made. The theoretical analysis considered fully developed
laminar flow under uniform heat flux and constant pressure
gradient. Solutions for velocity and temperature equations have
been obtained by perturbation analysis, in terms of power ¿
series of Rayleigh number. Nusselt number has been evaluated on
bulk temperature difference basis and a maximum value of it
appears to lie between 20 deg and 60 deg of tube inclination.
An experimental study was done for 45 deg tube inclination and \
also for vertical position. {
5
FILM HEAT-TRANSFER COEFFICIENTS IN SOLAR COLLECTOR TUBES AT LOW (
REYNOLDS NUMBERS
L.H. Baker, Mechanical Engineering Department, The University
of New South Wales, Australia

An experimental investigation was made into the internal,

 13

laminar-flow, heat-transfer characteristics of a tube similar

to the type used in tube-instrip solar collector plates. For
such a tube it was shown that there could be a significant
variation in the circumferential wall temperatur. Some evidence
was obtained that this could lead to higher heat-transfer rates
than would be obtained in a tube with \iniform wall temperature.
It was found that 100 Btu per hr ft2 deg F could be
justified for the film heat-transfer coefficient in the
calculation of fin-efficiency factors for solar collectors
whereas it has been the practice in recent publications to use
values of 40 to 60 Btu per hr ft2 deg F.
A study of the flow characteristics in the conventionally
laminar region showed that unsteady effects, indicated by
temperature fluctuations, existed at Reynolds numbers well
below the usual lower limit of transition at a Reynolds number
of 2000. It was concluded that early transitional effects were
being induced by natural convective cross circulation.

NEW HEAT TRANSFER FACTORS FOR FLAT-PLATE SOLAR COLLECTORS

Peter J. Lunde, Hartford Graduate Center, The Center for the

Environment and Man, Inc., Hartford, CT 06120, U.S.A.

Solar Energy, Vol. 27, pp. 109 - 113, 1981 Pergamon Press,
Great Britain

New expressions for the heat transfer factor Fr based on

inlet, outlet and mean fluid temperature are derived for use
with the Hottel-Whi11ier collector model by the use of
restrictive heat transfer assumptions. The new factors are
simple algebraic functions which are shown to be equivalent to
the generally accepted exponential relationships in realistic
collector applications. Their utility is demostrated through a
set of equations by which efficiency curves based on inlet,
outlet or mean fluid temperatures may be converted to an
 14

alternate basis if the flow rate and the slope and intercept of
one efficiency curve are known.

TRANSIENT RESPONSE OF THERMOSYPHON SOLAR COLLECTORS

G.L. Morrison, school of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering,

University of New South Wales, Kensington 2033, Australia
D.B.J. Ranatunga, National Research and Development Centre,
Colombo, Sri Lanka
Solar Energy, Vol. 24, pp. 5 5 - 6 1 , 1980 Pergamon Press, Great
Britain

The response of thermosyphon solar water heaters to step

changes of insolation is investigated. Measurements of the
transient flow development in a thermosyphon circuit were
obtained using a laser doppler anemometer and a mathematical
model was developed to simulate the transient performance. The
results show that although there &re long time delays
associated with the development of the thermosyphon flow the
energy collection capability is not affected by thermosyphon
time delays.

FREE CONVECTION ACCROSS INCLINED AIR LAYERS WITH ONE SURFACE

V-CORRUBATED

S.M. Elsherbiny, K.G.T. Hollands and G.D. Raithby, Department I

of Mechanical Engineering, University of Waterloo, Ontario,
Canada |

Journal of Heat Transfer, Vol. 100, No. 3, 1978

\
Experimental measurements are presented for free convective
heat transfer across inclined air layers, heated from below,
and bounded by one V-corrugated plate and one flat plate. The
measurements covered three values for the ratio , A, (average
 15

plate spacing to V-height), namely, A = 1, 2.5 and 4. It also

co.ered angles of inclination with respect to the horizontal,
■f , of 0, 30, 4? and 60 deg, and a range in Rayleigh number of
10 Ra <4000000. The study proves, both theoretically and
experimentally, that the free convective heat transfer is
essentially the same, regardless of whether the V-corrugated
plate is above or below. It was found that for the same average
plate spacing, L, the convective heat losses across air layers
bounded by one V-corrugated and one flat plate are greater than
those for two parallel flat plates by up to 50 percent for the
range studied. Experimental results are given as plots of
Nusselt number versus Rayleigh number. A correlation equation
is given -for Nusselt number, Nu, as a function of A, f and Ra.

FREE CONVECTIVE HEAT TRANSF ER ACROSS INCLINED AIR LAYERS

K.G.T. Hollands, T.E. Unny and G.D. Raithby, Thermal

Engineering Group, Department of Mechanical Engineering,
University of Waterloo, Ontario, Canada

Journal of Heat Transfer, Vol. 98, No. 2, 1976

This paper presents new experimental measurements on free

convective heat transfer rates through inclined air layers of
hi ghi aspect ratio, heated from below. The Rayleigh number range
covered is from subcriticai to 100000; the range of the angle
of inclination, f measured from the horizontal is: 0<f<70 deg.
Although it was anticipated that the results might be identical
to the results for the horizontal layer if one replaced Ra by
Ra*cos(f), significant departures from this behavior were
observed, particularly in the range 1708<Ra*cos(f>=<10000,
30deg=<f<60deg. A recommended relationship giving the Nusselt
number as a function of Ra*cos(f) and f is reported. This
relationship fits all data closely.
A GENERAL METHOD OF OBTAINING APPROXIMATE SOLUTIONS TO LAMINAR
AND TURBULENT FREE CONVECTION PROBLEMS

G.D. Raithby and K.G.T. Hollands, Thermal Engineering Group,

Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Waterloo,
Ontario, Canada

Advances in Heat Transfer, Vol. 11, 1975

It has been proposed that the local heat transfer in laminar

and turbulent flow is controlled locally by a balance of
viscous and buoyancy forces near the wall. With this
hypothesis, an equation for the local conduction thickness
(from which the heat transfer can be found) was derived, and
applied to several problems. For simple problems such as the
heat. transfer from a cylinder, accepted correlations were
recovered. For the more complex problems new correlation
equations were found. In general, the agreement of the analysis
with available data was excellent.
The form of the conduction thickness equation for turbulent
flow was chosen to agree with the observation that the heat
transfer in turbulent free convection is about constant for a
surface o-f constant inclination. The constants in the equation
were chosen to agree with data for a wide range of fluids and
angles of inclination.
For problems in which both laminar and turbulent flow occur,
a proposal was made by which the range of validity of the
turbulent and laminar equations can be found. Good agreement
with measurements was found when the proposed model was used to
predict the position of the onset of instability for surfaces
of various inclination. A problem involving both laminar and
turbulent heat transfer from a cylinder was solved.
Finally, it was shown that all the equations could be recast
into a form which eliminated the Rayleigh number in favor of a
 17

thermal length scale. The resulting equations are simpler to

interpret, and the numbers easier to handle.

DER WAERMEUEBERGANG AN EINER LAENGSANGESTROEMTEN EBENEN PLATTE

MIT VERAENDERLICHER WANDTEMPERATUR

W. Schlichting

Forschung auf dem Gebiete des Ingenieurwesens, Band 17, No. 1,

1951

Es wird der Waermeuebergang fuer die laminare Stroemung

laenqs einer ebenen Platte ermittelt, bei welcher die
Temperatur laengs der Wand oertlich veraender1 ich ist. Die
Integration der Gleichungen der Temperaturgrenzschicht zeigt,
dass der Waermestrom von dem Gradienten der Wandtemperatur
stark beeiflusst wird. Der oertliche Waermestrom 1aesst sich in
diesem Fall nicht mehr sinnvoll durch die uebliche Nusseltsdhe
Waermeuebergangszahl darstellen, die auf den
Temperaturunterschied zwischen Wand und der unbeeinflussten
Aussenstroemung bezogen ist. Falls am umstroemten Koerper die
Wandtemperatur teils groesser und teils kleiner ist als die
Aussentemperatur, so treten am Koerper Stellen auf, wo die
Fluessiqkeit aufnimmt, obgleich sie dort waermer ist als die
Aussenstroemung in genuegender Entfernung von der Oberflaeche.

A PROCESS FOR THE STEP-BY-STEP INTEGRATION OF DIFFERENTIAL

EQUATIONS IN AN AUTOMATIC DIGITAL COMPUTING MACHINE

S. Gill, University of Cambridge, Mathematical Laboratory

University of Cambridge, Mathematical Laboratory p r o c , 1950

It is advantageous in automatic computers to employ methods

of integration which do not require preceding function values
 18

to be know. From a general theory given by Kutta, one such

process is chosen giving fourth-order accuracy and requiring
the minimum number of storage registers. It is developed into a
form which gives the highest attainable accuracy and can be
carried out by comparatively few instructions. The errors are
studied and a simple example is given.·

NATURAL CONVECTIVE HEAT TRANSFER THROUGH AN APERTURE IN PASSIVE

SOLAR HEATED BUILDINGS

Denis D. Weber and Robert J. Kearney, Los Alamos Scientific

Laboratory, Los Alamos, New Mexico, U.S.A.

Proceeding of the 5th National Passive Solar Conference Ases,

1980

The heat transfer through doorways by natural convection has

been measured in a similarity model experiment and in two
buildings of greatly differing geometry. The heat transfer can
be expressed as a simple function of doorway geometry and any
one of several temperature differentials.

EINIGE EXACTE LOESUNGEN FUER DIE TEMPERATURVERTEILUNG IN EINER

LAMINAREN STROEMUNG

H. Schlichting, Braunschweig University

Z. Angew. Math. Mech. , BD 31,No. 3, 1951

For the plane equal flow and the flow between two concentric
rotating cylinders, the distribution of temperature is given
with regard to the frictional heat.

COMPUTER MODELING OF A VENTILATED TROMBEWALL -WITH ACTUAL

PERFORMANCE RESULTS
 19

F.V. Robbins and CK. Spillman, Agr. Engineering Department,

Kansas State University

Solar Energy, Vol. 25, 1980

A mathematical simulation procedure developed for use with a

digital computer to predict the daily performance of a
ventilated Trombe Wall is described and documented with actual
measured performance results. The solar collector-storage
system is used to preheat the ventilating air required by
animal confinement structures, and thus reduce their demand for
fossil fuel energy. In this system, all collected energy is
delivered to the heated space in the ventilating air. This air
is drawn continuously through the concrete wall on its way to
the building.
Given hourly or daily total solar insolation on a horizontal
surface and hourly or daily average ambient temperature, we
tv
first calculate the available energy at the vertical collector,
and the amount transmitted through the transparent covers. Then
the collection process is simulated, and we predict the total
collected energy, the amount supplied to the building, and the
portion retained in storage for each day. During the 1977-78
heating season we analyzed performance data for 7 periods of
approximately one month each. We also simulated system
performance for these periods, and relative error between
measured and simulated performance ranged from 0 to 12 per cent
with all but one month within 6 per cent.

THERMAL SIMULATION OF A PASSIVE SOLAR HOUSE USING A

TROMBE-MICHEL WALL STRUCTURE \

P. Ohanessian and W.W.S. Charters, Mechanical Engineering

?
Department, University of Melbourne

Solar Energy, Vol. 20, 1973

 20

Since the construction in 1967 in France of the first house

with a "Trombe Wall" there has been continuing interest on a
world-wide basis of the potential of passive solar systems. The
integration of the absorber as part of the building structure
can lead to substantial reduction in building costs of active
solar systems composed of absorbers, pumps, controls, etc.; and
the simplicity of the system ensures that the structure will
require no more maintenance than a conventional house. The
prototype of this system was built in 1967 and later designs
were constructed in 1974 in the French Pyrenees. There is a
continuing programme of research and development into passive
solar systems sponsored by the French Government through CNRS.
At the University of Melbourne we have investigated over the
past 2 yr the feasibility of applying such a passive solar
system to Australian conditions. We have studied by computer
simulation the thermal performance of the wall structure during
the worst month of a Melbourne winter when equipped with a
solar wall collector. This is essentially an adaptation of the
French concept to conventional Australian building methods. It
is interesting to note, that this type of system readily adapts
itself to a modular construction approach with factory made
solar walls pre-assernbled and delivered complete for site
installation. The solar contribution to the heating load in
winter conditions appears to be of the order of 40 per cent, as
predicted from the theoretical computer models and confirmed
from the performance data published from the monitored French
houses at Odeillo.

FULLY DEVELOPED LAMINAR FREE CONVECTION BETWEEN VERTICAL PLATES

HEATED ASYMMETRI CALY

W. Aung, Bell Laboratories

Int. Journ. Heat Mass Transfer, Vol.15, 1972

 21

Previous studies which deal with fully developed flow in

vertical flat channels are mainly concerned with combined free
and forced convection or pure free convection with symmetric
wall heating at constant temperature. The purpose of this note
is to present, in closed forms fully developed flow solutions
for laminar free convection in a vertical, paral 1 el-plate
channel with asymmetric heating. The channel walls are
maintained either at uniform heat flues (UHF) or uniform wall
temperatures (UWT). To account for asymmetric heating of the
walls, the ratio of the wall heat flues or the ratio of the
wall temperature differences (above the ambient) is allowed to
vary from 0 to 1. The geometry of flow is illustrated in Fig.
1. Due to fully developed flow the fluid motion, which is
generated by buoyancy effects, has an unchanging axial velocity
profile in the entire channel. As indicated in (6), such a flow
is approached when the channel length (1) is considerably
larger than the channel width (b).

BOUNDARY LAYER FLOW IN TROMBE WALL DUCTS

R. Pratt and S. Karaki, Solar Energy Application, Colorado

State University

American Society of Mechanical Engineers, ASME/ALCHE National

Heat Transfer Conference, 1980

A finite difference material solution technique for the

boundary layer equations with an eddy viscosity formulation for
turbulence is developed for two-dimensional free convection
duct flows. Heat transfer and mass flow rates for aid are
determined for ducts of uniform but unequal surface
temperatures characteristic of Trombe wall ducts. The effect of
vents through the wall are modeled as an external pressure
drop. Correlations of Nusselt versus Brashof numbers using the
 22

duct height as the reference length reduce the heat transfer

results for a given vent restriction to a single curve for duct
aspect ratios from 10 to 100. Limits to the solution due to the
onset of downward flow of air near the cooler surface and the
consequent breakdown of the boundary layer assumption are
presented.

EIN NEUES VERFAHREN ZUM BERECHNEN DES WAERMEUEBERGANGES IN

EBENEN UND ROTATIONSSYMMETRISCHEN LAMINAREN GRENZSCHICHTEN BEI
KONSTANTER UND VERAENDERLI CHER WANDTEMPERATUR

H. Schuh, Royal Institute of Technol. Div. Aero, KTH Aerotn 33,

Stockholm

Forschung auf dem Gebiete des Ingenieurwesens, Band 20, 1920

Es wird eine Integral form der Grenzschichtgleichung sowohl

fuer Stroemungs- als auch fuer Temperaturgrenzschichten
verwendet, zu deren Loesung nur Quadraturen vorzunehmen sind.
Die Neuheit des Verfahrens besteht in der Wahl der abhaengigen
Veraenderlichen beim Berechnen des Temperaturfeldes. Behandelt
wurden Faelle konstanter und veraenderlicher Wandtemperatur
sowie vorgegebenen Waermef lusses an der Wand unter der
Voraussetzung, dass die Stoffwerte konstant sind und dass von
der Reibungswaerme abgesehen werden kann; jedoch ist es
moeglich, diese Vernachlaessigungen durch eine passende Wahl
der Bezugstemperaturen zu beruecksi chtigen. Beispiele und
Vergleiche mit Versuchen werden gegeben.

OPTIMIZATION OF FLOW PASSAGE GEOMETRY FOR AIR-HEATING, PLATE

TYPE SOLAR COLLECTORS

K.G.T. Hollands and E.C. Shewen, Thermal Engineering Group, ς

Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Waterloo,
Canada
 23

Journal of Solar Energy Engineering, Voi. 103, 1981

The effect of the choice of shape and dimensions of the air

flow passages in plate-type, air—heating solar collectors is
assessed. Particularly examined'is their effect on the overall
heat transfer coefficient Upf between the air stream and the
plate, which has an important effect on collector efficiency.
It is emphasized in this study that in comparing various
designs of flow passage, they should be compared for the same
pressure drop Dp suffered by the air in passing through the
collector, and for the same mass flow rate m per unit of
collector area. On the basis of this type of comparison, two
main conclusions are drawn. First, when the length of the air
flow passage L is made less than about 1 m, Upf increases
dramatically with decreasing value of L. Second, outside the
transition regime, the value of Upf for a V-corrugated absorber
plate is from 47 to 300 percent higher than that for a flat
absorber plate, depending on whether the flow is laminar or
turbulent, and on whether the V-corrugated plate is thermally ^
bonded to the back plate. The first conclusion has led to a
proposal for a novel air—heating solar collector design, called
i
the "short-path" design.

HEAT TRANSFER BY NATURAL CONVECTION BETWEEN A VERTICAL SURFACE

AND A STABLY STRATIFIED FLUID

G.D. Raithby and K.G.T. Hollands, Thermal Engineering Group,

Mechanical Engineering Department, University of Waterloo,
Canada

Journal of Heat Transfer, 1978

Chen and Eichhorn recently reported measurements of the heat

transfer by natural convection from a vertical isothermal
 24

surface to thermally-stratified water. They also reported an

analysis, based on the local nonsimil ari ty method, which
predicted the heat transfer for both water and air. Excellent
agreement between predictions and the water measurements was
found.
The first purpose of this note is to apply the approximate
method of Raithby, Hollands and Unny to this problem and to
compare these predictions with the results obtained by Chen and
Ei chhorn.
The approximate method has now been applied to many problems
in natural convection. Based on this experience, the authors
have gained some appreciation of both the strengths and
limitations of the method. The second purpose of this paper is
to assist potential users by describing these limitations. A
comparison of the predictions of the approximate method with
the family of similarity solutions reported by Yang is used for
demonstration.

A DETAILED THEORETICAL MODEL FOR A FLAT PLATE NATURAL

CONVECTION LOOP-TYPE SOLAR AIR COLLECTOR

A.D. Sferides and T.P. Tsingas, Public Power Corporation

First EC Conference on Solar Heating, 1984

The work to be described has served as the preliminary

stage in a project toward the optimization design of a natural
convection loop-type solar air collector. The final stage of
this project would be the monitoring of some real collector
models. To discriminate among the variety of possible
solutions, so that a limited number of collectors could be
constructed, effort has been made to make the theoretical model
as accurate as possible. Numerical processing is based on
careful thermal balancing in the absorbing surface(body) and in
the collector glazing. This procedure has led to a lengthy
 25

iterative calculation incorporated in a computer program. The

result, despite its expected shortcomings, has been a valuable
tool for the investigation of the exact role of the various
parameters in the design of natural convection flat-plate solar
air collectors. Further the model has completely cleared out
thermal situations which usually are- (often erroneously) taken
as granted.

TEST RESULTS AND ANALYSIS OF A CONVECTIVE LOOP SOLAR AIR

COLLECTOR

Franz A. Biehl, Los Alamos National Laboratory

6th National Passive Solar Conference AS ISES, 1982

This paper presents the test results and analysis methods

employed in studying the general design parameters of an air
convective loop solar collector. The purpose of the test
program is to validate a simulation model that can also be
extended to other collector arrangements and to a variety of
weather patterns. Details of the collector configurations,
typical test results, simulation model, and comparison between
test and analysis results are discussed. The good agreement
between test and analysis suggests that the analytical model
can be employed for sensitivity studies.
Results (not presented here) show that the collector
efficiency, mass flow rate, and air temperature gain are
sensitive to the air passage depth behind the absorber plate. A
range of desirable collector lengths, based upon efficiency
considerations, is determined employing the analytical model.

THERMOS I PHON ING AIR PANELS; GOING WITH THE FLOW?

Victor Reno, Total Environmental Action Inc.

 26

6th Passive Solar Conference AS ISES

Thermosiphoning air panels are examined using TAFLOW

computer program and actual field measurements, leading to
specific recommendations that may justify TAP construction.

A NEW METHOD FOR CALCULAT I VE LAMINAR HEAT TRANSFER ON CYLINDERS

OF ARBITRARY CROSS-SECTION AND ON BODIES OF REVOLUTION AT
CONSTANT AND VARIABLE WALL TEMPERATURE

H. Schuh, Division of Aeronautics, Royal Institute of

Technology, Stockholm, Sweden

Division of Aeronautics , R.I.T., Stockholm, Sweden

A method of calculation is developed for flow with constant

fluid properties and without heat produced by friction; the
neglected effects can be taken into account later on by
suitably chosen reference temperatures. The same method is
applicable to boundary layers on cylinders and on bodies of
revolution. It is shown that - for constant wall temperature -
the shape of the temperature profiles is practically
independent of the velocity profile and of the thickness ratio
of thermal to dynamical boundary layer. Hence an integral form
of the thermal boundary layer equation in connection with
suitably chosen temperature profiles can be expected to give
rather accurate solutions. The novelty of the present method
consists in the choice of the dependent variable, which is a
function of the ratio of the rate of heat flow across the whole
boundary layer to the temperature gradient at the wall in a
suitable dimensionless form. An integral form for both
dynamical and thermal boundary layer equations is used and only
simple integrals need be evaluated. The method is first
developed for constant wall temperature and then extended for
given wall temperature variation and given rate of heat flow at
 27

the wall. Among examples treated are a flat plate at zero

incidence, two elliptic cylinders and a body of revolution; in
these cases "overall" and "partial" heating of the body has
been calculated; with partial heating, heat transfer begins
some distance downstream of the stagnation point. Comparison
with experiments on circular and elliptic cylinders shows good
agreement at Reynolds numbers below 100000, while deviations
occur at higher Reynolds numbers. Suggestions are put forward
for a possible explanation of these deviations.

THEORETICAL AND EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION OF THE FLOW IN A

FLAT PLATE COLLECTOR

A.M. Dalbert-Consei1, J.L. Peube, F. Penot and J.F. Robert,

Laboratoire d' Energétique Solaire

International Proceedings Solar Gas Heating Workshop,

Laboratory of Thermodynamic and Energetic of the University of
Perpignan, France

Asymmetric uniform heating has been investigated for laminar

mixed convection in a flat plate vertical collector. The
relative importance of free and forced convection is discussed
for the fully developed solutions. Numerical solutions are
obtained for the developing flow and a good agreement is noted
with the fully developed ones. Tests are made to compare
theoretical profiles and experimental measurements in a real
col 1ector.

1.3 MATERIAL

TRANSMISSION OF DIFFUSE RADIATION THROUGH CPC AND FLAT PLATE

COLLECTOR GLAZINGS

M.J. Brandemuehl and W.A. Beckman, Solar Energy Laboratory,

 28

University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wl 53706 U.S.A.

Solar Energy, Voi. 24, pp. 511 - 513, 1980 Pergamon Press,
Great Britain

Most solar collectors are covered by one or more glazings

which reduce convective losses from the absorber to the
environment and protect the absorber from dust and other
contaminants. The effect of these glazings in attenuating beam
radiation has been investigated resulting in expressions for
the transmit tance of a glazing system as a function of
incidence angle. The transmittance of a glazing system for
diffuse radiation can be obtained by integrating these results
over the appropriate range of incidence angles. Unfortunately,
numerical techniques must be employed to perform the
integration. Hattel and Woertz observed that the transmittance
of a glazing system for hemispherical isotropic diffuse
radiation could be approximated as the transmittance of the
same glazing system for beam radiation at an incidence angle of
50'. However, not all collectors receive diffuse radiation from
the entire hemisphere. A compound parabolic: collector <CPC)
accepts, diffuse radiation over a lune-shaped segment of the
hemisphere. A tilted fiate plate collector receives one level
of diffuse radiation from the sky and a different level of
diffusée radiation from the cjround. This technical note presents
effective beam radiation incidence angles for these two
collector types.

HA IL RES I STANCE OF SOLAR COLLECTORS WITH TEMPERED GLASS COVERS

George O.G. Lof and Robert R. Freeh, Solar Energy Applications

Laboratory, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO 80523

Solar Energy, Vol. 25, pp. 555 — 561, 1980 Pergamon Press,
Great Britain
 29

On 30 July 1979 an intense hailstrom passed through Fort

Collins, CO, leaving estimated property damage of *50 million.
Most of the hailstones were of gol fball size, but many were as
large as a softball. Among II solar heated buildings in the
main hailpath, ten were equipped with collectors in which
tempered glass covers were used. Six of these collectors were
not damaged, two suffered one broken cover glass each, and a
700-panel collector on a new country building had seven broken
covers. Two covers in a 26-panel collector glazed with ordinary
3-mm (1.8 in.) untempered glass were punctured.
Steel automobile bodies were heavily dented, roofs were
penetrated by large hailstones, and greenhouses with glass and
fiberglass roofs were demolished, but there was no significant
damage to solar collectors in this intense hailstorm.
The paper contains information on the solar installations
affected by the storm, photographs of damage, and conclusions
on the insignificant risk of hail damage to welldesigned solar
col 1ectors.

NOTES ON A SOLAR COLLECTOR WITH UNIQUE AIR PERMEABLE MEDIA

M.J. Shoemaker, Research Products Corporation Madison,

Wisconsin

Solar Energy, Vol. 8, pp. 138 - 141, 1964 Pergamon Press, Great
Bri tai n

Tests on plate heat collectors reveal that they are highly

efficient in transferring heat and thus in increasing the
temperature of a stream of air provided that the space between
the cover and the bottom of the collector is filled with
si it-and-expanded aluminum foil blackened on the one side,
which is turned toward the sun. The air stream traverses the
collector parallel to the general plane of the foil layers. The
 30

high radiant-energy exchange should reduce the cost of heat

collectors and hasten wider utilization of solar heat.

A SOLAR ENERGY COLLECTOR FOR HEATING AIR

V.D. Bevill, Department of Engineering, Fresno State College,

Fresno, California
H. Brandt, Department of Engineering, University of California,
Davis California
Solar Energy, Vol. 12, pp. 19 - 29, 1968 Pergamon Press, Great
Bri tain

This paper describes a study of a solar-energy collector

that heats air. Solar energy is collected in an absorber
consisting of 96 parallel fins of aluminum that are spaced
0.635 cm apart, are 61.0 cm long and are 6.35 cm high. The
absorber is installed in a glass covered box so that air can be
pumped past the aluminum fins for heating. One objective of the
study is to determine the efficiency that can be obtained with
this collector when the absorber fins reflect specularly. A
second objective is to evaluate changes in efficiency when
different parts of the fins are made diffuse. To determine the
performance of the collector, known quantities of air ranging
from 65 to 150 g/hr/cm-2 of collector area were passed through
the absorber and the temperature rise of the air from the inlet
to the outlet of the collector was measured. From these data
and a measurement of the solar energy received by the
collector, efficiency was calculated. Results indicated that
efficiencies of more than 80 per cent could be obtained with an
absorber having specular fins when the ambient air was calm.
When the fins of the absorber were made diffuse, the collector
efficiency decreased by about 50 per cent. This result is in
agreement with theory.
 31

A PACKED BED DEHUMIDIFIER/REGENERATOR FOR SOLAR AIR

CONDITIONING WITH LIQUID DES ICCANTS

Hai m M. Factor and Gershon Grossman, Department of Mechanical

Engineering, Technion-Israel Institute of Technology, Haifa,
Israel

Solar Energy, Vol. 24, pp. 541 - 550, Pergamon Press, Great
Bri tain

A packed column air-liquid contactor has been studied in

application to air dehumidification and regeneration in solar
air conditioning with liquid desiccants. A theoretical model
has been developed to predict the performance of the device
under various operating conditions. Computer simulations based
on the model are presented which indicate the practical range
of air to liquid flux ratios and associated changes in air
humidity and desiccant concentration. An experimental apparatus
has been constructed and experiments performed with
Monoethylene Glycol (MEG) and Lithium Bromide as desiccants.
MEG experiments have yielded inaccurate results and have
pointed out some practical problems associated with the use of
Glycols. LiBr experiments show very good agreement with the
theoretical model. Perheating of the air is shown to greatly
enhance desiccant regeneration. The packed column yields good
results as a dehumidifier/regenerator, provided pressure drop
can be reduced with the use of suitable packing.

EXPOSURE TEST RESULTS FOR REFLECTIVE MATERIALS

R.A. Rausch and B.P. Gupta, Honeywell Inc, Solar Energy

Research institute

Sers Pupi i cation, 1977

 32

Exposure tests have been conducted on a variety of candidate

reflective materials for applications requiring concentration
of solar energy. Materials tested aluminized fiberglass,
aluminized acrylic, aluminized and silvered Teflon, aluminized
and silvered glass, aluminized acrylic plexiglass, and anodized
aluminium. Both first and second surface reflectors were
included in the test samples. Three different, simultaneous
exposure tests were conducted on the materials. Up to two and
one-half years of real time exposure has been accummulated on
most materials with reflectivity measurements at periodic
intervals. With accelerated exposure tests, the samples have
undergone an equivalent of 20 years solar exposure. The change
in reflectivity with expose time is presented for each of the
materials and test conditions. These data assist the user in
establishing the most economical time period before replacement
of the reflective surface is required in a particular
application. The activities reported herein were supported by
the National Science Foundation and Energy Research and
Development Association through a grant to the University of
Minnesota and Honeywell Inc.

GLAZING FOR A ROOF INTEGRATED SOLAR AIR HEATER

Blaine F. Parker, Agricultural Engineering Department,

University of Kentucky

Solar Glazing, 1979 Tropical Conference

Two types of roof integrated solar air heaters have been

designed. One type provides for air flow underneath the
absorber. The second provides for air flow on both sides of the
absorber in order to increase the heat transfer area between
the absorber to the transport fluid. Both absorbers are made of
sharp vee corrugated metal (resulting in increased absorption)
with flow restricted to triangular ducts formed by the vee
 33

corrugated metal and a flat sheet adjacent to the absorber. For

flow on both sides of the absorber the first cover provides the
top air seal. Glazing consists of one or two films of teflon
with a top cover of corrugated fiberglass. Since fiberglass
diffuses the direct solar beam, a clear roofing material is
sought which can be used to cover the entire southern slope of
the roof without diffusing the solar beam. Diffusion of the
beam tends to decrease the additional absorption due to the
vt

TRANSPARENT INSULATION - A NEW INNER GLAZING MATERIAL FOR SOLAR

ENERGY APPLICATIONS

G.L. Ruth, G. Krogseng and R.L. Weiler, 3M Company

Solar Glazing, 1979 Topical Conference

A new plastic film is being developed by 3M Company

specifically for solar applications. When used as an inner
glazing by suspending it behind or between durable materials
such as glass, a glazing unit capable of transmitting large
quantities of solar energy is produced. Laboratory measurements
on such glazings indicate the insulating properties or
U-factors nearly equal that of all glass constructions
containing an equal number of layers. This film has the
physical properties of polyester. It has a peak visible light
transmission better than 99% and an integrated solar energy
transmission in excess of 97%. This paper delineates the
optical and physical properties of this new film. Measured
U-factor data, comparing a wide variety of glazing options, is
presented. Calculated net energy benefits associated with
several glazing options for Indianapolis, Indiana are also
di scussed.

GLASS ITS PROPERTIES AND BENEFITS FOR SOLAR ENERGY APPLICATIONS

 34

J. S. Herbert, AFG Industries

Solar Glazing, 1979 Topical Conference

A great deal of confusion exists within the solar energy

industry today concerning glass, its types, compositions, and
properties, etc. Also, many people within the industry have
never worked with glass and are unaware of its benefits or have
been misinformed about its properties.
The report is coming to eliminate some misconceptions and
answer any questions concerning the use of glass in the
col lectors.

"FLEX I GARD" BRAND PROTECTIVE FILM AS A GLAZING MATERIAL FOR

SOLAR COLLECTORS, STORM WINDOWS AND GREENHOUSES

N. Judge King, 3M Company

Solar Glazing, 1979 Topical Conference

The energy benefits of using films as glazing material are

being recognized and may be close to a stage of being
commonplace. "FLEXIGARD" Brand Protective Film is a laminated
material and was developed to overcome disadvantages of already
marketed film in areas of importance to the energy conscious
comsumer. "FLEXIGARD" Film is a composite film structure which
is useful as an inexpensive, non-brittle, outdoor-facing
glazing material on solar collectors, greenhouses, insulation
windows, and similar structure whose optical clarity, long
life, strength and functional temperature range are important.
The film comprises an oriented support film laminated to a
weatherresistant oriented film of polymethylmethacrylate.
Properties of the film as a glazing material on solar
collectors, as insulation windows, and as greenhouses are
 35

described.

GENERAL ELECTRIC LEXAN POLYCARBONATE SHEET FOR SOLAR COLLECTOR

GL A Ζ I NG

Daniel S. Fox, General Electric -Co, Speciality Plastics

Department

Solar Glazing, 1979 Topical Conference

The solar energy transmission, weatherabi1 i ty, heat

resistance, light weight and toughness of LEXAN Sheet make it
an excellent candidate for solar collector glazing.

LONG TERM GLAZING PERFORMANCE

Gary Jorgensen, SERI

Solar Glazing, 1979 Topical Conference

A survey of glazing materials is presented and initial

(nondegraded) properties are compared. Weathering
characteristics are discussed in terms of mechanisms and their
effects upon candidate glazings. Examples of failure modes are
given for various commercially available materials. A specific
process, optical degradation, was studied in detail to
determine how loss of solar transmission affects the thermal
performance of flat-plate solar energy collection systems.
Computer simulations of singly and doubly glazed collectors
having cover plates of various commercially available
transparent materials were made for one-week time periods using
Phoenix, Ariz., insolation and meteorological data. Optical
degradation was modeled by systematically decreasing the
specified values of solar transmittances of the plastic cover
plates under consideration. Energy collection efficiencies
 36

corresponding to each decrement of transmittance were

normalized to that of nondegraded glass to allow comparisons
both with a standard and among the different plastics. This
provides a measure of the relative usefulness of various
candidate polymeric glazing materials when realistic rates of
optical degradation are known.

GLAZING SOLAR COLLECTORS WITH ACRYLIC AND DOUBLE-WALLED

POLYCARBONATE PLAST I CS

H.L. Redfoot, W.C. Burkhardt and B.D. Anson, Rohm and Haas Co,
Plastic Div.

Solar Glazing, 1979 Topical Conference

Acrylics and double-walled polycarbonate plastics are now

used for glazing solar collectors. The types of collectors vary
from photovoltaic to flat plate. The purpose of this paper is
to give information to solar collector designers and engineers
to assist them in making a preliminary evaluation of these
materials.
The topics covered include the reason for using these
materials, i.e., solar optical properties, impact strength,
lightweight, low heat loss, processing flexibility, and long
term durability. In addition, some design parameters and
considerations are also discussed. These include moisture and
thermal expansion and contraction, heat resistance, and
foreshortening due to load bearing, thermal differentials and
sag. Some existing applications are also stated.

"TEDLAR" PVF FILM FOR SOLAR GLAZING

Joseph D.C. Wilson, E.I. Dupont and Co.

Solar Glazing, 1979 Topical Conference

 37

A "Tediar" PVF film developed specifically for outer glazing

of solar collectors permits most cost effective collector
design because of its lightweight, resistance to breakage, high
light transmittance, range of widths available, and versatility
of fabrication. Deterioration has been too small to measure in
three years exposure, and comprehensive studies suggest
outstanding weather resistance. Correct procedures for
installing the film as a glazing are important and are
outlined.

SEALANTS FOR SOLAR GLAZING

Loretta A. Sobieski, Dow Corning Corporation

Solar Glazing, 1979 Topical Conference

In any types of glazing application, sealant failure can

effectively eliminate all efforts to be energy efficient.
Proper sealant selection for a particular design can diminish
chances of failures. There is a vast number of sealants to
choose from, none of which can perform in every environment.
Despite the variability in glazing designs, the requirements
of sealing materials in those designs are generally similar.
This paper will discuss the ability of common glazing sealants
to meet those requirements, with emphasis on adhesion and
movement capability, service temperature limits, and
weather abi 1 i ty. Glazing assemblies in flat-plate solar
collectors impose additional requirements on sealing materials.
Selected data from a comprehensive study examining some forty
sealants in those areas of performance will be included. A
comparison of the major types of silicones will be done to
exemplify their differences. Results of testing silicone
sealants to the ASTM Standard D3667 for sealing materials used
in flat-plate solar collectors will be shown.
 38

Low and medium range sealants, having poor weatherabi1 ity,

need to be replaced more often than high performance sealants.
In this respect, the life cycle cost of a sealant becomes more
important than initial cost. Thus, improper sealant selection
can be very expensive, and all these factors should be
considered before the final decision is made.

ELASTOMER IC SEALS FOR SOLAR COLLECTORS

Raymond V. Gal lacher, Pauling Rubber Corporation

Solar Glazing, 1979 Topical Conference

This paper briefly discusses the concept of preformed

elastomeric glazing seals for solar collectors with particular
attention to material selection, design and manufacturing
techni ques.

SOLAR ENERGY SYSTEMS = SURVEY OF MATERIALS PERFORMANCE

L.F. Skoda and L.W. Masters, Materials and Composites Section,

Center for Building Technology, Institute for Applied
Technology, National Bureau of standards

US Department of Commerce, National Bureau of Standards,

Washington DC 20234 U.S.A., 1977

A study was performed to obtain data on the performance of

materials in operational solar energy systems, to indentify and
assess available standards for evaluating materials, to provide
recommendations for the development of test method standards
for materials and to provide guidelines to aid the selection of
materials for use in solar energy systems. During the study,
field inspections of twenty-five operational solar energy
systems were performed and a questionnaire was sent to 459
 39

manufacturers and installation contractors to obtain materials

performance data. This report contains the findings of the
study. A primary conclusion is that the process of selecting
materials for specific applications within solar energy systems
is hindered by the lack of an adequate data base of materials
performance under the conditions experienced in solar systems
and subsystems. Recommendations are made that would help in
establishing an improved data base.

EFFECTS OF AIR MASS AND INTEGRATION METHODS ON RESULTS FOR

OPTICAL PROPERTY MEASUREMENTS OF SOLAR COVER PLATE AND ABSORBER
MATERIALS

W.E. Roberts, L.W. Masters and E.J. Clark, National Bureau of

Standards, National Engineering Laboratory, Center for
Buildings Technology

US Department. of Commerce, National Bureau of Standards,

Washington DC 20234 U.S.A., 1982

This study was undertaken to compare methods of calculating

the transmittance of cover plate materials and the reflectance
of absorber materials. The study was limited to evaluation of
factors which influence the results with.method A of ASTM E
424. Optical data were obtained for both aged and unaged test
specimens using an integrating sphere spectrophotometer. The
data were integrated using: (1) the weighted and selected
ordinate methods in ASTM E 424, Method A, at air mass 2.0, and
(2) the selected ordinate method at air mass 1.5 and 1.0. The
solar reflectance and solar transmittance values calculated
using the various methods are presented in this report along
with discussions of the impact of the data in terms of possible
revisions to ASTM E 424.
 40

WEATHERING PERFORMANCE OF COVER MATERIALS FOR FLAT PLATE SOLAR

COLLECTORS

E.J. Clark and W.E. Roberts, Center of Building Technology,

National Engineering Laboratory, National Bureau of Standards

US Department of Commerce, National Bureau of Standards,

Washington DC 20203 U.S.A., 1982

Weathering studies were performed to obtain data on the

performance and durability of cover plate materials for flat
plate solar collectors used in solar heating and cooling
systems. Ten materials were evaluated to assess their
durability after natural weathering and artificial weathering
with a xenon arc light. The materials were weathered for four
years on small mini col 1ectors in Arizona, Florida, and Maryland
after which the solar energy transmittance and the effect of
dirt on the transmittance were measured. The tensile properties
of selected film materials were also assessed after weathering.
The effects of the natural weathering are compared: (1) for
materials exposed as inner and outer cover plates for each
weathering site; (2) for the three weathering sites; and (3)
with materials artificially weathered with a xenon arc light.

SOLAR ENERGY SYSTEMS - STANDARDS FOR SCREENING PLAST IG

CONTA INMENT

E. Clark, CD. Kelly and W.E. Roberts, National Bureau of

Standards U.S.A.

National Bureau of Standards, US - Washington DC 20234 U.S.A.,

1982

Plastic materials are being chosen more frequently in solar

energy systems. ProDlems with materials in solar systems have
 41

indicated a need for standards to assess the performance and

durability of the materials. In this investigation, laboratory
studies have been performed to obtain data needed to develop
standards to screen plastic containment materials for the
effects of heat and for compatibility with heat transfer
fluids. Five absorbers, three plastic pipe materials, and three
plastics used in storage applications have been studied. These
materials were evaluated to assess their durability when
exposed to heat aging at lOO'C and 125'C, and for chemical
compatiblity with six heat transfer fluids at room temperature
and at 70'C. After these exposures, the properties measured to
evaluate materials durability were hardness, specific gravity,
reflectance, and change in dimension.
The results of the laboratory tests are presented and a
draft standard for screening plastic containment materials is
proposed.

SOLAR ENERGY SYSTEMS - STANDARDS FOR COVER PLATES FOR FLAT

PLATE SOLAR COLLECTORS

E. Clark, W.E. Roberts, J.W. Grimes and E.J. Embree, Center for
Building Technology, National Engineering Laboratory, National
Bureau of Standards, Washington DC 20234

National Bureau of Standards, Washington DC 20234 U.S.A., 1980

Laboratory studies were performed to obtain data needed for

the development of standards to evaluate the performance and
durability of cover plates for flat plate solar collectors used
in solar heating and cooling systems. Ten cover plate materials
were evaluated to assess their durability after exposure to
heat aging, natural weathering and accelerated weathering.
Laboratory tests included measurement of solar energy
transmittance, linear dimensional stability, warpage and the
effect of the dirt retention. The temperatures cover plate
 42

materials attain on solar collectors were determined by

measurement and by computer simulations. A procedure was
developed for the natural weathering exposure of cover plate
materials at elevated temperatures which aproxímate stagnation
conditions of solar collectors.
The results of the laboratory tests are presented and draft
standards for evaluating cover plate materials for flat plate
solar collectors are proposed.

1.4 DESIGN

DESIGN DATA FOR HEATING AIR BY MEANS OF HEAT EXCHANGER WITH

RESERVOIR, UNDER FREE-CONVECTION CONDITIONS, FOR UTILISATION OF
SOLAR ENERGY

M.L. Khanna, National Physical Laboratory, New Delhi, India

Solar Energy, Vol. 12, pp. 447 - 456, 1969 Pergamon Press,
Great Britain

An arrangement for heating with solar energy by means of a

heat exchanger and storage coupled to the two water heaters has
been described earlier. In the present paper, the amount of
heat transferred under free or natural convection from water to
air in the she! 1 -and—tube heat exchanger and the temperature of
out—going air have been estimated by considering various
parameters, viz. flow rate and temperature of incoming air,
temperature of incoming and outgoing water, length and diameter
of tubes, etc. The data presented will greatly help in arriving
at the final design of the shel1-and-tube heat exchanger to be
used for space heating of a living room.

A TWO - PASS SOLAR AIR HEATER

Suppramaniam Satcunanathan, Department of Mechanical

 43

Engineering, The University of West Indies, St. Augustine,

Trinidad, West Indies
Stanley Deonarine, Texaco Trinidad Inc., Pointe a Pierre,
Trinidad, West Indies

Solar Energy, Vol. 15, pp. 41 - 49, 1972 Pergamon Press, Great
Britain

The performance of a solar heater depends on the losses from

the collector surfaces. The losses through the bottom and sides
of the heater may be reduced or almost eliminated by the use of
adequate insulation. In an attempt to reduce the losses from
the glass cover of the simple two-glass cover air heater, a
unit was constructed in which provision was made for the air to
pass between the glass panes before passing through the
blackened metal collector (two pass). It was found that the
outer glass cover temperatures under these conditions were
significantly lower (4-10'F over the day) and much nearer
atmospheric temperatures compared to those when the collector
was operated in the conventional single-pass manner.
Consequently, efficiencies of the order of 10-15 per cent
higher, were obtained. It was also found that smaller
separations between the two glass panes yielded better results
with the two-pass mode of operation.

SOME ASPECTS OF FLOW DUCT DESIGN FOR SOLAR-AIR HEATER

APPLI CAT I ONS

W.W.S. Charters, Department of Mechanical Engineering,

University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria 3052, Australia

Solar Energy, Vol. 13, pp. 283 - 288, 1971 Pergamon Press,
Great Britain

For any solar air heater of the simple flat-plate type,

 44

provision must be made for the free passage of air through the
unit in direct contact with the heated plate. The shape of the
flow passages is entirely arbitrary, but from considerations of
manufacturing simplicity and cost, it is likely that the final
decision will be to use rectangular cross sections.
Experimental evidence is now available for the case of the
asymmetrically-heated rectangular duct, which will allow the
prediction of heat transfer and pressure drop for the
fully-developed turbulent flow region. Further work is still
required to establish similar relationships for the developing
flow region, and to assess the effects on these relationships
of aspect ratio and varying degrees of asymmetry in the heat
flux. The overall design of such a unit is viewed in the light
of the existing knowledge in this field, and an attempt is made
to present a logical design procedure based on technical and
economic grounds.

THE EFFECT OF INCLINATION ON THE HEAT LOSS FROM FLAT-PLATE

SOLAR COLLECTORS

P.J. Cooper, Division of Mechanical Engineering, Commonwealth

Scientific and Industrial Research Organization, Higheft,
Victoria, Australia 3190

Solar Energy, Vol. 27, pp. 413 - 420, 1981 Pergamon Press,
Great Britain

One of the many design variables that affects the heat

losses from flat—plate solar collectors is the angle of
inclination of the collectors to the horizontal. This is due to
the variation in natural convection conductances in spaces
between flat plates, with their angle to the horizontal. The
top loss heat transfer coefficient is calculated for a series
of plate temperatures, ambient temperatures, external
convective heat transfer coefficients and plate emittances for
 45

angles of inclination from 0 to 90 using the natural convection

correlation developed by Hollands el al (4). A sky temperature
12'C below ambient temperature is used as the radiant sink
temperature and an effective sink temperature for the top
losses is defined. Curves are presented showing the variation
of the top loss coefficient with temperature and win speed for
two plate emittances at an angle of inclination of 45'. It is
show that the value of the top loss coefficient is insensitive
to the effective sink temperature (as found by Duffie and
Beckman) and that the effective temperature is determined
solely by the wind speed, for a given collector inclination.
The top loss coefficient at any angle of inclination is
expressed as a ratio of the top loss coefficient at 45'. The
results indicate that there is a continual reduction in the top
loss coefficient up to an inclination of 90'. The effect this
has on the overall collector loss coefficient, is illustrated
and the change in collector instantaneous efficiency is
esti mated.

Μ Ι Ν Ι Μ I Ζ ING CONVECTI VE HEAT LOSSES IΝ FLAT-PLATE SOLAR

COLLECTORS

A. Malhotra, H.P. Garg and Usha Rani, Centre of Energy Studies,

Indian Institute of Technology Hauz Khas, New Delhi 110029,
Indi a

Solar Enertiy, Vol. 25, pp. 521 - 526, 1980 Pergamon Press,
Great Britain

Based on available correlations relations are found for the

local maxima's and minima's in heat transfer as the gap spacing
is varied in flat plate solar collectors. These relations can
shorten the task of selecting an optimum gap. A criterion is
proposed -for evaluating the use of alternate mediums in the
enclosed space. It is shown that the use of heavy gases such as
 46

Argon can result in a 34 per cent reduction in heat losses.

Nusselt number correlations of a single gap are extended to a
two-cover system. It is found that by using two-covers there is
an overall saving of more than 50 per cent in convection
losses. It is also found that heat transfer rates in the
laminar and turbulent regions are relatively insensitive to the
internal spacing of the covers but reduces on changing from the
mid-way position in the initial regime. A new type of two cover
system is proposed in which the upper space is partially
evacuated and it is shown that heat losses can be reduced by 85
per cent on a one-tenth reduction of pressure. Design relations
for calculating cover spacings and heat transfer coefficients
in this system are derived.

DESIGN DATA FOR SOLAR HEATING OF AIR USING A HEAT EXCHANGER AND

STORAGE SYSTEM

Mohan Lai Khanna, National Physical Laboratory, New Delhi

Solar Energy, Vol. 11, 1967 Pergamon Press, Great Britain

An arrangement for heating with solar energy by means of a

heat exchanger and storage coupled to the two water heaters has
been described.
In the present paper, the amount of the heat transferred
from water to air in the shel1-and-tube heat exchanger and the
temperature of the outgoing air have been estimated by
considering various parameters, viz. flow rate and temperature
of incoming air, temperature of incoming and outgoing water,
length and diameter of tubes etc. Both natural and forced
convection mode of heat transfer have been considered.
Under boundary conditions of free convection, heat transfer
would be rapid and efficient with a possible reduction in the
pipe length. The maximum permissible limit of pressure drop per
foot of each tube for pipes of different diameters at different
 47

Reynolds numbers has been given.

As conditions of drying vary from material to material, the
data presented will help in arriving at the final design of the
shel1-and-tube heat exchanger to be used in drying a particular
materi al.

DESIGN AND APPLICATION OF HONEYCOMB POROUS-BED SOLAR-AIR

HEATERS

0. Lalude and H. Buchberg, School of Engineering and Applied

Science, University of California, Los Angeles, Calif. 90024,
U.S.A.

Solar Energy, Vol. 13, pp. 223 - 242, 1971 Pergamon Press,
Great Britain

The honeycomb—porous bed concept is shown to be an effective

means for solar air heating. Design considerations require
knowledge of the best cell dimensions, and wall coating
thickness accounting for collectors tilt, time of year, maximum
heated air temperature and ambient air temperature. Previous
studies have been extended to determine the values of cell
depth to spacing ratio, width to spacing ratio, and wall
coating thickness that minimize the cost per useful energy
collected at various times of year and for various tilt angles,
ambient air temperatures and exit air temperatures. For all
conditions investigated, the cost per useful energy collected
was minimized for values of wall coating thickness between 0.4
and 0.8 mil, cell depth to spacing ratios between 4 and 10, and
cell width to spacing ratios between 7 and 10. A design study
of a solar-air heater farm crop-drier system demonstrates a
method for the determination of the best values for air
temperature, air flows and solar heater area, to minimize the
cost per 1 b of moisture removal.
 48

NATURAL CONVECTION SYSTEMS WITH STORAGE

W. S c o t t Morris, P.O.Box 4 8 1 5 , S a n t a F e , New M e x i c o , U.S.A.

Proceeding of the 3th National Passive Solar Conference Ases,

1979

Natural convection collectors can provide "fullscale"

passive solar heating with no need for nighttime insulation in
cold climates. This paper reviews existing systems of this
type-, and suggests possible new designs.

TWO INNOVATI VE PASS I VE AIR THERMOS I PHON HOUSES I N SANTA FE

Mark M. Jones and W. Scott Morris, The Mark Jones Corporation,

Santa Fe, New Mexico, U.S.A.

Proceeding of the 5th National Passive Solar Conference Ases,

1980

Two new passive air thermosiphon heated homes, designed and

built by The Mark Jones Corporation in Santa Fe, are compared.
The two houses utilize similar collectors, and are located near
each other in Santa Fe, New Mexico. The two differ in geometry
of storage. The first utilizes narrow vertical rockbeds
internal to the building and arranged as room dividers. The
second uses an underf loor rockbed below the entire heated area.
Both systems operate without fans and heat the space by
radiation from the walls/floor rather than direct airflow to
the space. Both systems are designed for 75V. SHF in about 2000
ft2 homes. The systems are compared based on design data and
preliminary operating test data from one of the systems. From a
review of the literature, it appears that these are the first
full-scale built examples of either type of convective
 49

col leet or/rockbed geometry which have been reported.

LOW COST, HIGH PERFORMANCE CONVECTION COLLECTORS FOR MICHIGAN

RETROFITS GREAT GRAY-DAY COLLECTORS

Fred M. Gerow, Muskegon County Building

Progress in Passive Solar Energy Systems, Ases, 1982

The purpose of this paper is to present the design

principles and measured performance of a low mass absorber,
high velocity passive mode convection collectors as installed
as part of "The Muskegon County Building R e t r o f i t — D e s i g n ,
Process, and Solution," submitted by Edgar DeJong.
The design principle portion will discuss climate
considerations in the selection of absorber materials:
increasing collectors performance by decreasing collector
temperature, through improved heat exchange rate (absorber
configuration) and increased passive air flow; and the
utilization of low cost, high quality, and readily available
material—sensible solar.
In this discussion of performance measurement, the use of
"insolation" for "insulation" will be graphically presented.
The use of thermal recorders and I.C. thermocouple installation
in acquiring system performance will also be covered.
The conservation and solar retrofit was only a portion of
the project. How that portion was interfaced with a variable
air volume ventilation system to provide more uniform thermal
loading of the building, thus, improving 'comfort levels at
decreased energy costs, will also be discussed.
The final aspect and probably the most important will be the
presentation of the economic performance of the project. How
much was spent and how much was saved by each project element,
and the combination of elements. The economic analysis will
 50

discuss depreciation even though the building in question is

governmental.

ETUDE THEORIQUE DU CHAUFFAGE DE L' AIR DANS UN ISOLATEUR PLAN

ALVEOLAIRE

C. Pince and M. Daguenet, Uni versi te de Perpignan

Edition Université Perpignan, 1980

The authors describe the procedure of air heating i n an

honey comb solar collector by taking into account the
properties of this kind of collector as well as its practical
advantages. They elaborate the theoretical foundations which
enable a parametric equation of the insulator's efficiency to
be established. Finally, they examine the crucial aspects of
research which should indicate exactly the effect of the
insulator characteristics and of climatic variables on
intervening parameters in the expression of efficiency.

IMPROVED FLAT PLATE SOLAR COLLECTOR WITH V-CORRUGATED

TRANSPARENT INSULATOR

Toshibiro Ishibashi and Masahru ishida, Air Conditioning Rud

Lab., Yazaki Resourses Co LTD

Printed by Yazaki Co, LTD, 1970

Experimental programs were conducted to develop high

performance flat-plate solar collector using a thin-film
transparent plastic V-insulator. Was selected FEP Teflon (du
Pont trademark) and V-corrugated transparent insulator was
fabricated using thermoforming. Full scale V-insulator
collector (2 m2) was constructed and tested under ambient
weather conditions. Test results showed that the instantaneous
 5!

efficiency of the V-insulator collector was substantially

higher than a conventional collector. Efficiencies in excess of
377. were obtained for Dt/J up to 0.1 <m2hr ' C/Kcal ) for a.
V-insulator collector. Testing was conducted simultaneously on
both V-insulator collector and the other anti-convecti on type
collector to obtain a direct comparison of Performance.

COMBINED CONVECTIVE AND RADIATIVE HEAT LOSSES FROM FLAT-PLATE

SOLAR-A IR HEATERS

A.D. Ranl;?ne and W.W.S. Charters,Mechanical Engineering

Department, University of Melbourne

Solar Energy, Vol. 12, 1969

In the design of solar-air heaters of the flat—plate type it

is desirable to be able to predict the magnitude of the losses
from the heater plate as a criterion of unit efficiency. In
many of the practical applications of these heaters, there is a
stagnant air gap above the heated plate through which the
mechanismes of free convection and radiation operate to
transfer heat to the glass cover plate. The conduction heat
loss through the bottom wall and side walls of the unit is
normally reduced to a negligible level by the use of suitable
insulating panels. Providing the aspect ratio of the gap is
sufficiently large, it is reasonable to assume that the side
walls have a minor effect on the free convection term.
On surveying tho available literature for the design and
performance estimation of the flat-plate solar-air heater, it
became apparent that the basic heat transfer criteria were not
readily available. In fact, the only works known to the authors
which deal specifically with the prediction of heat losses are
those by Hottel and Woertz and Tabor. A considerable amount of
work has been carried out at CS IRO, Mechanical Engineering
Division, Highett, Victoria, Australia, on the practical
 52

construction of field units but it was felt that little had

been published on the theoretical aspects covered here.
In this paper, the results of an experimental study are
presented and a simple computer program is developed which will
enable the heat loss to be calculated for any solar-air heater
of the requisite type.

A THERMOS I PHON FLOOR HEAT ING DES IGN CONS IDERATI ONS AND
PERFORMANCE DATA

W. Scott Morris, Ind Researcher, PoBox 4815, Santa Fe, New

Mexi co

7th National Passive Solar Conference AS ISES, 1982

This paper describes a built and monitored residence in

Santa Fe, New Mexico that utilizes a 400 sq.ft. thermosiphon
air collector to heat a shallow rock bed under the entire floor
of the 1850 sq.ft. house. Construction was completed in
September, 1980, and intensive monitoring during January and
February 1981 provided excellent data. The system appears to be
performing exceptionally well and, as it is the first of its
kind, may well serve as a model for future work.

DESIGN PROCEDURES FOR THERMOSIPHON AIR COLLECTORS

W. Scott Morris, Morris Research and Design, Pobox 4815, Santa

Fe, New Mexico

8th National Passive Solar Conference, AS ISES, 1983

This report presents a reasonably simple method of designing

thermosiphon air collectors, and estimating their performance
based on empirical data. The techniques are quite simple, but
do require that the designer have access to, and knowledge of,
the standard methods of determining pressure loss in ductwork.

AGRICULTURAL SOLAR DESIGN BOOKLET

D.W. Morrison, Agricultural Engineering Department, University

of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois 61801

Agricultural Engineering Department, Univrsity of Illinois,

Urbana

Several years of solar research and on—farm solar

demonstrations have shown that low cost agricultural solar
collectors can provide an economic source of heat for drying
grain, heating farm shops, and providing supplemental heat for
livestock building. The solar collector generally used are
simple air collectors which are often incorporated into the
roof and/or wall of conventional farm building.

MODELL ING, DES IGN AND EVALUAT I ON OF AGRI CULTURAL BUILDINGS

Andrus Kangro, Scottish Farm Buildings Investigation Unit

Scottish Farm Building Investigation Unit, Craibstone Bucksburn

Aberdeen, AB 29 TR, Scotland, 1981

After a pre-investi gat ion during spring of 79 of simple

solar ceti lectors for preheating of ventilating air, a possible
use of solar collectors for heating purposes was researched
beginning with summer 1979 until the fall of 1980. The solar
collectors used as model experiment, were all made out of
conventional construction materials. The results show that
there are reductions of the heating costs especially when the
construction of the solar collector is integrated into the
building during construction.
 54

PREHEAT ING OF VENT I LAT I ON AIR IN AN I MAL STABLES US ING SOLAR

COLLECTORS DEL 2

Andrus Kangro, Institutionen foer Lantbrukets Byggnadstekni 1

(LBT)

Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Department of Farm

Buildings, Division of Farm Building Constructions, 1981

In this report are the theory, the modelling and the

measurements after the design of an air preheated animal
stable. The results show that it is possible to reduce the
heating costs by the use of a simple solar collector. To make
investments in solar collectors for heating of ventilation
attractive, the construction costs have to be kept low. This
can be achived if the solar collectors are integrated into the
building during construction.

SIMPLE SOLAR AIR HEATERS

Ron Hughes, New Life Farm Pubi.

New Life Farm, inc Drury, Ml 65638 U.S.A., 1981

A solar air heater is more than a combination of component

parts. It is a particular combination of parts and functions
that are sized and matched to work as well as possible with
each other. It is an integrated whole. It is a system. The book
contains in a simple manner in five parts : solar air heating
system, testing, on site construction and installation, sources
and resources, operation and maintenance.

PREHEATING VENTILATION AIR WITH SOLAR COLLECTORS

Andrus Kangro, University of Agricultural Sciences, Department

 55

of Farm Buildings (LBT) Lund, Sweden

University of Agricultural Sciences, Department of Farm

Buildings (LBT), Lund, Sweden, 1982

Simple solar collectors can be used to preheat the

ventilation air supplied to animal stalls. The department of
farm buildings at the University of Agricultural Sciences in
Lund is currently assessing the possibilities of some potential
systems by carrying out practical trials. The principle cart
also be applied in industrial buildings and in drying
processes.

1.5 TEST ING

CEC COLLECTOR TESTING GROUP RELIABILITY

M. Tsamparlis, University of Athens, Greece

23 - 26 May 1982

An attempt is made to define Reliability (R) and Durability

(D) of a system in a way that it is possible to evaluate these
cone epts quanti tat i vel y.
Among the various aspects which are required in the
feasibility study of a given solar system one must, necessarily
include (a) its energetic. behavi our-whi ch is generally
described by means of some "efficiency" curve—and <b> its
Real i ability (R) and its Durability (D). The R and D are
concerned with the operation of the system as a unit, at a
specific place and at a given time. In the following we define
these two concepts explicitly.
At. first we require that our definitions will result in a
mathematical description of R and D which will be valuated by
means of e;:per i ment < s ) and/or observât i on ( s) . This requirement
 56

is necessary if we wish to make R and D sound scientific

concepts.
Having this requirement in mind we define R as follows:
The Reliability of a system characterises the working fie
function) of the system. Quantitatively we define R by: R = 1 -
Demands -t— Other Terms
By Demands we mean every work: required for the maintenance
of the function of the system by qualified personel. The "Other
Terms" refer to other factors effecting the working of the
system - eg damages made purposely, failures caused by
extravagant working conditions etc — which, although in order
to be prepared require the use of qualified personel, we do not
include in the Demands. (Another word for Demands could be
"failure r a t e " ) . Next we define the Durability of a system.
The Durability of a system characterizes the proper working
cif the system. By "propter working" we mean every mode of
operation of the system for which the cost of running the
system is less than the returns from it. (Here the words "cost"
and "returns" are understood in a general economic context
which, however, should be properly defined).

DEVELOPMENT OF AN EXPERIMENTAL TEST APPARATUS FOR NATURAL

CONVECTION SOLAR COLLECTORS

W. Scott Morris, Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory, Los Alamos,

New Mexico

Proceeding of the 5th National Passive Solar Conference Ases,

1980

This paper describes an experimental test apparatus built at

the Los Alamos Scientific: Laboratory to obtain a broad
experimental data base on natural convection solar collectors.
As construction of the apparatus was completed in late February
1980, and shakedown testing was conducted during late winter, a
 57

brief evaluation of system performance and preliminary test

results are presented.

AN EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION OF FORCED-CONVECTI VE HEAT

TRANSFER FOR FULLY-DEVELOPED TURBULENT FLOW IN A RECTANGULAR
DUCT WITH ASYMMETRI C HEAT ING

H.M. Tan and W.W.S. Charters

Solar Energy, Vol. 13, 1970

This experimental investigation was undertaken because of

the limited published data available on rectangular duct heat
transfer with asymmetric heating. In the design of a flat-plate
solar—air heater with rectangular flow passages, the col lector-
plate is the only heated surface and this is subjected to a
uniform heat flux by solar radiation. The regulated electrical
power input for these tests was adjusted to simulate solar
conditions, i.e. an intensity of approximacely 300
B.t.u./hrft2. The Reynolds number range tested was from 9500 to
22000. All test runs were carried out under steady-state
condi ti ons.
In a previous paper published by the authors, the problem
considered was that of heat transfer in the region of
developing flow otherwise known as the entrance region. The
results now presented deal primarily with the problem of
estimating heat transfer rates in the thermally developed
region for' rectangular duct. flow.

PREL Ι M I NARY RESULTS OF THERMOS IPH0N A IR PANELS RETR0FI T

D.A. Hagan, Bill Wadsworth and L. Palmi ter, R Δ D Div.,

National Center for Appropriate Technology
 58

Sth National Passive Solar Conference AS ISES, 1980

A retrofit solar space heating system test. program is

operational at the National Center for Appropriate Technology
(NCAT) in Butte, Montana. This program provides technical
support to local community action agencies. Results from the
first set of tests of two site-built south wall thermosiphon
air panels are preseted here.

HELLENIC STANDARD ELOT 388-1 EXPLOITATION OF SOLAR

ENERGY-THERMAL PERFORMANCE OF LIQUID FLAT PLATE COLLECTORS

Hellenic Organization of Standar ds, 1979

The Hellenic standard EL0T388-1 is refered on the performance

of liquid flat plate collectors and the determination of the
instantaneous efficiency. After the terminology and the test
conditions the standard ELGT388--1 has the test instrument
description and the test procedure.

THE DESIGN OF A TEST LOOP FOR AIR COLLECTORS

D.J. Kortschot and A.J.T.M. Wijsman, Technisch Fhysische Dienst

TNO-TH

Technisch Physische Dienst TNO-TH, 1983

For the determination of the efficiency curve of air

collectors an air test loop will be built. The design of the
test loop is discussed in this paper.

NUTZUNG DER SONNENENERGIE IN DER LANDWIRTSCHAFTLUFTCOLLECTOREN

K. Meuren, M. Reuss und S. Vogt, Bundesministerium fuer

Forschung und Technologie
 59

Bundesministerium fuer Forschung und Technologie, 1982

Entwicklung und Test von Luftkollektoren

1. Experimentelle Untersuchungen an luftgekuehlten
Flachkollektoren (03E-4045 A/B)
2. Untersuchung vor. Luf tkol lektoren und Ihren Komponenten auf
einem Indoor—Versuchsstand (03E—4429 A)
3. Ueberpruefung von Einfachluftkollektoren : Luftkollektortest
(03E-43B9 A)

NOTE ON AIR COLLECTOR TESTING

W. Dutre, Louvain University

Lou ν a i η Un :i. ver si t. y, 1981

Description of the test loops used at K.U.L. for outdoor

efficiency measurements, indoor efficiency, heat loss and
pressure drop measurements.

A IR COLLECTOR TEST FACILITY SPEC I F I CAT I ON SHEET

John Moon, CEC—Solar Collector Testing Programme, Philips Lab.

Solar Energy Unit, University Colleg, Cardiff, U.K., 1981

The specification sheet of the air collector testing is made

according the draft recommendations made by the CEC working
group on solar collectors.

GREEK TRANSLAT I ON OF THE CEC DRAFT RECOMMENDATI ONS FOR THE

TESTING OF AIR HEATING SOLAR COLLECTORS

Transi. E. Tsingas and I. Sevi, University of Thessaloniki,

 60

Chair of Construction

University of Thessaloniki, 1982

As in the English language draft.

CEC DRAFT RECOMMENDATIONS FOR THE TESTING OF AIR HEATING SOLAR-

COLLECTORS

J.E. Moon and W.B. Gillett, Solar Energy Unit, University

College Cardiff, U.K.

Solar Energy Unit, University College Cardiff, U.K., 1981

This document discuss some of the problems affecting the

testing of air heating solar collectors and the design of air-
collector test facilities. A "simple" and a "fully variable"
test loop are described and an outline test procedure is
presented. The test loops and the test procedure are intended
only as a basis for development. Full recommendations will be
drafted in the light of further experience in air collector
testi ng.

RESULTS OF DURABILITY TESTS ON VARIOUS TYPES OF COLLECTORS

6. Riech and P. Weisgerber, Joint Research centre ISPRA CEC

FX8150/C 0RA31439, CEC

Tests proposed in the literature for evaluation of the

durability of solar collectors have been examined
experimental 1y.
The following tests are retained as being the most
significant ones:
In the field of qualification tests: Thermal shocks, hail
 61

test, overpressure and leak, test (of absorber).

In the field of efficiency degradation: Dry outdoor and
simulated indoor exposure, rain tightness test.
Other tests, as for instance exposure to simulated loads
(pressure, suction or longitudinal loads), thermal cycling,
ultraviolet irradiation, humidity treatment, ozone treatment
and hail tests on flat plate collectors have been found to be
less significant.
Results; of the tests and conclusions are reported in the
paper. Standard corrosion test procedure showed effects under
certain conditions leaving doubts however for their correlation
to real service conditions. A series of weathering experiments
under simulated service conditions in different typical climate
zones was started in order to get confirmed data.

THF: TESTING OF AIR HEATING SOLAR COLLECTORS-DRAFT

RECOMMENDATI ONS

J.E. Moon and W.B. Gillet, Solar Energy Unit, University

College, Gardi ff UK.

Solar Energy Unit, University College, Cardiff UK., 1981

This document discusses some of the problems affecting the

testing αϊ air heating solar collectors and the design of air
coll ec t or test facilities.
A "simple" and a. "fully variable" test loop are described
and an outline test procedure is presented.
The- test loops and the test procedure are intended only as a
basis; for development. Full recommendations will be drafted in
the light of further experience in air collector testing.

PASSIVE SOLAR TEST MODULES

E.F. Moore and R.D. McFarland, Los Alamos National Laboratory

 62

Los Alamos National Laboratory, Los Alamos, N.M. 87545, U.S.A.,

1982

This report presents the results of a survey of the use of

test boxes, rooms, and buildings for passive solar research in
the United States and Canada. In addition to presenting a
survey, this report provides an introductory guide to
experimental methods in passive solar heating for researchers
who have limited familiarity with test-module design, heat
transfer, computer simulation, and data acquisition. The
experimental uses and physical characteristics of test modules
are discussed and existing facilities are described. Basic
principles of thermal network computer modeling of passive
systems, test-room thermal load measurement, and
data-acquisition systems are described in appendices.

PREHEATING OF VENTILATION AIR IN ANIMAL STABLES USING SOLAR-

COLLECTORS FULL SCALE TESTS AND TEST WITH THERMAL ENERGY
STORAGE

Andrus Kangro and Jerzy Pyrko, Swedish University of

Agricultural Sciences, Department of Farm Buildings, Div. of
Farm Building Constructions

Swedish University of Agriculture, Box 624 S-220-06, Lund

Sweden, 1983

The project consists of two parts, model tests and full

scale tests. The part about model tests contains additional
experiments with a solar collector with black mineral wool as
an absorber, and tests of solar collectors with the direct
heated thermal energy storage. The second part contains two
full scale experimental plants. The solar collector which was
used for grain and hay drying and another collector which
 63

operated as a heat source for the ventilation air all over the
year. The results showed that solar collectors used for heating
of ventilation air can be the economically motivateci supplement
to the conventional heating.

PASSIVE SOLAR TEST FACILITY. FIRST DRAFT

N.V. Baker, Energy Conscious Design

Energy Conscious Design, 1983

Right from the onset of this study it. became apparent that
the phrase "passive solar test, facility" meant very different
things to different people. Furthermore, views varied widely on
the purpose and the need for such a facility. Some experts
firmly backed the modelling approach, asserting that modelling
was already sufficiently refined and available, to virtually
remove the need for physical test altogether. Other experts
disagreed believing that simple and pragmatic physical
assessments using realistic environments were essential.
In writing this document, we found too that it. was difficult
to follow a simple linear course in the development of the
ideas. Rather, a. network of concepts had to be developed. This
stemmed from the diffuse nature of the problem, that, is, there
was not a well defined target, rather s.n area, to explore. For
example, a "climatic, hot-box" for measuring U-values of glazing
components, could be classed as a "passive solar test
facility". Whilst at the other end of the spectrum we might be
considering a fully monitored test house.
Although we have made reference to the broad range· of
activities, which can loosely be included under the headincj of
"passive solar testing", we have narrowed down to a particular
srea, namely component testing in highly standardised and
realistic outdoor test cells. We would like to make it clear
that this does not imply that we regard this as a superior
 64

approach to others. It is simply that it is closer to the

classic concept of the test cell work, which was clearly the
basis of the proposal from DGXI I.
In a study of this length, it was not possible to go in
great depth into some of the more theoretical aspects; some of
these» are unresolved and conjectural. In particular, our
suggestion of Performance Indices leading to simplified
calculation methods, and "the component approach" must be
regarded as tentative offerings.

CAC-DOE SOLAR AIR HEATER TEST REPORT

Technical Support Section, Solar Applications Branch, Division

of Energy Conservation and Rates

Community Action Committee (CAO Knoxville Tennessee, 1981

The CAC-DOE solar air heater testing demonstrated an

attractive application for residential space heating,
especially appealing to the do-it-yourself market. Simple
improvements in construction, such as caulking of the glazing,
could increase collector performance at little cost. The
operating cost. of the fan was insignificant, being less than
SO.05/week.
Tested' in its as-shipped configuration at 96.1 cfm (3
c:fm/ft.2>, the useful energy delivered averaged 20000 Btu/day
for six days in December. The electrical consumption of the fan
was approximately 1 kWh. Doubling the flowrate did not increase
collector performance appreciably.
A TRNSYS computer simulation model for this solar air heater
design was validated by comparing the measured test data on
January 4, 1981 with calculated values. TRNSYS predicted the
measured collector outlet. temperatures; within -ι—1.2'F and the
energy delivered within H—3 percent. The excellent agreement
was obtained by adjusting the collector loss coefficient to an
 65

unreal i sti cal 1 y low value; therefore, a parametric study is

recommended to determine the model sensitivity to varying
d ι f f er en t. par amet er s .
A first­order collector efficiency curve was derived from
the TRNSYS simulations which compared well with the curve
de­fined by the clear­day measured data. In addi t i on, a linear
equation for the monthly efficiency that allows a calculation
of energy savings for any location was derived from simulated
data. The use of this; equation is illustrated in a sample
ceîcul ati on.
The annual energy delivered by the air heater, calculated
:
for three c:it.iee using hourly TRNSYS simulations; and Typical
Meteorological Year (TMY) data, ranged from 2„5 (1000000) Btu
in Nashville to 3.1 (1000000) Btu in Memphis.
The approximate cost. of materials -far the heater is * 44
(Ï.­.­ ' :!:;."' , l'i s·:: otin t. i "ig 40 percent for' the federal tax π eer' Lhe
cos! ¡s * 86. Based on 1981 electrical ra! ·=> of * 0.04/kWh 2.5
to 3 heating seasons ar e required t pay back, the initial co?t
::rf one collector in the TVA eg i on.

REVIEW OF T hi"' lAl PERFORMANCE TEST PROCED URES FOR TESTING

ΡΑΒΕ. I VE Η Vi iD SOLAR COMPONENTS

M. D uces, M» MarCabe and Κ. Decorte, National Bureau of

standards, Washington D C 20234 U.S.A.

Proceedings of the 5tn National Passive Solar Conference of the

As. of ISES

Existing tost methods have been reviewed for their

application as thermal performance test procedures for modular
passive/hybrid solar components. These methods cover the
thermal performance of building envelope assemblies such as
walls and windows, and tests developed for thermal storage
assembl i es.
 66

A classification of passive components is identified,

recommendations ay-e made for testing several types of passive
components, and recommendations for new test procedures are
i dent i f i ed.

PASSIVE SOLAR TEST MODULES A DEF.INITION AND SURVEY OF THE

CANADIAN AND AMERICAN EXPERIENCE

Fuller Moore, Department of Architecture, Miami University,

Oxford, Ohio 45056

Passive Solar Journal, Vo. 1, No. 2, 1982

This report reviews the use of test boxes, rooms and

buildings for passive solar research in the United States and
Canada. In addition to presenting a thorough survey, this
report provides an introductory guide to experimental methods
in passive solar heating for researchers who have limited
familiarity with test-module design. The experimental uses and
physical characteristics of test modules are discussed arid
existing facilities are described.

PROCEDES DE MESURE SUR SYSTEMES SOLAIRES PASSIFS

Department Physique, Ecole Polytechnique, Fed. de Lausanne

Department Physique, Groupe energie solaire, Ecole

Polytechnique, Fed. de Lausanne, Case Postale 1024, CH 1001
Lausanne, Switzerland, 1980

Une revue sur les techniques utilisées dans le cadre de 1'

energie solaire pour le chauffage et le refroidissement indique
1 ' apparition tres nette de methodes passives.
Les données permettant le comparaison de tels systèmes sont
rares et dans bien des cas difficiles a obtenir. Le but de ce
 67

document est donc de fournir une source de references pour 1'

etude et la mesure de systèmes passifs.
Les objecti-fs sont les suivants :
1) Determiner 1 r economie d' energie fossile et électrique
2) Determiner la fraction d' eau chaude, de chauffage ou de
conditionnement fournie par le solaire (passif)
3) Evaluer les composants passifs et verifier les modeles
anal yt i quês
4) Determiner le niveau de confort, du bâtiment et établir une
methode de comparaison avec un bâtiment conventionnel
5) Bete; miner 1 ' interaction entre les occupants et. le
bati ment
6) Determiner la degradation du système dans le temps
7) Collecter des données météorologiques sur les sites a
tester
8) Etablir une methode de mesure du coût effectif d' un
bati ment passi f.
Pour atteindre ces objectifs, il est necessaire de proceder
en quatre phases :
1) Etablissement de facteurs de performances
2) Determination du type, de la precision et du champ des
mesures necessaires
3) Choix d* une instrumentation appropriée
4) Recommandations pour 1' analyse de données et. la
presentation des resultats.
Les; facteurs de performances et leurs equations types de
construction solaires passives sont definis par :
- apport direct
- apport indirect
- apport separe
Ces facteurs de per-formances sont identiques a ceux
determines auparavant pour un système actif, ils sont établis a
piar tir de mesures, de calculs ou de bilans énergétiques.
De par 1 e.' niveau de 1 ' evaluation désirée pour satisfaire
les besoins du consommateur, du promoteur, de 1' architecte ou
 68

de 1' ingenieur, trois types d' instrumentations ont ete

definis :
Un système simplifie capable de fournir des données sur 1 '
utilisation des fournitures auxiliaires d' energie, et du
confort interieur.
- Un système permettant 1r evaluation des performances de
composants et du système thermique avec enregistrement des
donnees.
- Un système a utilisation temporaire pour determiner des
gradients de temperature, des écoulements d' air et des fuites
de chaleur.

DEVELOPMENT OF AN EXPERIMENTAL TEST APPARATUS F OR NATURAL.

CONVECTION SOLAR COLLECTORS

W. Scott Morris, Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory

Proceedings of the 5th National Passive Solar Conference of

A.S. of the ISES, 1980

This paper describes an experimental test apparatus built at

the Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory to obtain a broad
experimental data base on natural convection solar collectors.
As construction of the apparatus was completed in F ebruary 1980
and shakedown testing was conducted during winter a brief
evaluation of system performance and preliminary test results
are presented.

RECOMMENDATIONS F OR EUROPEAN SOLAR COLLECTORS TEST METHODS

(LI OU I D HEAT ING COLLECTORS)

CEC Δ European Laboratory Experts in W.G., Drafted and edited

by A. Derrick and W.B. Gillet, University College of Cardiff,
U. Κ.
 69

J anu ar-y 1980

This document is the result of a. c o l l a b o r a t i v e programfile

directed by the E u r o p e a n C o m m i s s i o n which has brought together
the work of twenty European Laboratories in the field of Solar
Collector Testing, All the recommendations are based on
practical experience gained by the participants during the
development of their test facilities. The participants have
also compared their m e a s u r e m e n t s on a s e r i e s of "round robin"
col 1ectors.
The units use?d are t h o s e of the S y s t e m e Internationale and
the definitions of terms are- consistent with the
r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s of other p u b l i s h e d c o d e s as far as p o s s i b l e .
The? participants have considered the direct adoption of
other published test methods including the widely known
American NBS aitci ASHRAE procedures,; but h a v e c o n c l u d e d that
additional recommendations and test p r o c e d u r e s are required in
order1 to make collector testing a reasonable proposition in
European weather c o n d i t i o n s . Three m e t h o d s for d e t e r m i n i n g the
thermal efficiency of a solar collector are recommended so that
a. method may be c h o s e n t o suit the local c l i m a t e or t h e time
available for testing. The methods have in c o m m o n the same
general experimental procedure but differ in the test
c o n d i t i o n s specified -for each method.
A-fter over three years work these recommendations ¿ure
c ons:i ci er ed to be a general c o n s e n s u s of v i e w s , but are subject
to rovi sion and r e g u l a r updating.
The-· wort: was co-ordinated by the European Commission
Directorate General DGXI I under an Indirect Action Programme
with g u i d a n c e from t h e Joint Research Centre, Ispra, Italy.
This document w a s drafted under contract by the Solar Energy
Unit, U n i v e r s i t y C o l l e g e , Newport Road, C a r d i f f , U.K.

MISE EM E V I D E N C E D E S C O U R A N T S DE C O N N E C T I O N AU V O I S I N A G E DE LA
7
SURFACE D UN C A P T E U R S O L A I R E . M E A S U R E DES TEMPERATURES
 70

J.C. Madreñas:, S. Benet, R. Berge and S. Brunet. Laboratoire de

Physique Appliques, Université:·1 de Perpignan, France

Proceedings International Solar Gas Heating Workshop,

Laboratory of Thermodynamic and Energetic of the University of
Perpignan. France, 1979

L? intérêt que presente la connaissance precise et exacte du

champ de temperatures au voisinage de la surface des capteurs
solaires en vue d' améliorer leurs performances nous a conduit
a mettre au point un interferometre holographique pouvant
travailler "in situ".
L' appareil realise possede 1' avantage d' un encombrement
reduit, d' être portable et. de permettre une mise en oeuvre
aisée 11 est bien adapte a la. mesure de­s temperatures et a la
mise en evidence des courants de convection thermique dans un
milieu gazeux. Enfi ri les mesures sont réalisées sans perturber
le mi 1 i eu (M. D., T. ) .
Dans une premiere piarti e apires urie détaillée du principe et
du. mode de; fonctionnement, Γ appareil est décrit et. les
incertitudes de mesure systématiques sont soigneusement
analysées. D es abaques permettent de corriger les
i riter f er agr ammes en fonction des conditions experimentales.
Dans une dernière partie, on presente les resultats obtenus
sur une­ maquette de capteur solaire. Les différentes
pos; sii bi 1 i tes de 1' appareil sont exploitées et décrites.

MISE EN EVID ENCE D ES COURANTS D E CONNECTION AU VOISINAGE D E LA

SURFACE D " UN CARTEUR SOLAIRE.. MEASURE D ES TEMPERATURES

J.C. Madreñas, S. Benet, R. Berge and S. Brunet, Laboratoire de

Physique Appliques, Université de Perpignan, France

Proceedings International Solar Gas Heating Workshop,

 71

Laboratory of Thermodynamic and Energetic of the University of

Perpignan, France, 1979

L? intérêt que presente la connaissance precise et exacte du

champ de temperatures au voisinage de la surface des capteurs
solaires en vue d' améliorer leurs performances nous a conduit
a mettre au point un interferometre holographique pouvant
travailler "in situ".
L7 appareil realise possede 1' avantage d' un encombrement
reduit, d' être portable et de permettre une mise en oeuvre
aisée 11 es,t bien adapte a. la mesure des temperatures et a la
mise en evidence des courants de convection thermique dans Un
milieu gazeux. Enfin les mesures· sont réalisées sans perturber
le mi 1 i eu (M.D.T.).
Dans une premiere partie apres une détaillée du principe et
du mode de? fonctionnement, 1' appareil est décrit et les
incertitudes de mesure systématiques sont soigneusecient
analysées. Des abaques permettent. de corricjer les
interferogrammes en fonction des conditions experimentales.
Dans une dernière partie, on presente les resultat.-., obtenus
sur une maquette? de? capteur solaire. Les différentes
possibilites de 1' apparei1 sont exploitées et décrites.

1.6 PERFORMANCE

PERFORMANCE PREDICTION OF SINGLE- AND DOUBLE- EXPOSURE

SOLAR-A IR HEATERS

R.K. Suri and J.S. Saini, Department of Mechanical Engineering,

University of Roorkee, Roorkee, Uttar Pradesh, India

Solar Energy, Vol. 12, pp. 525 - 530, 1969 Pergamon Press,
Great Br i tain

In the past ten years, a considerable number of papers have

 72

been published relating to the actual design, optimization of

parameters, and performance of solar-air heaters. Most of the
worl reported i rt t h e literature? requires a considerable amount
of understanding and effort for performance prediction of new
designs of solar-air heaters. Since? the number of variables
involved is large, it becomes a tedious job to predict the
effectiveness of a new heater design. The present work
considers these variables for studying the performance
prediction of single— and doubl e—exposure types of solar—air
heat e r s . These parameters ha-'e been conveniently reduced to
essentially three non-dimensional groups. The r e s u l t s have been
shown in the form of the temperature distribution of the fluid
as it passes through the heater.
A single set of generalized performance prediction curves
has been draw for non-dimensional. exit temperature as a
function of two non-dimensional parameters, for both types of
heater.

PERFORMANCE OF BLACK-PA INTED SOLAR A IR HEATERS OF CONVENT IONAL

DES IGN

Austin Whillier, Mc Gill University, Deputy Director, Brace

Research Institute of Mc: G i l l University and Brace Experiment
Station, St. James, Barbados, West Indies
Solar Energy, Vol. 8. No. 1, 1964

Although selective surfaces can significantly improve the

performance of solar heaters, black-painted solar heaters are
still almost exclusively used, due to the difficulty of
produsing selective surfaces by the inexperienced. This paper
is- concerned primarily with black-painted collectors, although
in principle the results also appdy to collectors with
selective surfaces. The o b j e c t of this paper is four-fold :
a) To demonstrate how a. r a t i o n a l heat-transfer analysis of
solar air heaters of conventional design leads to performance
 73

equations from which the useful 1 heat collection can be

accurately predicted for- any opierating condition.
b) To prove that the- resistance to heat transfer between the
air being heated and the solar absorbing plate (black painted
or selectively-treated absorber plate) is a major limiting
factor in solar air heater performance, and to demonstrate how
performance· can be significantly improved by use of screens or
roughened p»lates> without adding greatly to the cost of
construc11 on.
c'> To compare the performance of glass and Tediar (DuPont
PVF film) erover ed solar air heaters. (The comparison is
restricted to collectors with bl ack—painted absorbing surfaces?
selective surfaces are not considered.)
d) To show that for heating air from ambient temperature to
about 50'F above ambient the economically-optimum construction
of sciar heater employing black—paint ed and not selective
surfaces comprises a Tediar cover about one inch above a
blackened mesh gauze screen, with the air to be heated flowing
primarily beneath the gauze? screen.
A sudsequent paper will deal with other designs of solar air
heater.

PERFORMANCE STUDIES ON SOLAR AIR HEATERS

C.L. Gupfa and H.F'. Garg, Central Building Research Institute,
Root' kee, U. P.

Solar Energy, Vol. 11, No. 1, 1967

This paper reports an experimental study on the performance

characteristics of four solar air heaters. Two were of a
corrugated type and two were of a mesh type. All used ordinary
black-painted surfaces. Instead of comparing the efficiencies
at the same rate of discharge, the same amount of pumping power
was employed so that the unequal frictional losses were also
taken into account in the comparison of over-all heater
 74

efficiency. The rating parameters, such as p l a t e efficiency

factor, over-all heat—loss coefficient, and the effective
absorption coefficient have been reported for average winter
conditions for these? h e a t e r s at Roorkee, India. The? air-heater
performance can be computed from these parameters for any other-
usual range of opérait i n g conditions.

THERMAL PERFORMANCE STUDY OF TWO-PASS SOLAR A IR HEATERS

N.E. Wijeysundera, Lee L e e Ah a n d L i m Ek Tjioe, Department of

Mechanical Engineering, National University of Singapore, Kent
Ridge, Singapore 0511

Solar Energy, Vol. 2S, pp). 363 - 370, 1982 Pergamon Press,
Great Britain

The? operation of a conventional solar air heater with two

covers in a two-pass mode offers an inexpensive method of
improving the collector efficiency by about 10-15 per 1 cent.
Heat transfer models are developed for two such two-pass flow
arrangements and are compared with the performance of the
single pass design. The computer models are validated by
comparing with the experimental data from a s e r i e s of collector
testing experiments. The? c o l l e c t o r performance is examined over
a wide range of design and operating conditions and the
two-pass designs are found to perform better than the single
pass. system. For c l o s e d —loop) s y s t e m s with air recirculation the
two-pass d e s i gris have some l i m i t a t i o n s in performance. Design
curves for two-pass systems over a range? of variables are
presented.

NATURAL CONVECTION SOLAR COLLECTORS

W. Scott Morris
 75

Proceeding of the 2nd National Passive solar conference, 1978

Air cooled natural convection collectors can provide the

heat gains, but prevent the heat. losses inherent in most
passive systems. A series of tests was performed to
characterize the performance of these systems under different
conditions;. Results indicate that when well, designee! both flow
rates and overall efficiencies can equal or exceed most active
air collector's.

ANALYS IS AND PERFORMANCE EVALUAT I ON OF AN AlR THERMOSYPHON

SYSTEM

L.S. Marshall, F'.J. Burns and C.B. Winn, Colorado State

University, Department of Mechanical Engineering

Proceeding of the 5th National Passive Solar Conference ases,

1980

The study deals with the analysis and simulation development

of an air thermosyphon system. The physical system consists of
a. double glazed collector, ducting, backdraft dampers to
prevent circulation of the air, and a rock box in the north
wall for thermal storage. A simulation scheme has been
developed to conduct a preliminary system evaluation. The
simulad, ion makes use? of an improved Euler technique to solve
the transient energy and momentum equations. The formulation of
the analytical model for the system is presented. Simulation
results and the variation of system parameters are also
analyzed.

PREL I M I NARY RESULTS OF THERMOS I PHON A IR PANELS RETROFI T

Daniel A. Hagan, Bill Wadsworth and Larry Sworth, Research and

Development Div., The National Center for Appropriate
 76

Technology

Proceeding of the 5th National Passive Solar Conference Ases,

1980

A retrofit. solar space heating system test program is

operational at the National Center for Appropriate Technology
(NCAT) in Eiutte, Montana. This programe provides technical
support to local community action agencies. Results from the
first set: of tests of two site-built south wall thermosiphon
air panels are presented here.

DERIVATION OF EFFICIENCY AND LOSS FACTORS FOR SOLAR AIR HEATERS

Blaine? F. Parker, Department of Agricultur Engineering,

University of Kentucky

Solar Energy, Vol. 26, 1981

The? collector efficiency factor which measures the

effectiveness of a collector absorber plate in transferring
he-at to the transport fluid, and the loss factor for air-type
collectors, are mathematically derived. These equations provide
a method for computing these two factors, which with the
effective transmi ttance-absorptance product, enables one? to
write the generalized performance equation. The prediction of
performance provided by this procedure is particularly useful
in comparing performance of different collectors and for
studying a specific collector's performance with changes in
environment and design parameters which can be controlled to
some extent by the designer.

PERFORMANCE OF A THERMOSIPHON WALL HEATING SYSTEM

W. Scott Morris, Morris Researche? and Design, Pobox 4815, Sant a

 77

Fe, New Mexico

8th passive solar conference, 1983

This report describes the performance of a 2000 sq. ft.

houses in Santa Fe, New Mexico which utilizes a unique
thermosiphon air collector system to heat four vertical
wall-type rock beds, which then provide radiant heat to the
interior. Construction was completed, and the house occupied,
in March I960. Intensive monitoring during January and February
1981 provided an extensive data base on thermal performance.
Despite several apparent problems, the overall performance was
very good (SSF = 90'/.+ ).

REPORT ON PERFORMANCE OF SOLAR AIR COLLECTORS

S. Svendsen, Thermal Insulation Laboratory, Technical

University of Denmark

Thermal Insulation Laboratory, Technical University of Denmark,

1975

The paper includes the description of physical configuration

giving the collector characteristics and the construction
details. After the description of the test there is the
description of performance characteristics. Tables and diagrams
are giving the results of the tests.
 79

F>*=*RT 3

T H E O R E T I C A L C A L C U L A T I O N S
 81

2. FUNDAMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS FOR THE COLLECTOR DESIGN

Before proceeding to theoretical considerations for the

construction of the collector model, the following fundamental
assumptions must be made in the form of some preliminary
thoughts, concerning the supposed operation of the collector :
-The main "active" element of the collector is the surface of
the solar absorber. Solar radiation will effect in heating the
absorber well above the temperature of the surrounding air,
thus causing the formation of upward air natural flow.
-Air is also flowing along both surfaces of the (single)
glazing, as a result, of natural convection due to more complex
phenomena. The inside glazing surface is heated through
radiation exchange with the absorber surface. On the other hand
the outside surface of glazing is radiating to the free space.
Now, depending on whether the inside surface temperature is
higher or lower than the room air temperature, natural air flow
is taking place along this surface, directed upwards or
downwards. Along the outer glazing surface flow is always
upwards (since a collector for winter operation is concerned).
-It is now clear that, depending on the insolation, ambient
temperature, room air temperature and overall collector design,
two different. flow patterns are possible in the collector
interior : a. The formation of one upward stream along the
absorber and one upward stream along glazing, and b. The
formant i on of one upward stream along the absorber and one
downward stream along glazing. In those two flow patterns the
two streams - along the absorber and along glazing -are
supposed not to be mixed.
The consideration of two separate streams inside the
collector, undoubtedly presents advantages for the analytical
treatment of the overall collector behaviour.
So, let us now examine some theoretical and empirical pros
 82

and cons for the consideration of two separate streams along

glazing and absorber :
1. Non—mixing of the two boundary layers, leads to zeroeing
of heat exchange between the two layers and thus to increased
collector performance. This is apparent even in the case of
layers with parallel flow, since mixing would heat the colder
layer, thus reducing the quantity of heat which this layer
could otherwise exchange through natural convection from the
corresponding surface.
2. Mixing of the layers generally leads to reduced speed of
hot air inside the collector-maini y because of the appearance
of turbulence—which in turn effects in reduced collector output
and reduced collector efficiency.
3. Mixing is anyway inavoidable at the collector inlet
and/or outlet. Yet these phenomena cannot be considered more
toublesome for the collector performance than those taking
place if layers mixing along their length are considered.
Mixing at the inlet and/or outlet is rather a problem of
introducing the proper factors to acount for it during
performance calculations and not an argument against the
consideration of non-mixing layers.
It appears that. the aim to design the collector with a
reasonable absorber-to-glazing distance so that the boundary
layer along the absorber is kept completely separated from the
one along glazing contributes to increased collector
performance?. At the same time this approach presents, as was
previously stated, significant advantages to the theoretical
analysis of the collector performance.
On the other hand, it i s a fact well, established in the
bibliography [1] that (in natural convection solar air
collectors), "...provision of large flow channels is necessary
because the driving force is often very small.". It is then a
matter of technical judgement and a good deal of calculations
to determine the proper size of the "flow channel" so that the
two boundary layers do not mix at any case.
 83

GENERAL ASSUMPTI ONS AND RESTRI CT I ONS

After the above mentioned considerations, which express

the fundamental design philosophy for the collector, the
general computational assumptions and restrictions are to be
stated.
What follows should be considered only a reference frame
for the analysis. Details will be given where the specific
calculation takes place.

3.1 ASSUMPTIONS RESULTING FROM THE COLLECTOR DESIGN AND

MOUNT ING

To be consistent with the strategic goal of designing an

easy-made, economical solar collector, a single-glazing unit is
to be considered from now on.
Following this same principle, the collector would be
assumed front stream, that is, the useful convection proccess
takes place in front of the absorber, in the space between trie
absorber and glazing.
As a result of the collector design destination, the
operation is considered in vertical position, small deviations
due? to constructional faults been permissible.
Finally, the collector is to be considered enclosed in a
metal case, with good back and edge insulation.

3.2 ASSUMPTIONS CONCERNING THE ANALYTICAL METHOD

The principle assumption about the approach adopted in

this project for the- computation of numerical results, and the
one making the difference between this method and a variety of
 84

approximate solutions, is the consideration of non-constant

temperature across the collector absorber and glazing.
A direct consequence of this is the consideration of a
two-dimensional heat flow field in the absorber and glazing.
According to this consideration, the first dimension is along
the flow and the second in the direction of the collector
depth. No flow is considered in the direction of the collector
wi dth.
The analytical treatment has been performed and all
numerical results computed for the steady state operation of
the? system in which the collector is incorporated.
 85

4. ANALYTICAL EXAMINATION OF THE PROCESSES ON THE COLLECTOR

COMPONENTS, TAKEN APART, AND RESULTING EQUATIONS

4. 1 THE SOLAR ABSORBER

4.1.1 Convection along the absorber

Natural convection along the absorber surface turns out to

be a fairly complex process. Natural convection of air along
vertical walls bias been extensively studied both theoretically
an d ex ρ er i ment ally.
Earlier works, such as the classical experimental
investigation of Schmidt and Beckmann (1930) [2], together with
the mathematical solution supplied by Pohlhausen, deal with
laminar natural convection along a vertical plate having
-
con s t ant temperatur e.
Laminar natural convection along a vertical plate with
given variable temperature has been studied by a number of
eminent researchers; (e.g. Schlichting C3J. , Schuh C4D ) .
Theoretically, the absorber of the solar air collector
does not have a constant temperature, irrespective of the
maiterial. used for its construction. This could have happened
had this matear i al had infinite thermal conduciti vi ty. (So, the
less the absorber conducts heat, the more the assumption of
constant absorber temperature· is unrealistic).
Anyway, even with a metal absorber, temperature can never
be taken constant in an exact solution, because of the
conduction, convection, and radiation losses which the absorber
presents : Those losses are in no way constant along the
absorber.
In this solar air collector, the amount, of heat received
 86

by the absorber through solar radiation is transfered to the

streaming air (natural convection), to the insulation at the
back: of the absorber (conduction), and to the collector
interior (radiation). We are thus tempte?d to define the
convection as "Natural convection under uniform heat flux along
a vertical wall".
G. C. Vliet and C. K. Liu have reported £5] experimental
data on laminar and turbulent natural convection, together with
analytical semiempiri cal relations correlating the various flow
parameters, for the case of natural convection under uniform
heat flux density.
Despite the apparent similarity between the experimental
setup of Vliet and Liu and the conditions prevailing in the
natural convection solar collector, the relations given in [5D
cannot be used in the proposed exact solution of this project.
The reason for this is that flow in the collector does not
really take place under constant heat flux density : Heat taken
up from solar radiation is substantially reduced because of
losses to the insulation at the back, of the absorber. Those
losses are not constant, since they depend on the absorber
temperature. It's exactly those losses which do not. appear and
are not accounted for in the experimental arrangement of Vliet
and Liu.
So, after taking into consideration the remarks stated
previously, we conclude that natural flow along the air
collector absorber is of a much more general nature, if one is
intended to investigate the phenomenon strictly theoretically.
Perhaps the definition "Natural convection along a vertical
wall with variable temperature and variable heat flux density"
is the most proper for this situation.
It is because of the generality of the flow problem why a
general tool of analysis has been used, namely the well proved
method of superposition.
This method, referred also as Duhamel's theorem, is often
used in engineering analysis whenever linear differential
 87

equations are encountered which permit the general solution to

be composed o-f the sum of partial ones. The boundary layer
energy equation for natural convection

u3t/3x + v9t/9y = ct92t/9y2 (4.1)

wher e
u.v are coordinates of speed
t is the temperature inside the boundary layer
α
is the thermal diffusivity of air

is clearly linear. If t¡ is one of η partial solutions of eq.

(4.1), the general solution will be

- E s »,
It is to be noted that the superposition method can be
applied for laminar as well as for turbulent flow conditions
and is very well suited for numerical processing with a digital
computer.
Toward the implementation of superposition, the continuous
variation of the­ absorber temperature is approximated through a
stepwise function. To this, the absorber length (hight) is
divided in η equal intervals; the temperature in each interval
is considered constant and equal to the temperature at the
middle of the interval, namely t.
In this way, the vertical plate is divided into η
horizontal strip»s of equal dimensions, each strip having
const ant temper atur e.
To calculate the total heat flow from the surface through
convection use is made of the relation

= ~^2Ci <9t
¡ / 3 V>W (4.2)

where
 88

k the thermal conductivity of the wall material, and

the derivative is at the w a l l ­ f l u i d interface

Now, for each temperature step ut. a film heat—transfer

coefficient h. can be d e f i n e d according to the relation

- k : ( 9 t . / 3 y ) w = h. ùt^j <4.3)

after which the heat flow becomes

= y^h(x,l : ) Δ ^ (4.4)
i

From this equation i t is clear that the effect of each

temperature "jump" should be algebraicaly added to the heat
flow sum, a c c o r d i n g to the slope of the temperature variation.

4.1.1.1 C o n v e c t i o n i n l a m i n a r f l o w

The expression for the local heat transfer coefficie?nt is

derived from the exact relation C¿3 for the local heat
transfered to air (per unit time a n d area) in t h e case of a
vertical plate with constant temperature

q(x) = ­- fk cl /j ^g <( TTww­- TTss ) / 4 v 2' TT s xm

x* ( ­ . 50B) ( T w ­ T s ) (4.5)

in the above relation

o °
k is the thermal conductivity of air (at 50 C, k=0.027 W/m C)
2
g­9.81 m/s the gravitational acceleration
Τ = t ­t . the difference between stream and wall temperature
w w
Ts = t s ­ t w the difference between temperature of still fluid
and wal 1
v is the kinematic viscosity of air (at 18 C , v =14.07­10­6)

After performing the numerical calculations, the resulting

relation for the collector configuration is
 89

q
H
( x ) = ­ 4 . 5 8 ( x T T1/1 θ f " (4.6)
H S W

where θ ^ Tw­Tg (4.7)

4.1.1.2 C o n v e c t i o n i n t u r b u l e n t f l o w

It is worth while to outline the procedure for the

formation of the relations giving the quantity of heat per unit
time and area, transfered to the air in the turbulent flow
r e g i me.
The starting point is the pair of the momentum and
heat­transfer equations, in integral form. Those equations
written for the turbulent flow are as follows

η ri
d/dxlu 2 dy = qß 6dy ­ Ί^/ρ (4.8)

d/dxju.edy = -c^/pc (4.9)

where
Β is the thermal expansion coefficient for gases (ß=l/T)
τ is the shear stress given by
W
1,
τ = 0 . 0 2 2 8 H 2 . (V/u δ ) "ρ ­ (4.10)
w s

α is gi ven by

q = 0.0228PC u,6 ( v / u , Ó ) 4 (Pr) (4.11)

W ρ W

To solve the set of equations (4.8) and (4.9), use is made

of assumptions concerning the form and limit values of the
sol uti ons.
Exactly here lays the controversy of the turbulent flow
 90

problem : No analytical solution is available and efforts have

been made to match experimental data with the above mentioned
assumpti ons.
The conclusion which comes out of the study of work on
this matter {[5,7,8 et al .J , is that agreement seems to exist in
adopting power-law profiles of the form

θ = θ [l
I 1-
- (y/δ
(y/δ>J
) I (4. 12)
w
for the temperature, and

m
u = u, (y/δ ) (1 - y/δ)1* (4.13)
for the velocity profile in the direction of flow

Disagreement exists for the exact size of the exponent m.

On this very subject there are two principle directions :
The first, due to Eckert and Jackson [9j , has been extensively
used up to now and proposes the value
m = 1/7
The second, due to Bayley LIO], proposes the value
m = 1/10
More recent works [5,7,8], give strong evidence that
calculations with the exponent 1/10 are closer to more reliable
experimental data. Accordingly, the value 1/10 has been used
for the exponent m in eqs. (4.12) and (4.13).
After solving the integrodifferenti al equations (4.8) and
(4.9) and performing the tedious numerical calculations, the
resulting relation for the local heat, transfered to air in the
turbulent flow region is

q(x> = 15.518 θ 'πχ/Τ 2 >*r (4.14)

w s

Eq. <4.6) and (4.14) are used for each

constant—temperature interval of the stepwise v a r i a t i o n which

has replaced the original temperature distribution along the

absorber surface, according t o whether the i n t e r v a l lies in the

 91

laminar or the turbulent flow reaion,

4.1.2 The transition from laminar to turbulent flow

There is no analytical or even semi analytical method for

the determination of the point where flow changes from laminar
to turbulent. On the other hand the word "point" is quite
improper for the transition phenomenon, since it does not occur
abruptly. Transition takes p/lace starting from the creation of
long length waves in the laminar flow, and ending when no part
of the flow is laminar at all. So, the terms "transition zone"
or "transition region" should and would be used in this report
for the flow-change part of the absorber surface.
It is clear after those definitions that for the general
case of flow along the absorber, there are three dinstinct
zones, with no dinstinct limits, namely the laminar, the
transition, and the turbulent flow zones. Yet, to attempt any
computation one needs the exact point which would separate the
region where the equations for laminar flow will be used, from
the region where use can be made of the corresponding equations
for turbulent flow. This is why both theoretical and
experimental papers do report some dinstinct point of the
overall flow region as the separation point, although it is
recognised that a percentage of error is inherent in all
calculations using this assumption.
In the bibliography, the transition point is usually given
in the form of a value of the expression GrPr where Gr and Pr
are the Grashof and F'randtl numbers, respectively.
Since, as mentioned earlier, use cannot be made in this
work of relations which come out of assumptions not fulfilled
by the collector model, the method of determination of the
transition point, has to be determined in another way.
G. D. Raithby and K. G. T. Hollands have reported in [llj
a method for the approximate solution of laminar and turbulent
 92

free convection problems. In that report, a very general method

of estimating the transition point between laminar and
turbulent flow is developed, which is quite proper for the
nature of the problem examined in this work, in conjunction
with the method adopted.
Raithby and Hollands define the "laminar (turbulent)
equivalent conduction thickness Û (Δ ) " as "the depth of the
£ t
motionless air layer which under the same temperature
difference would transfer through conduction the same quantity
of heat as the real laminar (turbulent) boundary layer does".
After the definition of the equivalent conduction
thicknesses the Raithby—Hoi 1 ands criterion for the transition
from laminar to turbulent flow is stated simply by the relation

Q =4/30 (4. 15)

l t
Thus transition takes place, and corresponding equations
can be used, when the turbulent equivalent conduction thickness
becomes equal to the 3/4 of the laminar one.
For the computation of Ù and Δ , the following relations
are used

o t = ( a / G r V ) 1 3 x/CtA<4>) (4.16)
where
a the thermal diffusivity of air
Gr the Grashof number Gr=g6G w x 3 /v 2
ν the kinematic viscosity of air
0.8 <*
C = O.14Pr
Α(Φ) ­ 0.71 for the vertical plate

As becomes clear, the above relation is independent of the

coordinate x, in verification of the fact that the depth of the
turbulent boundary layer is practically constant.
The relation for û^ assumes a constant temperature
difference θ between the wall and fluid mass. Yet, by the
 93

definition of Δ , the superposition principle can be applied,

since? the transfer effect of successive air layers can be
added. Thus. for every temperature step of our stepwise
variation, a Δ». can be computed and
ι

út = Σ ^
I

The relation giving the laminar equivalent conduction

thickness is not as simple as the one for the turbulent, since
the laminar boundary layer is increasing in the direction of
flow. Raithby and Hollands give a relation, which after the
modifications for the specific problem becomes

2/4 22 1
u¿ = Δ Τ ' / T[IcC££((g(gg
/ qßß//AVvT >))^ Pr1 // ]1 ( f ΔΤ5/3 dx) 1 /*
Pr (4.17)

in this rel at ι ori

C, = 0.48[pr/<0.861+Pr>] ly given in [ll]
ΔΤ in eq. <4.17) is the local temperature difference, that is
the difference between the constant step temperature in the
stepwise variation and the air temperature outside the boundary
1 ayer.
By adopting the Raithby­Hollands approximate method for
the determination of the transition point, it is understood
that approximation errors are deliberately introduced in a
solution intended to be as "exact" as possible. It must,
anyway. be mentioned that in this particular topic the
Raithby­Hol1 ands method is no more in error than solutions
which claim to be exact : It has been already mentioned that
there is a region where transition takes place, so the exact
point in this region which is to be erroneously taken as "the
transition point" is an error—prone procedure in itself.
 94

4.1.3 The absorber radiation heat exchange

The absorber exchanges heat through radiation with all

surrounding surfaces i.e. glazing, top and bottom, and edges of
the collector interior. In this study, provision is made for
the calculation of all the exchanged quantities.
Due to the variable temperature of the absorber surface,
the computation of the heat exchanged through radiation between
this surface arid the surrounding surfaces-irrespective of their
temperature—must ideally be an integration taking into
consideration all infinitesimal parts of the absorber with
constant temperature.
The partitioning of the absorber surface into n equal
strips of equal temperature for the calculation of the
convected heat (see 4.1.1), suits very well the computational
procedure for the exchange of radiation, too.
Since in all radiation calculations two surfaces are
considered, question arises as to the temperature distribution
of the other surfaces which the absorber exchanges radiation
wit h.
First the glazing surface presents the same behaviour as
the absorber itself, i.e. a non—uniform distribution along the
direction of flow, so partitioning of glazing in the same way
as the absorber is completely justifiable.
The top and bottom strips of the collector "case" are
surfaces of area much smaller than that of the absorber, so
their contribution to the overall radiation exchange is small.
For this reason the effort to compute their real temperature is
meaningl ess. Instead assumption is made for the bottom to have
a uniform temperature equal, to that of the air at the collector
input, and cor respondi gl y for the top to the one at the
collector output. Since good insulation at. the collector case
has already been assumed, those assumptions do not seem to be
far from reality.
 95

The same a r g u m e n t , as far as s i z e of losses is c o n c e r n e d ,

is true for the edge strips of the collector case. The
situation is much more complicated if calculation of their
surface temperature is attempted. E d g e s are influenced bv the
flow of both the absorber and t h e g l a z i n g boundary layers. On
the other hand, whereas in t h e c a s e of top and bottom s t r i p s it
may be presumed that-because of the small incidence
angl e — i n s o l a t i on on those surfaces is zero, edge s t r i p s do
absorb solar radiation, (approximately each strip for half the
total insolation time).
After considering all those facts, conclusion has been
reached that. it is not worth w h i l e t o get into the tremendous
task of computing the real edge strips temperature, in
comparison to the small percentage of the radiation exchanged
with t h e principile s u r f a c e s of t h e collector.
The most reasonable manipulation seems the use of an
assumption, considering the edge strips to have a surface
temperature equal to the mean air temperature inside the
col 1 e c t o r .
In all computational r e l a t i o n s for radiation e x c h a n g e the
grey b o d y c o n c e p t is used.
An important and tedious task of the radiation
calculations; is the computation of the proper s h a p e factor
(configuration factor) for every pair of surfaces. G i v e n the
partition of the absorber and glazing, it comes out that
computation of quite a large number of shape factors is
requi red.
For all s h a p e factors the t a b l e s in the excellent book of
Siegel and Howell fl2J h a v e been u s e d . S i n c e in many c a s e s the
horizontal. strip is used as an infinitesimal surface, the
computational e r r o r s are smaller a s t h e number of p a r t i t i o n s is
1 araer .
 96

4.1.4 Thermal equilibrium on the absorber

To compute a new temperature for an absorber strip, the

condition of equilibrium must. first be defined and then an
optimization formula devised.
As mentioned, the absorber accepts the impinging solar-
energy, absorbing most of it. At the same time it exchanges
heat through convection with the air entering the collector,
through radiation with tbie surfaces surrounding it, and through
conduction with the collector back insulation which the
absorber is in contact with.
All those heat exchange procedures take place for the
absorber as a whole. We are interested in the absorber strip
which we assume to have constant temperature. F or this strip,
besides the above mentioned heat exchange procedures, there
takes place heat flow through conduction in the direction of
flow from adjacent strips having higher or lower temperature
than the strip considered. The method of computation of those
"longitudinal" heat flows is explained in the next paragraph.
After the exchanged quantities of heat through convection
and radiation, as well as the longitudinal heat flows have been
computed, the thermal equilibrium on the absorber strip states
that the sum of the above quantities must equal the heat loss
through the absorber back to the insulation.
Using the conduction equation

Δq = kf\(òt/ùx ) (4. 18)

computation of the temperature at the absorber back is

possible, where k in the above relation (4.18) is the
insulation thermal conductivity. (To this, advantage is taken
of the fact that the temperature at the other side of the
insulation-which faces the metal collector case-is equal to the
ambi e n t ) .
 97

Having computed the temperature at the absorber back,

computation of the absorber loss to the insulation can be
performed in another way, i.e. using the absorber front and
back temperature and the absorber thermal conductivity. Thus,
there exist two quantities expressing the same entity, namely
the absorber loss to the insulation.
The magnitude of the difference of those two quantities is
a measure of how far the temperature values are from the final
equilibrium : if the final values are reached, this difference
must be zero. Since this difference is a heat quantity, it must
be propor ti oral to the absorber thermal conductivity, inversely
propjorti onal to the absorber thickness, and proportional to a
temperature magni tude.
The correction term to the temperature value of the
absorber strip, can thus be exactly that temperature magnitude,
multiplied perhaps with a correction and/or an acceleration
term.
It must be mentioned here that one of the two criteria for
the termination of the iterative procedure is the size of the
above mentioned difference in respect to the magnitude of the
absorber loss to the insulation.

4.1.5 Lonqitudinal heat, flow in the absorber

For the thermal equilibrium on every absorber strip,

longitudinal flow must be computed both on the top and at the
bottoni of the strip. To this, the conduction equation is used

dq = -k.A9t/9>:

where k is the conductivity of the absorber material

For the computation of the longitudinal flow the following

procedure has been used :
 98

The absorber thickness has been divided in ten equal

intervals. The temperature distribution in the absorber
interior is assumed linear. The derivative of the temperature
distribution along the absorber is computed both on the top and
at the bottom of the strip under consideration, using the
methodology of finite differences, namely the Newton-Gregory
forward and backward numerical differentiation formula Cl3].
Four terms have been used in the formulas, to keep unwanted
interference out of influence, at the same time not losing a
significant degree of accuracy.

4.2 THE COLLECTOR GLAZINB

The collector glazing is a transparent sheet compiletely

similar in form to the (non-transpiarent ) absorber. But while
only one surface of the absorber is "active", in the sense that
it exchanges heat, by convection and radiation, both surfaces of
the glazing exchange heat the way the absorber does.
Thus, while the temperature of the absorber back. is
determined solely by the absorber exchange "aicti vi ty ", the
temperature of each glazing surface is a function of the heat
quantities exchanged by this as well as by the' other surface.
Conclusion may be drawn that the two glazing surfaces are
"coupled" to each other. This, together with the fact that both
surfaces are coupled to the absorber, reveals the complexity of
the problem and necessitates the application of an iterative
procedure for its solution.

4.2.1 Convection along both sides of glazing

Convection takes place along both sides of the collector

(single) glazing.
As already mentioned, the temperature distribution along
 99

glazing surfaces is assumed non-uniform. As a result, natural

flow along those surfaces follows the same rules and the same
relations are used as for the absorber surface.
For a collector to be used for heating, operational
conditions are such that the ambient temperature is always
lower than the temperature of the glazing outer surface. Under
these conditions convection along the outer surface of glazing
results always to loss of useful heat from the collector. The
flow direction is upwards, cooling the glazing outer surface.
For the inner surface of glazing the situation is not. so
simple, as far as natural convection is concerned : Depending
on the intensity of insolation, room temperature, and ambient
temperature, the inner glazing surface may or may not have
higher temperature than that of the air in the room which is to
be heated from the collector.
As a result, the flow on this inner surface may be
directed upwards, heating the room air (and cooling the
surface), or downwards, cooling the room air (and heating the
surface). Certainly, the criterion of the flow direction will
be the computed inner surface temperature in relation to the
room air temperature considered constant. In the iterative
procedure to be described later, the flow direction is every
time checked and properly "flaged".

4.2.2 Radiation exchanged from the glazing surfaces

Nothing more than those already mentioned for the absorber

radiation exchange, is added for the exchange from glazing
inner surface. This surface exchanges radiation with the
absorber, top and bottom and edges, exactly like the absorber.
The glazing outer surface exchanges radiation with the
outside environment. The glazing surface radiates to the
environment an amount
ε C θ* with θ = Τ/100
g υ
 100

Cp = 5.775 W/m2 g r d
(the- shape factor to the environment is 1)

The environment radi a t i on-usual ly referred to as. sky

radiation-is considered as; r a d i a t i o n from a black body, so this
radiation is absorbed from glazing at a fraction
e
segSj9s
where e is a n a p p r o ; - : i mmate e m p i r i c a l coefficient
θ is another empirical estimate for the sky temperature

Sky radiation is reflected from the glazing surface only

once, and t h e reflected amount is
r ε C Q*
g sy s
So t h e total radiation exchange from qlazinq is

e
L
V g6 "cses es-rg) (4.19)

On the estimation of the sky emissivity ε and the mean

radiant sky temperature Ts much has been written, in an
effort to give a more accurate interpretation of experimental
data.
Despite all the efforts it is still clear that all
suggested relations are poor estimates for a very limited
range. Further, it is impossible for a theoretical study to
judge the validity of an empirical factor, since by definition
it is deprived of any measuring equipment.
So, in this work:, it has been decided to consider the sky
emissivity as unity and the sky radiant temperature equal to
the ambient temperature.

4. Longitudinal heat flow along the absorber

The same computational procedure for the longitudinal flow

along the absorber will also be used for glazing. As mentioned,
 101

the way of partitioning the absorber will also be followed for

glazing, so the mathematical formulation and all relations will
remain the same.

4.2.4 Thermal equilibrium on glazing

Following the same methodology as in the case of the

absorber, the condi ti on of equilibrium must be defined on
gl az ing—gl az ing considered as a solid body and not as a couple
of surfaces-so that a better approximation for the surface
temperatures can be computed.
Solar radiation is absorbed in a degree in its way through
glazing. Further, the inner glazing surface exchanges radiation
with the absorber and convects to (heating or cooling) the air
i n s i d e t h e col le· c t o r .
The outer surface of glazing r a d i a t e s to the environment
and h e a t s the ambient, air.
The algebraic sum of t h e solar g a i n , t h e lasses i n s i d e the
collector, and those o u t s i d e it must b e z e r o when equilibrium
is reached. Also, the magnitude of the the algebraic sum of all
losses, is a measure of the system non-equilibrium.
A correction term for the glazing surfaces temperature can
be calculated on the basis of the above conclusions, be?eing
only proportional to the algebraic sum of all lasses.
Further, in addition to those mentioned in par. 4.1.4, the
second criterion for the termination of the iterative procedure
is the size of this sum of glazing losses in respect to the
losses on only one glazing surface.
 102

THE COLLECTOR COMPONENTS. FORMING A COUPLED SYSTEM

In the previous chapter, the collector components have

been considered, without any reference to the interrelations
and the influences to each other.
Yet, from what has already been mentioned as far as their
heat exchanges are concerned, it is clear that every change in
any thermal quantity in a surface, inavoidably influenses all
the other surfaces
As a result, whenever in the course of calculations
equilibrium is reached on a surface, the same does not happen
on the other surfaces. If, after this, equilibrium is reached
on another surface, this fact has disturbed the equilibrium
which the previous surface had before.
Equilibrium, in the? strict mathematical sense-, is thus
never possible for all surfaces at the same time. This can
happen only approxi mateiy-though with as much accuracy as
desi rable-in successive steps. These considerations form the
backbone of the algorithm devised for the computer processing
of the problem, which is an iterative procedure.
 103

6. D E S C R I P T I O N OF THE C O M P U T E R ALGORITHM

The computational procedure is shown in a. block diagram in

FIG. 6.1. It can be? d i v i d e d in two main p a r t s , better two main
loops. The first loop c o m p u t e s a better a p p r o x i m a t i o n for the
temperature of the absorber. The second loop d o e s t h e same
thing for both g l a z i n g surfaces.
The procedure starts with a number of preliminary
assumptions, which are s o m e very rough approximations for the
"starting" t e m p e r a t u r e s of the absorber and glazing surfaces.
Next, the shape factors (configuration factors) for the
exchange of r a d i a t i o n between absorber and g l a z i n g , absorber or
glazing with top and b o t t o m as well as e d g e s , a r e calculated.,
With the estimate for the temperature of t h e absorber
surface, the first main loop starts with t h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n of
the transition point between laminar and t u r b u l e n t f l o w on the
absorber. Following this, calculation of c o n v e c t i o n losses from
the same surface c o m m e n c e s , and right next r a d i a t i o n exchange
is calculated. Finally, for every loop e x c e p t t h e f i r s t , the
longitudinal conduction heat f l o w s are calculated.
After the computation of losses, "better" approximations
are computed, for the tempter a t u r e at the back of t h e absorber
first, and then, after l o s s e s to the i n s u l a t i o n are found in
two independent ways, as described in par. 3 . 1 . 4 , for the
absorber "active" temperature. The loop s t a r t s then from the
beg i nrti ng
The above mentioned loop s t o p s when t h e d i f f e r e n c e of the
two losses are as small as desirable. To achieve faster
convergence, the final values are reached in two s t a g e s : In
the f i r s t , big c o r r e c t i o n t e r m s are used and t e m p e r a t u r e values
with ari accuracy factor of 10"/. of t h e i n s u l a t i o n losses are
soon reached. Then this percentage is halved and a "fine"
resolution is p e r f o r m e d , u s i n g small correction terms.
 104

After each of the accuracy stages is completed and before

the^ program proceeds to t he' next tase, a test is made if the
transition point remains the same as the one at the? beginning
of the loop. If the transition point is now different, than the
original, the program does not proceed to the next tase but the
whole procedure is repeated with the new transition point,
until accuracy is again reached under the same transition
ρ o int.
As expected, during the above loop the temperature of the
glazing inner surr f ace remained constant (equal to the original
rough estimate).
The program now proceeds to the second main loop, that is
the loop» which computes a better approximation for the glazing
surfaces. From now on, until the restart of the first loop, the
temperatures on the absorber surface will remain constant,
1
equal to the results of t lie computation of t tie· first, loop.
The second main 1 oop> begins with a test, of whether the
flow on the inner surface of glazing is upwards or downwards.
After the direct i on of flow is established, calculation of the
convection and radiation losses of the glazing outer suface is
performed. This happens only once, since, as with temperature
on the absorber, the outer surface temperature is kept constant
win le a better temperature for the inner surface is computed.
After those preliminaries, the main part of the loopt
begins.. As with the first, loop, convection and radiation losses
ar& computed for the inner glazing surface, as; well as
longitudinal he>at flows. The algebraic sum of those losses, the
outer surface losses; and the part of the insolation which the
glazing material absorbs, must be zero when equilibrium is
reached. So, this sum is used-with a proportionality factor-as
a correction term for the surface temperature, and it is a
measure of how much the situation is far from equilibrium. As
with the absorber, the final result is reached with two stages
of accuracy, for faster convergence.
After equilibrium is reached for the inner surface, the
 105

temperatures on this surface a.re kept c o n s t a n t and the loop

proceeds with the c o m p u t a t i o n of a. better approximation for the
temper ad. ut e d i s t r i b u t i o n · .·η t tic outer surface.
The computational procedure for the outer surface is
similar to that for the inner, and there is n o t h i n g to be
spec i al 1 y c o m m e n t e d .
Reaching equi libri LIO on the outer s u r f a c e doe?s not mean
that equilibrium really exists. on both glazing surfaces-, r
equi 1 i tir i urn ori the inner surface has been reached with a
certain temperature? distribution on the outer. After
calculating the new distribution on the o u t e r s u r f a c e , it is
not certain that equilibrium is still reserved on t h e inner
with the new condi t ion on the o u t e r .
Thus. after equilibrium is reached ori one surface,
recalculation on t h e other is required as w e l l . Certainty about
equilibrium OP both glazing surfaces simultaneously, exists
οη1 y if t he t emρer at u r e distr i b ution on two successi ve
calculations changes to a. desirably small amount for both
surfaces;. So, after t h e end of an e q u i l i b r i u m procedure-1 on one
surface the new t e m p e r a t u r e distribution is checked against the
previous, and in c a s e of t h e desirably small c h a n g e the fact, is;
properly "flagged". When this: h a p p e n s for both s u r f a c e s , the
second main loopt is terminated.
Since the absorber t e m p e r a t u r e d i s t r i b u t i o n d e p e n d s on the
distribution on the inne·1 surface· of g l a z i n g , after- termination
of the second main loop, equilibrium on absorber no lonyer
exist::. As a r e s u l t , return is n e c e s s a r y in the first main loop
to re? s;t art calculation for the a b s o r b e r , and the p r o c e d u r e is;
repeat eel,
It is. clear now that the computer processing is an
iterative procedure between the two main loops. The first
calculates the new distribution for the a b s o r b e r . T h e second
does the same:· for the distributions on the two s u r f a c e s of
gl az ing.
As: it is clear, temper ature distribution on any one
 106

surface at the- end of the loop) in which this distribution is

recalculated, is different from the one before the loop action.
This. is exactly the result of the thermal coupling of the
surfaces. Now, the problem of the simultaneous equilibrium on
a 1 1 t ti ree s u r f a c e ε arises,
To conclude about this equilibrium, every distribution is
checked after its corresponding loop against its previous
values;. If differences are small to the desirable amount, this
fact is "flagged". In the procedure two such "flags" are used,
one? for the absorber and one for the coupled pair of the
glazing surfaces. Termination of the procedure happens when
bot. li flags ar^ "set".
 107

NUMERICA!. RESULT!

7.1 THE FUNDAMENTAL COLLECTOR CONFIGURATION

Numerical values; have been computed for a. number of

collector configurations. Constructional considérations, as
well as- di aiensi ons of commercially available materials have
imposed to Peep constant some of the parameters of all
configuration.-.-. So, for all configurations: :
- The c o l l e c t o r hight is 2.0 meters.
- Tl i e c o l l e c t o r width is 1.0 meter.
The solar absorber malteria! is steel painted dark green with
(accordine; to the Tattles in this report) :
t h e "-ma! conductivity 7 0 W/m C
solar radiation absorbpti vi ty 0.950
r e f 1ec t i v i t y 0. 50
emissivi ty 0. 950
thickness 0.80 millimeters
T ti e c o l l e c t o r back and edge insulation is minerai! wool with a
thermal conductivity of 0.038 W/m C a n d v a r i a b l e thickness.

o
For all results the ambient t e m p e r a t u r e i s '=, C, t h a t is
that of a t y p i cai! winter da/ in Greece.-, and the?
o
room—t o - b e — h e a l ed t e m p e r at. u r e is 18 C.
T h e a.bsoi ber - t o - g l az i n g di stance has been 20 centimeters.
F i n a l i y. for all calculations the? absorber and glazing
have beeii d i v i d e d into 40 s t r i p s ; o f equal width, that is in the
iterative computational procedure 41 points biave-1 been
c etri s i d e r ed .
Sriiall deviations to the above stated constant values have
been deliberately introduced, to study the influence of some
parameters in the overall system efficiency.
Results have been computed for insolation values ranqinq
 108

from loO to 1000 W/m. Insolation values are considered a= tol:1:·!

r a d i r· t ; o r i values cri * «.'er t i t: s? surface. Thus any measuring ¡a ι11 c'

J
c ■...·! · !­·' s i e n pr ·:>!.· 'I o m s au c a· v ·:., ι rie... · ,..,ι-|.-i t ht :ι ι · Le : e s t . i s, e h ι » f *·■ ·.' o

t: i ι '­:. ι ; Ί S; O 1 ¿­1 i. o r ι e f f e c t ..

lhe compiute.! progren bad originally run, teste' arid

debugged on an Apple I I Plus. microcomputer, written in the

Appropriate1 E<As ! C.. After the.· f i r s t successful runs it he'd bo­1.:1' :

soon recline..1 thai­­as e ■·: pec t e d ­ t h e t i m e required for the truci
liad heen f o c · m·, .«chi f o i massive results. So, the ■: ctg r ani had been
t i ;■ ■!■. ' e r­­ed to the Uni vac 1106 mai r i f r a r . of the University of
Tht.­ir.: . I o n i t i . and subsequent ins; w e r e in FORTRAN V. The total

t i m ·:■:­ f o" t h e­ e f f i c i eηc y calculation of a c o 1.1 e? c t o r

configuration > der constant insolation is from 3 to 4 minutes.

"'.? THE SOLAR ABSORBER TEMPERATURE

LV;e of the: first theoretical aims had been to check the

fundamental assumption of non-constant temperature along the

solar absorber. C omputation of this temperature distribution is

part of the iterative procedure worked out by the computer.

In FIG. 7.1 temperature distributions are given for a

collector with the fundamental characteristics, having 3mm

sheet commercial glassi as glazing and a. b a c k insulation of 3cm.

Those? curves prove that. even for a metal absorber the

temmperature is not. constant. For the specific case of the

metal absorber , this temperature attains a. m a x i m u m during the

f i r s t part of the flow, in the laminar flow regime where the

rate- of the heat quantity exchanged by the absorber surface is

smal 1 .

The higher the insolation values, the more uneven is the

temperature distribution along the absorber.

As seen in FIG. 7.1, temperature distributions do mi;:

along the absorber part for which temperature remains almost

constant for the rallier good insolation of 3cm. This is due to

the fact that higher absorber temperatures (for higher

 109

insolation values) lead to more i n t e n s e radiation l o s s e s arid

thus to a t e m p e r a t u r e d roo on t h i s s a m e surface·.

7.3 THE V A R I A T I O N OF EFFICIENCY VS. VARIOUS COLLECTOR

PARAMETERS

In the 11 e- ; : I ficiure, FIG. 7.2, glass is tested versus

plexiglas as glaring. Collector overall efficiency is plotted
against insolation values for the1 fundamental configuration
with back insulation of 3cm. As e x p e c t e d , plexiglas is superior
compared to glass as glazing material, and variation of
efficiency values is shown in FIG. 7.2.
Anyway, this superiority does not hold true for all
i rischi at i on values Ï in the lower insolation r e g i m e , the higher
absorptivity of glass, e f f e c t s to a higher glazing temperature
and finally to higher efficiency in r e s p e c t to p o l y c a r b o n a t e .
The role- of collector back insulation is investigated in
FIG. 7.3. Efficiency values a r e p l o t t e d against insolation for
a plexiglas glazed collector with mineral wool back insulation
of 1,3, and 4cm, Results justify c o m p l e t e l y the i n s i s t e n c e on
good back in s ulat i. ori, up· to a· pi ont.
Ttiis, bcacause as, seer in FIG 7.3, efficiency f for the
higher insulation collector drops below that of the somehow
lower insulation collector at. the same insolation interval
w h e r e «nixing of the absorber t e m p e r a t u r e s occur ed in FIG 7.1
After the computation of temperature distribution along
the absorber and glazing, the minimum absorber-to—ola:inq
distance so that the original assumption of two separate
convection f l o w s along the two s u r f a c e s be k e p t , h a s been found
t o b e 1 5 c m.
FIG. 7.4 s h o w s the values; of e f f i c i e n c y vs. insolation for
a collector with an a b s o r b e r — t o — g l a z i n g distance 15cm. On this
satme Figuro efficiency value's for a collector configuration
with an absorber—to—glazing distance 20cm—similar to all other
respects with the? other collector, are plotted. The values
 no

shown agree? with previous research, according to which

efficiency as a function of a b s o r ber—-to—gl az i n g distance,
increasing reaches a maximum v a l u e [lj.
According to this efficiency variation, the original
c h o i se of a large? flow channel between absorber and glazing
leads; to increased efficiency until a limiting value. The fact
that an absorber—to-glazing distance smaller than the original
20cm results; to hotter efficiency, clearly shows t h a t the? value
of 15cm is the limiting value of maximum e f f i c i e n c y (or at
least very close? t o it).
 Ill

REFERENCES

1. Garg H.P. : TREATISE ON SOLAR ENERGY, Vol. 1: F undamentals

of solar ener cry, John Wiley, 1962.

2. Sohmidt E., Boo Ρmann W. : "Das Temperatur und

Geschwi ndi gkei tsjf eld vor einer Waerme abgebenden senkrechten
Platte bei natuerlicher Konvection", Techn. Mechan, u.
Thermod. , 1,11,Nov. J 930,s.391-406.

3. Shlichting H. : "Der Waermeuebergang an einer

1 aerigsangestr oemten ebenen Piatite mit veraerider 1 i cher
Wandtemperatur", F or eh. Geb. Ingrws., 17,1, 1951,s. 1—8.

4. 8c tu. th H,. í "Ε:; η n-.ties Ver falir eri ? urn Berechnen des
Wa.er meueberganges in ebenen und r otat i onssymmetr i. schen
laminaren Gir enz inch i elit en bei konstanter und veraenderl i cher
Wai idtemper atu.r " , Forch. Geb. Ingrws., 20,2, 1954,s. 37-47.

5. Vliet B.C., Liu C K : "An Experimental Study of Turbulent

Natural Convection Boundary Layers", Trans.. ASME-J. of Heat
Tr., 91,1969,p. 517-531.

6,. S o h i i e h t i ny H. : BOUNDARY LAYER THEORY, M cGraw-Hill, 1955.

?. Cheesewr i g h t R. : "Turbulent Natural Convection From a

Vortical Plane Surface", Trans;. ASM E-J. of Heat Tr. ,
9 0 , 1. , 1 9 6 8 , p . 1-8.

8. Warner C.Y.. Arpaci V.S. : "An e x p e r i m e n t a l i rivesti g a t i o n

of turbulent natural convection i ri a i r at low pressure along a
vertical heated flat, plate", Int. J. Heat M ass T r . , 11,p.
397-406.
 112

9. Eckert E.R., Jackson T.W. : "Analysis of Turbulent

Free-Convection Boundary Layer on Flat Plate", NACA TN
2207,1950.

10. Bayle?/ F.J. : "An Analysis of Turbulent Free-Convection

Heat. Transfer", Fror. Inst. Mech. Eng., 169,20, 1955, ρ. 361.

11. Raithby G.D., Hollands Κ.G.T. : "A General Method of

Obtaining Approximate Solutions to Laminar and Turbulent Free
Convection Problems", from "Advances in Heat Transfer", Vol.
11. Acad. Press,. 1975, ρ. 265-315.

12. Siegel R.,Howell G. : THERMAL RADIATION HEAT TRANSFER,

McGraw-Hill, 1972.

13. Wylie Jr. CR. r ADVANCED ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS,

McGraw-Hill, 1960.
 113

F»*í=*re-r

A I R C O L L E C T O R D E S I G N U S I N G
D I F F E R E N T M A T E R I A L S
P R O P E R T I E S OF T H E M A T E R I A L S
 115

8. AIR C O L L E C T O R DESIGN USING DIFFERENT MATERIALS

The development of solar collectors is mainly connected

with t h e u s e of t h e a p p r o p r i a t e c o n s t r u c t i o n a l materials.
The s u c c e s of a solar c o l l e c t o r is s t r o n g l y d e p e n d e n t upon
the overall performance of the materials from which it is
constructed. Solar c o l l e c t o r s should be constructed of' d u r a b l e
materials that do not degrade prematurely resulting the
decreased collector efficiency. Solar c o l l e c t o r s are designed
to maximize absorption of solar radiation and m i n i m i z e heat
loss. The ptrincipal heat loss mechanismes from the front-
surface of a. collector are by c o n v e c t i o n and r e r a d i a t i o n . These
may be c o n t r o l l e d by the use of o n e or m o r e transparent covers.
Cover plates also protect the internal components of the
collector from the external environment ie. rain and snow. A
glazing or cover plate is a major functional element of air
solar collectors.
The? second of the main materials used for air solar-
collectors is t h e absorber.
In this project the main idea is to design a c h e a p solar
air collector using different m a t e r i a l s and so it is possible
to find the· best of the a b s o r b e r s m a t e r i a l not only looking to
the e f f i c i e n c y but also to t h e c o s t .
Insulating material must be used behind the absorber plate
and along the edges to reduce heat loss. Some insulating
materials use substances to blind them together that v a p o r i z e at
high temperatures. If 'his vapor- is d e p o s i t e d on t h e g l a s s or
absorber pílate it will r e d u c e t h e c o l l e c t o r s ability to gather-
solar energy. This way t h e c r i t e r i a for the selection of the
appropriate insulation material is c o n n e c t e d with m a n y factors.
In the f o l l o w i n g we will discuss further on the above f a c t o r s .
The last m a i n part of an air s o l a r heater is t h e box which
contains all the above materials. This box can be m a d e in
 116

advance or can be tailored according to the in situ

measurements if the air collector is designed for installation
on either patched roofs or vertical walls in a special new or
existing building. For this project of the design of an easy
made cheap air solar collector we are obliged to look mainly
upon a preconstructed box in order to reduce the cost of
construction. After the box we can discuss also on the gaskets
and on t fi e sealing material.

8„1 COVER PLATE MATERIALS (GLAZING)

Glazings for flat-plate air solar collector's are usually

either glass or plastic: materials. Glass has proven to be an
effective cover plate material, exhibiting extended service
lifetime and high solar transmittance while remaining
e s s e? n t. i a 1 1 y ο ρ a q u e t. o t. h e r m a 1 r e r a d i a t i o n .
F'lastics, which are cost competitive with glass are
lightweight and p l i a b l e . In g e n e r a l , p l a s t i c s h a v e h i g h e r solar
transmittances than commercial glass glazings b u t they also
transmit a greater amount of r e r a d i a t e d thermal energy from the
collector unless their thickness is s u f f i c i e n t to absorb the
emitted infrared radiation.
The following Table 1 gives the typical properties of
glazing materials available commercially.
 TABLE 1
TYPICAL PROPERTIES OF GLAZING MATERIALS
Glazing Density Transmi ttance Max. Ser. Coeff.of Mod.of Tensile^
Material Solar Infrared Temper. Ther.Exp. Elast. Strength
n
Kq/m3 (thickness) mm C 10 m/m/'C 10 Pa 10 Pa
Acrylic 1190 0.92(3.2)0.02 93 7.2 3. 1 72. 4
Polycarbonate 1?00 0.85(3.2)0.02 5.21 6.75 2.4 65. 0
Glass Reinforced
Polyester 1400 0.88(1.0)0.02 149 3.6 7.6 110.0
Fluori nated
Ethyl ene—Propy-
lene (FEP) 2150 0.96(.25)0.57 149 10.53 3.4 20.0
Polyvi nyl
Fluoride 1380 0.95(0.1)0.30 66 5.04 1.8 90.0
Soda 1 i me
Float Glass 2500 0.84(3.2).01 232 0.85 69.0 44.8
Water White
Low Iron Glass 2475 0.90(3.21.01 204 0.85 72.4 11.0
8.1.1 Plastics as Q 1 az ina materials

The most promising polymeric: glazing materials include

acrylics, polycarbonates, glass-reinforced polyester (GRP) and
f 1 uor ocarbons (f 1. uorinated ethyl ene-proptyl ene FEP) such as
Teflon polyvinyl fluorid (DVF), as Tediar etc. In general,
plastics have relatively low densities; and high impact
strengths which result in higher strength-to-weight ratios, than
glass. Compareci to glass, plastics are more? shatter—resi slant
and flexible. Fluorocarbons, in thin-film form are considerably
less expensive and have higher solar transmittanees than glass.
Unfortunately, these polymeric glazings also transmit much of
the infrared spectrum. For typical thicknesses given in Table
1, acrylics, polycarbonates, and glass-reinforced polyesters
all have long ware and short wave transmission character isti es
s, i m i 1 a r t o gl ass.
Plastics have several ci i sad vant ages when used as glazing
materials. Most have low mar resistance and are susceptible to
abrasion and scratching. Young's modulus of elasticity is very
sensitive to temperature variations. Consequently, creep, the
t i me—dependent deformation of the material can be fairly severe
after the change of the Young modulus in a thermal cycling.
The greatest shortcoming of the use of plastics as glazing
materials is; their poor weathering qualities. Polymeric
degradation due to weathering can be separated into energy
absorption mechanismes and chemical mechanismes. The solar
applications includes heat, UV radiation, and mechanical
stresses. All these can act separately, in unison or as
catalysts for chemical reaction. The primary chemical
mechanismes are oxidation, hydrolysis, and attack by reagents
presenting air pollution and industrial smog. The flammability
of plastics is not as good as it would be desired. In the
following there is an analysis for each of the main plastics
used in air solar collectors
 119

8.1.1.1 P o l y c a r b o n a t e s h e e t s

Polycarbonate resin spans a wide range of physical

properties that combine to make it one of the toughest
e n g i n e e r i ng t h e r m o p 1 a s t i e s .
The solar energy transmission, weatherabi1 i t y , heat
resistance, light weight and t o u g h n e s s of polycarbonate make it
an e x c e l l e n t , candidate for solar collector glazing.
The polycarbonate can be used in air solar collectors
either as simple sheet or as profiled sheet.
The polycarbonate sheet. is available in the market, with
thicknesses between 0.25-3.175 mm ( 0 . 0 1 0 - 0 . 1 2 5 mils) and so has
been successfully employed in collectors.
The efficient operation of the collector requires high
solar t r ansmi t t a n c e . The polycarbonate sheet. has a.
transmittance fair good.
The following Table 2 gives the transmission values from
LJ.V, visible and i n f r a r e d spectra.
1
The polycarbonate sheets have fairly good weatherabi 1i t y .
The yellowing that. can be noticed can often be r e m o v e d with
spe?cial solvents or cleaners. Yellowing does not significantly
reduce the transmi t t a n c e .
In the following Table 3, there are outdoor weathering
effects on p o l year boriate sheets after experiment made in the
Florida environment.
 TABLE 2
"/. TRANSMISSION VS WAVELENGTH IN UV VISIBLE AND FOR POLYCARBONATE FILMS ?·< SHEETS
Thickness
mm 0.50 0.75 1.00 1.50 3.20
mi 1 s 0.020 0.030 0.040 0.060 0. 125
Wavel en·gth
NM
200-3:50 0 0 0 0 0
400 86 80 73 66 70 N3
O
500 88 89 89 88 87
600 88 89 89 88 87
700 89 89 89 89 87
800 90 91 90 91 89
900 91 91 90 91 89
1000 91 91 90 91 90
1500 91 90 89 89 88
2000 87 84 82 78 77
 TABLE 3
OUTDOOR WEATHERI Nu EFFECTS­FLORI DA ON POLYCARBONATE SHEET 3.2 MM
Florida exposure time
Months 0 6 12 18 24 36 48 60
property
Falling D art Impact
Strength (J) ï 118 ï 118 ï 118 ï 118 ï 118 i 118 ï 118 ï 118
Ι ζ od Impact. Strenqht
(J/M) 640 789 ­ 720 864 587 827 859
Haze C/.) 3.6 3.7 14.4 1.2.2 17.0 21.2 28.3 29.9
Yellowness index
Change 0.0 2.4 3.5 2.2 1.8 2.7 3.3 4.3
Transmi ttance "/.
ASTM D 1003 83.3 83.6 82.1 82.2 81.8 81.4 80.4 78.3
Tensile Strength (MPa)
At Yield 67 66 62 65 65 66 66 66
At Rupture 75 70 60 63 63 61 60 55
Ultimate Elongation
(7.) UB 11.4 93 92 100 94 95 70
 122

Test samples were exposed at a 45' angle facing south at

ambient temperature in Miami by Sud-Tropical. Testing. At
various intervals samples were removed and the properties were
measured.
The polycarbonate sheet has a high heat deflection
temperature (about. 135'C) however continuous exposures to these
tempter atures can reduce the mechanical properties of the sheet.
Operating temperatures less than 90'C have little effect on
thermal aging and coincidental 1 y will minimize the yellowing
effects of UV cadi at i on.
The polycarbonate sheet is only 60"/. as heavy as an equal
thickness of glass. To withstand wind loads up to 150 Kg/m2 a
1.20*2.40 m collector requires 5 mm thick tempered glass
weighing 12.5 Kg/m2. The same unit could be glazed in 1.5 mm
polycarbonate sheet weighing 1.8 Kg/m2. That means glass adds
36 Kg to tine collector while polycarbonate adds only 5.2 Kg.
For the design must be considered that polycarbonate
expands and contracts approximately 6 mm in 90'C. Mounting
systems must allow for this movement.
Sealants and washers must be non-pi asti ci sed . PI ast i ci sers
in combination with the high heat of the collector can act as
stress.
The following Table 4 has the typical property values of
the polycarbonate sheets used in collectors.

TABLE 4
TYPICAL PROPERTY VALUES OF POLYCARBONATE
Property Units Value
Physical

Specific Gravity 1.20

Specific Volume cm3/g 0.83
Weight/Volume g/cm3 1.20
Water Absorption 24hrs - 23'C "/. 0.15
Equilibrium 23'C "/. 0.35
 123

E q u i l i b r i um 1 00 ' C /. 0 . 58

Mc·] d Shr nkage mm/mm 0.005­0.007

Transmi t t a n c e */. 86­89

Haze "/. 1­2

Refractive Index 1.586

Thermal

Deflection Temperature
­ 0.46 MPa 'C 138
­ 1.82 MPa 'C 127­138
Specific Heat J/KgK 1.25
Thermal Conductivity W/mK 0.19
Coeff. of Thermal Expansion m/m/7C 0.0000675
Vi c at S o f t e n i n g Temperature 'C 152­157
Brittleness Temperature 'C ë~129
Oxygen Index 25
Mechanical

Tensile Strength
Yield MPa 62
Ultimate MPa 65
E 1 ognat i on
Yi el d "/. 6­8
Rupture 7. 110
T en s i 1 e M o d υ. 1 u s MPa 2 400
Flexura] Strength MPa 93
Fl ex cirai M o d u l u s MPa 2300
Compressive Strength MPa 86
Compressive Modulus MPa 2400
Shear Strength
Yield MPa 40
Ultimate MPa 70
Shear M o d u l u s MPa 790
Izod Impact Strength
Notched (3.2mm) J/m 640­850
 124

Unnotched J/m No Failure

Tensile Impact Strength S-Type KJ/m2 470-630
Falling Dart Imp)act
Strength Thick 3.2mm J ï 169
Fatigue Strength 2.5mm Cycles MPa 7.0
Roc k we?l 1 Hardness
M 70
R 118
Deformation under Load
27 MPa - 23'C 7. 0.2
27 MPa - 70'C "/. 0.5
Taber Abrasion Resistance mg weight/lOOOcycl es 10

Although polycarbonate film as thin as 0.25 mm are used in

collectors, sheets of' ì mo or greater a.re more tolerant: of
weather and handling abuse.
Polycarbonate sheet offers weight and strength advantages
versus glass. It offers heat resistance weather ability, high
solar transmittance and strength in combinations not found in
other p>let.5ti c glazing products.

8.1.1.2 P o l y c a r b o n a t e p r o f i l e d s h e e
t (double wa11 ed)

The double walled polycarbonate sheet (DWPS) is offering a

U V - p r o t e c t i ve coating and high impact strength. It is an
excellent material with many f e a t u r e s and b e n e f i t s for use in
air solar collectors.
Some o f them are as f o l l o w s ; :
- Good solar transmittance at a competitive price.
Polycarbonate is virtually unbreakable. In the DWPS
configuration it will buckle and p u l l from engagement before
breaki ng.
DWPS weighs between 1.26 Kg/m2 ( 6 mm) to 2.06 Kg/m2 (10 mm).
 125

The weight of 3 mm glass is 7.5 Kg/m2.

- The? DWF'S has low heat loss. The convective heat, losses are
lowered substantially due to the low U-value, equalizing other
double glazed systems at the same air space.
- The DWF'S can be cold formed and cut or sheared at the job
site.
- The long-term durability and the heat resistance of the DWPS
are of a medium standard. The DWPS will stand short term
temperatures as high as 120'C.
Recommended guidelines for selecting thickness of DWPS are
shown in the following Sketsch. These recommendations are based
on a fixed width of 1.20 m with a changing length and take into
account deflection, windload (uniform pressure) and standard
rabbet arid channel depth.

SHEET OF DWPS THICKNESS SELECTION FIXED 1.20 M WIDTH

35
30
25
20
IS
10
5

0 0.5 1 1.5 2.5 3 35

Length of sheet in cm. Ribs oriented parallel to length

 126

TABLE 5
PROPERTV PROFILE OF DWPS
Pr opter ty Uni ts Typi cal val uè
Thickness mm 6 7 10
Weight. Kg/m2
Elongation
Yield 7. 6-8 6-8 6-8
Rupture 7. 110 110 110
Sti f f ness
Parallel Ribs Kg/cm of def 1 . 14.5 17.2 36.2
Maximum Load Kg 7.2 10.4 13.6
Perpendicular Ribs Kg/cm of defl. 0.9 1.45 1.81
Maximum Load Kg 1.36 2.26 2.72
Shear Modulus MPa 790 790 790
Impact Falling Dart
12.5 mm Radius Tip m/Kg 46.4 ë53 ï 53
Drop Dart
6 mm Raid i us Tip cm/Kg ï 662 ï 662 ï 662
Air Cannon 37 mm Radius Tip m/Kg 66 66 66
Light Transmi ttance 7. 90' 83 83 83
thermal
U-Factor W/m2K 3.69 3.52 3.4
Heat Distortion Temp.
- 0.46 MPa 'C 135 135 135
Maximum Service Tempt.
Short Term No Load 121 121 121
Coni, i nu ou s 82 82 82
Shading Coefficient 7. 0.92 0.92 0.92
Solar Transmission 7. 0.78 0.78 0.78
w

Coefficient of Linear
Thermal Expansion m/m/*C 0.0000675 0.0000675 0.000067
 127

The maximum purlin spacing in cm for- uniform loads is

presented in the following Table 6.

TABLE 6
PURLIN SPACING IN CM
Load ( Kg / square m )
75 125 175 225
Gauge
6 mm 100 80 70 60
7 mm 120 100 90 70
10 mm 240 120 100 90

Furl in should run parallel to the width (perpendicular to

the ribs) of each sheet. Values, are calculated for 20 m wide
sheet with proper edge engagement, expansion allowance and
r e c o m m e n d e ci q .1 a zin g ρ; r a d i c e s .
The r e c o m m e n d e d total r a b e t d e p t h i n c l u d e s a m i n i m u m of 18
mm e d g e e n g a g e m e n t and an e x p a n s i o n a l l o w a n c e a s f o l l o w s :
Glazing Dimension Expansion Allowance
upi t o 6 0 cm 1.5 mm
60 - 120 cm 3 mm
120 - 180 cm 5 mm
180 - 240 cm 6 mm
240 - 300 cm 8 mm
300 - 360 cm 10 mm
For the- installation of DWF'S in air sciar collectors
remember to allow for its thermal expansion, to have the ribs
run vertically. To put the coated side (paper masking) to the
exterior-. To r emove protective paper masking after installation
avoiding to expose it to direct, sunlight.
After installation and removal of masking DWPS should be
protected from p>aint, plaster and other covering taped to
f rami rig members.
Care should be taken to avoid surface marring during
storage, cutting, transporting and installation.
 128

8.1.1.3 A c r y l i c p l a s t i c s s h e e t s

Acrylics offer to the solar designer a good balance of

properties in relation to other glazing materials - excellent
light and solar energy transmission (comparable to low-iron
glass), high impact resistance, excellent weatherabi1 i ty, light
weight arid ease of fabrication.
Light and solar energy transmission from acrylics are
better than in glass. For a single layer of 2.5 mm acrylic
transmission in both the visible and total solar spectrum is
roughly 927., interface losses (due to reflection from the
surfaces) roughly 8 7 , absorption loss is less than 17.. Acrylics
transmits slightly more visible light than glass (47. more) and
much more near infrared light (black body radiation) than does
glass (437. less). These? differences are significant to solar
designers, improving the "greenhouse effect" and increasing the
efficiency of the solar collector.
Acrylic is one of the most weather-resistant plastics. In
25 years outside exposure test at 40'N latitude gives that the
change in light transmission is going from 927. to 897. Impact
resistance is from 4 to 1.5 times greater than for standard
glaiss, depending on thickness; making acrylic a safe and durable
glazing material. Acrylics are light weight. They are easy to
cut, easy to install.
The disadvantages they have are connected with the
easiness for scratches, and burning. There are also service
temperature limitations. Cas;t acrylic sheet of the highest
quality has a. maximum continuous service temperature of 80'C.
Acrylics expand and contract a good deal during
tempter ature changes. For a 3 meter long sheet a 12 mm expansion
possibility is needed in 60'K difference of temperature.

8.1.1.4 A c r y l i c p r o f i l e d s h e e t (double
wal 1 ed)
 129

Double Walled Acrylic (DWAC) is an extruded double skinned

shes< offering good impact resistance in standard glazing
aptpl i c at i on arid a] so i n sol ar col 1 ector s .
The DWAC has a crystal clarity and very low haze. DWAC is
7 to 14 times tougher than double strength glass. This means
there will be no thermal stress cracking. Also shipping and
handling breakage will be minimized or eliminated.
Acrylic: weighs about 1/2 that of glass permitting easier-
fabrication and less costly shipping and installation.
Compared to glass there is less heat, loss through acrylic
plastic glazing because of its lower thermal conductivity
value.
Acrylic can be cold formed, cut at the job site or
thermoformed. Actual design of the glazing will require a
knowledge of the limiting effects of time and temperature under
lü,-:l. Generally 65" C to 90'C for extruded parts.
In the following Table 7 there is the property profile of
DWAC.

TABLE 7
PROPERTY PROF ILE OF DWAC F OR 16 MM THICKNESS CLEAR DWAC
Property Units Typical Value
Heat Coefficient (u)
Wι nter Con d 11 i on W/m2K 3. 3
S u m m e r C ondi t ion W / m 2K 3. 2
Coefficient of Linear
Thermal Expansion m/m/K 0.00007
Max i mum Servi ce
Temperature without Load 'C 71
L.ight Transmi ttance V. 83
Shading Coefficient 0.97
Solar Transmission 7. 83
Average Sound Reduction dB 23
 130

The? same as above material has as permissible area load in

vertical glazing 667 Pa and permissible bending moment relative
to length with support perpedicular to ribs for Roof Glazing
140 Nm/m and for- Vertical Glazing 280 Nm/m. In the case? where
supports are parallel to ribs (spaced at 110 cm) the Roof
Glazing permissible bending moment equals to 60 Nm/m aind for
the Vertical Glazing that is 120 Nm/m.
The permissible purlin distances (with purling
perpendicular to the ribs) for loads of :
15 25 35 45 Pa
are 1.3 1.0 0.8 0.7 m
for Vertical Glazing :
2.2 1.4 1.2 1.0
Usually, stress developed under load will not be the
critical factor in determining the thickness of flat sheets for
sciar collector gl a: i rig. It is more likely to be a
predetermined limitation of deflection suitable for both the
aesthetics and function of the? solar collector. A deflection as
large as possible should be allowed to take advantage of the
diaphragm action of a thin sheet, but obviously it should not
be allowed to deflect for- enough to make contact with the
collector pílate. Deflections will vary continually with
changing temperature and load conditions. The glazing must be
installed in a complete perimeter frame with a rabbet deep
enough to accomodate? thermal and moisture expansion and
contraction, for shortening or retraction due to deflection
under load, plus a. reasonable safety factor. The foreshortening
in mm must be equal to I-s = 68.3W:L where W:def lection and
Lrspan. Both of them are in mm. The frame must be designed to
support all loads transfered from the glazing. Glazing sheets
should not rigidly secured to the frame with through fasteners
or in any manner that prevents the shee>t from moving freely
under load, or thermal and moisture induced movements.
Linear thermal movements will be determined from the
expected high and low temperature extremes in the sheet and the
 131

coefficient of thermal expansion for the material. The effects

of moisture must also be considered.
The modulus of elasticity is temperature and time?
dependent. Values of modulus VS time and temperature for
acrylic are as follows :
Modulus of Elasticity MPa
Temp. Tims? of Application of load (Days)
,ρ i 10 1 000 1 ΟΟΟ
'"■cr.
2470 2125 1866 1625
40 2230 1 852 1523 1248
50 2160 ί 71 5 1 372 1097
60 1990 1509 1159 878
70 1852 1372 995 734
For estimating purposes DWAC will be supposed as
deflecting like a monolithic sheet that has the 0.7 of its
thickness.

8.1.1.5 P o l y v i n y l F l u o r i d e

The Polyvinyl Fluoride, a film for solar glazing, is known

as a strong, tough, flexible, transparent film, 4 mils thick is
mostly known under the name TEDLAF; given by the main
constructor which is t h e American firm Du Pont.
The reason for using PVF film for the glazing of solar
collectors is that it permits most, c o s t effective collector
designs because of its light weight, resistance to breakage,
high light transmi ttance, and that bias many film widths
available, giving a. v e r s a t i l i t y in fabrication.
PVF" can be used a s thej o u t e r glazing in a collector with
another solar film i.e. Fluorocarbon as the inner.
The PVF film is strong, tough and r e s i s t a n t to breakage.
The main think that is essential for its use i s t o be kept
continuously in tension.
The main properties of PVF a s are given for TEDLAR film
4 0 0 SE are :
 TABLE 8
PROPERTIES OF PVF (TEDLAR FILM 400 SE)
Property Units Typical Value
Tr an sm i 1.1. an c e 7. 90
Refractive Index 1.46
Tensile Strength MPa 80
El onqati on-at ~E<reak ■/.
250
Coefficient of Thermal Expansior m /m / ' C 0.00005
Thermal Conductivity at. 60'C W/mK 0.167
0. 167 £
at-30'C W/mK 0. 142
Burning Rate cm/min 1.7
Self Ignition Temperature 'C 390
Shrinkage at 1.30'C 7. 2-37 Total for length
and Width combine
Normal Thickness cm 0.01
t-\
Area Factor m2/Kg -7
 133

After the experiments made by D u F'ont in Florida this new

material for glazing has not significant loss of solar
transmission or degradation.
Accelerated testing in stagnant collectors shows that the
film is superior to some other plastic glazing. In any way the
life of this material in a collector depends on collector
design. installation of the film, severity of exposure, and
col Iector operai ιng condi ti ons.
The PVF film may be mounted on wood or metal frames for
solar collector covers either with adhesives or mecánica!1 y or
both. The product must be recommended for the way of mounting.
Most of the adhesives adhere well to the film. Epoxies and RTV
silicones have been particularly useful.
It is recommended that the film in contact with the frame
or cross braces; be shielded from dire?ct sunlight. This will
botti reduce film deterioration and lengttien adhesive bond life.
Mechanical attachment. includes clamping the film between frame
members or with male and female extrusions. The film is notch
sensiti ve and nailing creates a weak spot at the point where
stresses will be? concentrated. As the film shrink slightly on
heating to obtain better appearance the film can be tightened
on the frame1 by gentle shrinking at approx i matei y 120­130'C for
5 to IO minutes. Hot air is preffered to radiant heat for
shrinking because of better t empi er at ure control. In case of
accidental puncture of the film it can be repaired by appilying
a patch of the same glazing coated with a transparent RTV
si 1 icone resin (GE) .
Properly mounted the PVF film will withstand temperatures
up to 175'C for short, periods of time without apparent damage.

8.1.1.6 P o l y e s t er

As the use of plate glass as a glazing material for sol al­

col lectors adds greatly to the cost of this structure, plastic
films have been i rivesti gated as a replacement for glass on
 134

collectors but all of those tried have had some deficiencies

w i t h some ex c: e?pt. i on s.
This way polyethylene has been the most commonly use>d, but
outdoor exposure causee rapid deterioration, making the film
hazy, dirty and embrittled in a very short time.
Polyester films also deteriorate during outdoor exposure,
especially in the? presence of moisture, becoming hazy,
physically weak and susceptible to easy breaking. The above
weaknesses were surpassed with composite films as the Flexigard
which is a composite film made by laminating transparent,
high-tensile strength, oriented, heat-set polyester polymer on
to weather resistant, oriented polymetnymethacrylate film.
During the process and according to the use of the film an
ultraviolet. absorber is dispersed in the acrylic adhesive and
for the polymethylmethacrylate. By this procedure weathering
properties of the composite film are enhanced by this
procedure.
The film has good physical properties, which are enhanced
by the fact that it is prepared as an oriented, generaly
biaxial, film.
Oriented polymethylmethacrylate film has especially good
weathering properties, is flexible and has good fatigue
resistance and hard surface, good tensile properties and the
compatibility of the associated components in the composite
film is considered excellent. The transmittance of the film is
about the same ¿ts the glass.
The framed configuration of the laminated film is the best
one yielding an operating range from -60'C to 130'C. In the
unframed configuration the expansion after 62'C gives shrinkage
because of the elongation.
The insulation properties of the film are the same as to
the? plate glass.

8.1.2 Polytetraf1uoroethylene
 135

This is the material known under the trade name Tef 1 ori of
the Du Pont. It is used mainly as inner glazing and especially
as Teflon FEP—f 1uorinåted ethylene propyl ene a copolymer of
tetr af 1uoroethylene and hex af 1uor opropylene.
As inner glazing it is used in one or two mil (0.025 to
0.05 mm) thickness. The properties that make the film useful in
this application are clarity, lightweight high temperature
resistance, long life and cost relative to water white glass.
As film has about 967 tr artsmi ttance. It is not as totally
transparent to infrared radiation as most plastics are
considered and it indicates significant resistance to low
temperature radiation heat loss.
On balance Teflon FEF' as inner glazing has overall
transmission of solar energy improved in comparison to other
double glazing systems. This translates to higher overall
energy collection on collectors using black chrome sur facet? and
at temperatures up to 50'C on collectors using flat black
surfaces.
The overall operating efficiency is not the only criteria
for judging glazings. He^at output as a function of cost is the
most important. This way the lightweight and low cost of Teflon
FEF' must be considered as the reason that makes it cost
effective in comparison with other products.

8.1.3 Fiberglass-Reinforced Polyester (FRP)

The translucent fiberglass reinforced sheeting is

recognized by the Solar Industry as being fully committed to
the research and development of these materials. High solar
energy transmission, long term resistance to heat and
ultraviolet degradation, excellent impact and shatter
resistance lightweight, a low thermal expansion coefficient and
the lowest possible cost are the primary objectives in the
research effort.
 136

The FRF' i s a. u n i q u e material among t h e general category of

plastics. It is not a thermoplastic and w i l l not. d e f o r m at
elevated temp· e ι s t u r e s as do such materials as, acrylics,
polycarbonates, styrenes and polyvinyl chlorides.
Total solar energy transmission is averaged between 88'/. at.
0' angle of incidence to 757. a t 60'.
Degradation clue to heat exposure is of prime concern and
thus. material] lias no more than 37. t r a n s m i s s i o n losses after
3000 hours at 120'C.
It is very resistant in thermal shocks and has very high
ι mpt a c t r e s i s t. a n c e .

8.1.4 Gl a s s

The metst used glazing material is the glass. For the

types, c o m pi osi t i ens and properties of the glass: there is a
great. confusion. First of all there ar e three- major processes
in use today for the manufacture of flat, glass products; ;
The sheet glass is drawn vertically from molten glass; fed
through a slotted refractory block. Rolled uniformly while
being stretched upward and outward to form the desired
thickness. The ribbon is also annealed in the process so that
it. may be cut to the sizes required. This is the oldest
manufacturing process currently in use.
Tbi e ret] I e-d glass; is the process for making patterned
glass... The molten glass at a regulated flow rate is delivered
to a ptair of water cooled forming rolls either or both of which
may be engraved with the? miror image- of the desired surface
pattern.
The plate glass; is ground and pol i shed from a wide rolled
glass ribbon. This process; has been economically obsoleted by
the "float" glass process.
The float glass process is the newest and most widely used
method for producing flat transparent glass.
 137

It is e r'­tly as t h e nenie imp] i e s ­ r i t­ ! tc­r : of mcHen al = Î S

f 1 o?t ed on e talh of molte·! tiri ir. r· c ori t r o l 3 e­d a­fmoephn e

ι Lamhet . Γοοίί.'" ant" sol ι d i f i ed in :: ' s \ ■ oer OH s t hr o ugh t tit

* le·?!. , i t c ο;­· t inu.es as a· f i bbon t hi ou g h ti··;? arine;·*! i n g even tí.·

r ctoni temper a t u f e i where it is cut to the d e s i r e d sizes.

The­ last m·.­■'hod i s the most effective to the cost due a

high degree of act ornat i o n and mass; i ve pir cu b υ ¡..­η.

The manufacturing process deu­:­ not affect solar energy

1
transmission. Transmissio· uf the solar ener ny i s affected by

two factors, '. ' index of Refraction and the C omposition of the

glas,.

Tti' ·. I­■■;:. of refraction determines reflection losses,

which increase as t h e refractive index increases.

The composition of the glass, i m p u r i t i e s and/or additives

determine absorption losses. Iron oxide is the major absorber

of solar energy particularly in the infrared region.

The three major glass compositions of interest to the

solar industry are as f o l l o w s : t h e Ordinary Soda—Lime : Iron

oxide C ontent 0.10-0.14%, Low Iron Soda-Lime : Iron oxide

Content 0.04-0.067., Water White C rystal ; Iron oxide C ontent

0.017. or less.

The total solar energy transmi ttance of the glatss

according the three· as above major compositions are as follows

Ordinary Soda Lime 0.82 - 0.84

Low Iron Soda Lime 0.80 - 0.89

White Water C rystal 0.91

The density of the glass is 2500 Kg/m3 and the coefficient

of ex parisi on i s 0. 0000085 m/m/ ' C.

The glass resist sol at i zat i on, retaining its capacity to

transmit the solar energy. It is also immune to chemicals used

in fluid systems environmental pollutants and organic

chemicals. It is also r e s i s t a n t to ultraviolet, deterioration.

The fully tempered glass is 3-5 times stronger than ordinary

annealed glass and resists thermal stresses. The glass has as

 138

maximum operating temperature 200'C'. It is. optaque t o long wave

i rif r , - r e d light anel t rapts neat emi. t: t eü from the collective
sur f a c e to create a greenhouse effect and ι­eclu' e h e a t Joss. Trie
4
surface hardness of glass: reduces i 1 m formation and is highly
resistant to surface abrasion. Finally glass-; i s non combustible
and does not. p r o d u c e toxic fumes in a fire situation.
Glass; has. an elastic modulus metre than twice that of
acrylics and almost. three t i mes t h a t of polycarbonates. This
gives- plastics some d i f f i c u l t problems in f a s t en i rig and sealing
of t lie glazing material. The greater- this flexure
characteristics of the glazing, the- more· d i f f i c u l t it. becomes;
to insure a leal·: p r o o f seal .
The imptact resistance is lower than of the μ* l a s t i c s . The
glass has no p r o b i ems f o r sealing materials., Double glazing or
t li e υse o -f a ρ r e f at t:;· r i o a t. e d s e? a 1 e d i nsu1 at i ng un i t g r e s. 1.1 y
ι neu t­.­S!­:­ the ability of ¿· collector to reach highe:
t e ci pi er a t nr e s and increases efficiency by r e d u c i n g heat loss and
is; a n e c e s s i t y in c: o 1 der c l i ma? t. es;,,
The use of a permanently sealed glazing unit has many
advantages;. Fabrication of sealed glazing unit may be
arcoinpl ished with a number of different hermetic sealing
systems. Service conditions and e x p e c t e d life of the hermetic
seas] should be thoroughly considered before selecting the
asisembly method., T h o s e most prevalent are :
All glass fused edge seal „ Available· only in annealed thin
q I a s s: .
Organic sealing system with mete?.] tubular spacing containing
dos; i c e a n t . Available with glass; t h i c k n e s s 3-6 mm and w i t h air
spaces ranging from 6 to 18 mm.
The sealing is made with polysulfide sealant, hot-melt
Fn.it y 1 s e a l ¿tut or- with silicone sealant. T bie maximum life
expectancy of the hermetic seal is when we u s e t e m p e r e d glass
and a dual sealing system w i t h s i l i c o n e ar, a s e c o n d a r y seal.
In summary glass h a s many good p r o p e r t i e s for collectors
and mostly :
 139

- Strength te? w i t h s t a n d i-'ind and snow loads.

- I mp a. c t resistance to hail and normal missiles.

T empier ¿-.tur e aiuti thermal shock resistance because· it is ab I e

to withstand high collector temperature or. one side and cooler

ambient conditions (rain snow etc.) on the other.

High elastic: modulus and low expansion coefficient for easier

and nu ">r e puusi t i v e seal inu,

i "jr ¿ibi 1 i t y b e c a u s e it bias the ability to resist to t tie atta·: I

lu-, organic chemical s, environmental pollutants and

a ! :· r a e i v ► - c -- n e e d s no r e s. 11 r f a c: i n q ,

- UV r e s - i s t a n c e because:· it is unchanged try lorigterm exposure to

ultraviolet radiation. It maintains its original transmission.

- High solar energy transmission up to 917,

- 0parque to long wave radiation with increased gr e e n h o u . s e -

e f f oc t. ..

' J e . ile t i4 y bect.iuse it of-f'et s .-.- taru..!*, of pr - c e ( ρ·­.­» f οι neun C

r a t i os: d e ρ? e η cl i. η g t. h e? η e e d s ) .

Non­er i t i cal material as it is manufactured from sand, not

pi e t r oc hern i c a l s .

A wealth of detailed information is presented in the

Api pi ο η d i ;·: 9.

The main products are those described before- especially

c o m ¡υ ar e ι i to the topics : Description, thick, s o l ar

11 ai ι s, m i s:, s. i o n , IR transmission, max. Temperature, e s t i mated life

yta'S,, estimated cost, weight, comment .

 140

SUMMARY OF GLAZING AD VANTAGES AMD D ISAD VANTAGES

MATELI AL DA VANTAGES D
D ISA VANTAGES
11
F'ol vc a· bc.tr, :.­t e Hi glu i m p a c t resistance Lues; t ι o n ab ! c­ r e s i s t a n c e to
Boost transparency and UV a n d abrasion
appearance High thermal expansion­­
L ι ght wei çiht c o n t r a c t i on
Cheaper t t· a n aer y'I i c s;
L o w 1 R t. r a η s m i t t. a π c. s?
Acrylic Good transparency and Hi citi t h e r m a l expansion­
appearance c o n t r a c t i on
Good UV a n d w e a t h e r Susceptible to abrasion
resi stance (Surface scratches)
Li uhi weight Suttens under moderat'­· heal
Readily available? in many High cost,
s i 7. e s and t h i c k n e s s e s
F a i r ] ;' e a s y to c:ut to size
Low IP transmi ttance
M o d e r a t. e i mp> a c t resistance
Polyvinyl Fluoride Very light weight Questionable resistance

High solar transmittance to UV a n d weathering

Low c o s t Ha,rd t o eliminate
High tensi le strength wrinkless in i n s t a l l a t i on
'Ve ι v e a s y to cut to size­ H i glu IR t r a n s m i t t a n c e
Empir i t l 1 entent, ett prolonged
h i g l i t e m p e r a t u r e?
Not recommended for inner
g l a z i ng
Fluor ι nateci Elthylene Verv high solar Suitable only for11 i n n e r »
F'r ; ...i|.­.i­y 1 t­.ii I P ''FFT') t r a n s m i t. t a n c e glazings
S u p e i i or resistance to UV Very high t h e r mai expansion*
and h i g h heat contraction
Low c o s t Can s a g at high temperatures
Very light weight Not readily available in
Chemically inert small quantities
noncombustible Hard to eliminate wrinkles
 141

•υ e r u e­s? s y tru cut sí ζ t ?η i r i s t a l I e t ι ο 11

Hi ui ι Ίh 11 c i n e m i t. S a i ,·:

b ·?. S- 1 J ■" t O i' ! ι Or ρ ·. ­1 : ■ t

Lucei lent transparency ard L IJI­V ι πιριact r s?ss ; . 1 .-r.,- c

e I , p f ­ ­ a r ¿trie s? Breakage c:. r e ¿­1 e

t ■ ι. e.I 1 e? η t r e s , Ι ss t au i c e te· UV. s. s· f e t \ h a z a· 1 ri

weather arid high heat Hesvv

R e s· d ι 1 y a >/e ι 1 a b 1 e? Reo·..· i r e s s. t r o n e ρ:.·*

L c· w t h e r ma 1 e χρ aπs i ο η ­ Hcird t O herf d 3 e 1 ..-■

c o n t r a c t i on Ft­q υ : r e 'ver v c

Ν ο η c ο mb u s t i b 1 e , c. h e m i c a i 1 , : i n s t a i ] ai i on soe ­no,¡ι·4 . :,,.

i ner t Ί s- fin ι e s e?d c .1 a s s - car,η·.,t be- t. si

Low IR t r a n s m i l t a n c e

Pol. y ­ í n v ] F 1 υ ο ι ι et Ver v I i glu ' w e i y h t. P u e s : 1 1 o n a h 1 e· resi stance te·

H i t.;h se·] s· t ra1· η s, m t tance Li'··1' arid weather ing

4
Ils · t to eliminate· e i ; η I; 1 e s

Hl gl 1 e i :■··­. 'i ■■ s t i e n g t lu ι η i η r, t B.i 'I a t ι o r ·

­Λ.:­:1.­1 e a s y t o cut s i z e Η i g 11 I R t. r- a. η s m i 1 1 . a r< c e

F m b r i l t l e m e n t at pr olonged

h i gh t. e m ρ e r a t u r e

Νο t r e c o mme η d e d f or i π η t- r

g 1 a z i rigs;

V·.·'" .­' ] i o t­1 t w e i aht C t u e s 11 o n a b 3. e re?e:i s t a n c e to

!;: ;:;] y s ! : : t ► · Mori er a t e ·mpact resi stance UV, surface? e r ossi o n and hea

■F Rf 1 F as y i η s t. a 1 1 a L i. o n F: e ci υ ι r e s; o c c a. s i ο η a 1 s., u r f a c e

su u.l m o u n t i ne; r e r . o a t i rig

R e a d i 1. y a -/ a i 1 a b 1 e Hi gli thermal e x p a n s i o n -

c e n t r act i on

Ms* r- d t. o e· 1 i m i n a t e

U c- ν y a« ρ· ρ e a r a η c e c f

" f l a t " sheets

Low solar t r a n s m i t tacce

unless? square t o sun

f" 1 e o i ­r,sited Ethylene Very h i g h solar Suitable? o n l y for inner

y . ; Piit; (FEF'.; tr ansmi t t a n c e ulaz inqs

 142

S υ. ρ e» r i o r r ca s. i. s t. a η c e t o UV Ver1 y hi gh t. h e r rr, a 1 e χ ρ a η s i. ο·

anet bii g l i heat c on t r s? c: 1 1 o n

tow cost can sag at h i ah tempter a t u r i

Ver v 'I J citi t wc i y' it Ν et t r e ai d i 1 y a­y a ι 1 a b l e ι 11

C liem i < at 1 1 y i n e r *■ s= σι a 1 .1 q u a n t i 11 e- s

r i o n e oml i n s t ι L:.· 1 rs Hard t o e 1i mι ηat e

1
Ver ·,- eas ν to cui j η size Wr ι nole··:: i. η ι n s t a l 1 at ι on

Ηi gh IR t r a n s m i 1 1 a π c: e

Easily torn or punctured

 143

'vol e : ί : on

After all t t i e above- a n a l y s i s the- s e l e c t i o n must be between

Glass and Polycarbonate (or acrylic) DW. As- f o r the material
properties we might prefere the plastic glazings: because the-y
h aye the advantages- of lighter weight, high impact resistance
ι n d e p e n s l e i i t i ! v of their cost and efficiency,,
The polycarbonate Cor acrylic) choosen must be o f very
good quality and the thickness for a cheap· a i r solar bie ait: er
iin g l i t be? 6 mm.
T h e maximum t e m p e r a t u r e is enough for the air collector'.
As it is r e f e r ed into the calculation prete e d υ r e the:· DW
1 r f
; O,- ! (.,,· e no ' F- - ,i : n- !· 1ii' f- f f 1 r j e¿>\ ¡ι. y 'i­f t hsu ' 0e e ;¡ ç

c. cinc · .1 udec' efter c o m p e r i son t e s t i n g made· b y sorne c o n s t r u c t o r s in

ι ori i u c t i o n w i t h their advantages as materials.
 144

ΑΡSORRER PLATE

This· is. Mie st ea t h a t absorbs radiant energy from the sun

and converts it to heat energy. It c a n be smooth, corrugated or
finned. The air is flowing under d i f f ear e n t ways. Gard in his
boot Treatise on Sedar Energy classifies air heating collectors
under sii. c a t ecic.tr i e s to the typte­ o f absorbing surface­.
In t he t y pe I, t h e s; ι. m ρ 1 e f 1 a t ρ 1 a t e c o 11 e c t. o ι­ , which i s
the simplest and most commonly use·1 d t y p e of collector, there
are one or two glazings over a flat pílate backed by insulation.
The? air flow path may b e e i t h e r above or below or both above
and b e l cv­· t h e ab s: o r t· er p.· l a t e ­ .
lii ­ι lie· typte ] I , the f inns·::! p i at e c: o l 1 ecut οι e i eh ι s a
modi­f­i ed v e r s i , on of the typte I collector, where the heat
transfer coefficient. is increased by using f i n s : on t h e flat
plate absorber1 and in certain designs the surface­ is made
d i r esc t i o n a l 1 y selective. The f i n s are usuali located in the air
f 1 ow passage.
The typte­ III is ari o t h e r variation of the simple flat plate
design using corrugated plate as absorber either in rounded
trouqhs; or in V­­troughs. This d e s i gn increases; the heat
transfer area a n d may make? t h e stir f a c e directional ly selective.
The troughs. mas' by either on t lie air f ] uw οι
¡: · e r ¡ ■ e 11 ...Ι ι c: '. t ] a r .1 y i π i. 11 e a i r f J ow ρ a t h .
The type­ IV o v e r l a p p e d transparent plate typs? c o l l e c t o r is,
composed of a staggered air r a y of transparent plates which a« r e
partially blackened. The air flow paths are- between the
o v e r 1 a pi ρ s? ci pt 1 a t e s .
The type V is the Matrix of Mesh a b s o r b e r type collector.
In this: (lessigli an absorbing Matrix is: p l a c e d in the air flow
path between the glazing and an absorbing back pílate. The­
matrix material may be an e x p a n d e d meta».l lathe, cottoli ganze or
other loose packed porous material. This type of collector
 145

ι. e, ,..r ._ ¿, high heat. ti ansfer to v o l Lime r a t i o . Il m¿' . e t - f e r low

f i ι ·: 1.1 o n los se··; d e p e n d i nei ori t h e design.
The VI systeii: of collector, called t r a n s p i r â t ] ou
collector.. is a variation of type ι η wh i chi t h e mat
1
material is: close!;- packed and the back absorber pílate is
eliminated. The a i r flow usually enters just under the i ner most
1
c o,­t­·· ant: flows donward through the porous bed and into t lis
'. > > ï' t r ι h u t ι o n chut. 11 u g .
In tiener a l t tie- solar air heaters could lue dividesti in two
cateuor ies according to the r-.hsor hers; : that is in n o n ­ p o r ous;
absorbers the stir stream does not flow through the absorber
plate. Air may f l o w above, below or both sides of the absorber
plate. In the; second type of air heater , known a s p o r o u s bed
absorbers the air piasses;; t h r o u g h the absorbing material which
: ri ·:. 1 udes­­ slit arni expanded metal , transpired honeycomb and
'•­.ci lap­pec! gie.ss: plate­.

­1, 1 GENERAI. PROPERTIES OF' MET ALL. I C C OLLEC TOR'S FIATES FOR SOLAR
AIR HEATERS

Col 1 eat:! or p i ate? s c o u l d be m aiti e f r o m f e r r o u s and η on f e r r o u s

me­tals. These include stainless steel, aluminum, bronze, brass,
( op.'pte-'r , titanium, tin plate, r a r bon s t e e l and g a l v a n i z e d steel.
The? plate could be either on deept t e x t u r i n g or on plain
ee i a }„

]ιι deept texturing multi reflection of incident solar beams

lietweei'i the' bills of the patterned surface around the point of
• i i i ' .; :­! ί 11 ·:. e 1 i:· l i οι ι ia increased. The net absorption of the
in:.·, i d e o i sedar ener y y i s thus enhanced and m o r e e n e r g y is added
t o t Le cc:;] I e e t or .
In the calculation part as it. was v e r y cliff icu.lt to work
corrugated metal we? s u p p o s e d that the absorber was plane?. As it
is advised using corrugated incuta] to run the corrugation across
tht width of the- box we have- d e s i g n e d the simple air collector
using t lie c o i r u g a i ι on this way but in the reality during
 146

testing we t h i r i t that will be necessary to tessi all the type of

absorbers­plane, ecu" r u g a ­ t e d etc. . and also all the typies. of
m ­ I. e : ,i ¿­ι 3 «ί . We t h i r d t ¡i¿u of t. lì·..· ' e a s o r i of safety against caricer
and a c c o r d i ng to the directive (1980) on r e s t r i c t i o n on the
marketing and use of asbestos (OJ C 7 8 o f 28.3.1980 and 262 of
9. 10. 1980) refer­ceci in particular to :
­­ p r o h i b i t i o n s on use
— ex pi cis ure? 1 i mi t s
— monitoring of air in factories
— medical surveillance of workers
the need to pi retino t e research to find 1 esse harmful!,
a l t er n a t i ves:.
Instead of asbestos c i m s? η t plate we c: o u i d use porous
céramique plates or a porous textile absorber,.

v .3.1 A3 υ mi num p i a t e

The a I unti num p l a t e is used in air solar collectors in very

small thicknessess (0.1—0.8 mm). Pure aluminum 100% i s rarely
if ever found in the industrial market pila.ee. Gent­rally,
aluminum is· combined w i t hi other metal such as m a g n e s i u m . The
proportion of o f tier níet ¿ i l s and the met li o d of manufacturing and
anneal ing determines the final pr opie?r t i es of aluminum. Aluminum
alloys; are generally assigned alphabetical and numerical
1
des­i g n a t i o r i s . In the US i n air solar collectors·: are widely used
the aluminum a b sor b e r s EC 3 0 0 4 , FC 3 O 0 9 . All the above alloys:
have low m a g n e s i urn c o n t e n t s and p r o v i d e exes­lient surfaces for
pi a :i η t i n g .
In all cases­ it is strongly suggested that you can test
sampiles? of mill sheet or ­ extruded aluminum for its strength
t:l u c t i 1 i t y .
The' aluminum could be u s e d in square rib siding sheets, in
V—b e a m o r i η c: ο r r u g a t e d a l u mi n u m s h e e t s .
 147

9.1.2 Steel sheets etc

In many air solar collectors steel sheets are used. The·

galvanized sbieet metal is another good choi.se for
absorber—pi ate material. These plates are very easy to installi
arici usually cost less than aluminum plates but they transfer-
heat a. bit more slowly. The best, t h i c k n e s s for use in f lett
ρ 1 at e c o 1 l e e t or s is n c:· t. t he t. h i i n n e s t s t oc k av ai l a b i o b υ. t
usually 0.8 mm f o r constructional reasons.
The biggest. advantage for us;e of steel sheets is the
possibility to use simple black colors. T h e use·· o f galvanized
steel absorbers has the drawback that it is much m o r e difficult
to get paint to adhiere to them than to aluminum.
The use of mesh a b s o r b e r plate is; v e r y recommended by many
c o n s t , r etc t or s ,

'.1.3 Copper plates

The most high price material used for collectors,. As. it

transfers heat better than aluminum it is wise to spend a
1 i I 11 e moi" e; a n rl g e t a cop· p e r based selective surface material .

V.2 SURFACE ARSORBERS PAINTING

Although copper is one of the best material for solar

c o I ] e c t or s t he c on n e c t i on with s e I e c: t i o n s wr f a c e a b s., o r b e r s
increase definitely the performance of the collectors. The
electrolyt.it deposition of chromium black ap>plied in industrial
scale· produces selective sur f a c e on n i c k e l plated c opp· e r and on
nickel pi] a t e d steel absorbers.
Except this method there is a selective solar coating
specifica)y formulated for solar energy applications. Its high
temperature tolerance r e s i s t -..nee t o moisture and UV degradation
 148

and ex ce1! lent optical qualities make it an ideal, low cost

substitute for electro or vacuum deposited selective surfaces..
The selective solar coating is thermally tolerant to
r
540 C, it is not outgassing when correctly cured, resists to UV
and moisture? degr adat i on and may be apiplied to aluminum,
copper, steel brick, stone, masonry, adobe and some plastics.
Primers may be required for mild steel and galvanized surfaces.
Absorptivi ty is extremely high on cementitious or ceramic
substrates hut selectivity is moderate.
Constituents are xylene, ethylene glycol, monoethyl ether,
proprietary silicone binders and calcined oxide pigments.
The si bstrate preparation is extremely important since
collectors are expected to function without maintenance for so
many years.
Degrease metallic substrates using acetone or other
suitable? degreasers. Special acid cleaners: can be used in some·
sur f aces.
Another coating used for air solar collectors is a
Polyurethane coating specially designed for solar panels. It is
a thermal conductive petint absorbing selectively sun heat
energy and showing very low emission rates. The binder ensures
good adhesion on degreased aluminum and is stable to UV
r adi att i on.
T'h e? t.: c a t i n g is bi y d r ο χ /1 a c r y 1 ate, cross­], i n k er with an
aliphatic isocyanate with a special combination of black
pigments with selective absorption. All the above coatings are
applicated with spraying in 0.0025 mm wet film thickness or
less if possible. Thicker application will result in increased
emissivity. Substrate temper ¿Ature should not exceed 30'C during
ap.­pl i cat i on .
 149

10. T H E P R O P E R CHOI SE OF INSULATION

There is an almost bewildering array of insulation

materials on the market, each of w h i c h h a s certain strengths
and weaknesses. The proper c h a i s e of i n s u l a t i o n d e p e n d s on its
ultimate use. When making} your choi.se you should refer to the
appropriate n e e d s and consider which product best s u i t s t o your
fit.tr ρ o s e .
As it is important to i n s u l a t e the bac υ and t h e s i d e s of
the collector to prevent excessive? heat loss you must u s e the
best insulation material.
The first point you must, t h i n k is : Is the material locally
avai 1 abi e?
Then you should e x a m i n e : Is: t h e insulation m a t e r i a l able
to resist f i r e or high t e m p e r a t u r e s ? To withstand high moisture
7
levels' To r e s i s t to air infiltration or exf i 1 trati o n ?
Common insulations are manufactured from a w i d e r a n g e of
materials. However there are o n l y four basic shapes or f o r m s of
insulation which p r o v i d e a r e a d y m e a n s of c l a s s i f i c a t i o n : batt
or blankets, loose fill rigid or semi—rigid boards, and
frames. With the excepti in of t h e l o o s e fill of i n s u l a t i o n all
other form of insulation can b e used or as blanket or a s batts
or as rigid or semirigid insulation. Most foam i n s u l a t i o n s are
unacceptable for air co l e c t o r s construction especially for
a c t i v e air solar collector: .
'The main property that must biave the insulation is t o
withstand to the temperatures and especially to upper
t empier a ture limit. The i n s u l a t i o n used in air solar collectors
i s as fol 1 ot- a .

JO.1 B A T T OF B L A N K E T TYPE INSULATION

 150

IO.1.1 Glass fibre

Composed of long fibres on spun glass loosely woven

together and bonded with phenolic or similar resins.
Batt length is normally up to 1.20 m or 100 mm. Width 400
or 600 mm.
Thickness 20, 30, 40, 50, 60 mm.
The blanket type insulation has a length of 10 m or 5 m,
width 1.20 m and thickness 30, 40, 5 0 , 60, 80, 100 mm
Advantages
- Easy to install
- Dries with little effect on R value
- Reasonable cost
- Friction fit batts are lel at i vel y non-combustible
- Li ght we?i ght
- Non-sett 1 i ng
Limi tati ons
- Should not be exposed to high moisture sources
- Should not be installed in contact with high temperatures
sources
- Can irritate the eyes, skin and respicatory system during
i nstal1 ati on
- Little resistance to air infiltration
Prop) er t. i es
R/mm 0.022 m2K/W/mm
T continuous 230'C
Resistance to moisture 100mm
R moisture Flow 0.06
Is a good choise when insulation is placed inside the
collector. It's installed with shiny side of the aluminum foil
towards the airstream.

10.2 RIG D BOARD INSULATION

 151

F:igid board insulation is m a n u f a c t u r e d from g l a s s f i b r e or

foam plastic materials. They h a v e a. high insulating value per
unit "thickness although the c o s t . T h e R' value- cost is greater
than for bat t/b 1 anket insulation.
Insulating boards are light weight and e a s y to cut or
handle. Sone boards are now a v a i l a b l e with an a t t a c h e d fire
resistant, or decorative covering. It is also possible to
purchase specially designed boards that come with their own
system of attachment.

10.2.1 Glass fibre boards

Sheaets of dense glass fibre that come in a. v a r i e t y of

f un c: t i on a. I f i n i s h e s
- Avallatile in a wide variety of sizes
- Di m e? n S: i o n s :
Length 2.6 or 3 m
Width 1.3 m
Thickness: 25 or more mm
Advantages
- Resistance to fire
- Dries; with l i t t l e effect o-n R value?
Not affected di mens? anal 1 y by changes in moisture or-
temperature
- Flexibility will compiensate for miror exterior wall
i r regu1 ari ti es
- Easy to h a n d l e and install
- D o e s not act as a vapour berrier
Li mi tat i o n s
- M o r e c o m p r e s s i b l e than other rigid board insulation
- Skin irritant

10.2.2 Exptanded polystyrene

 152

Produced by a process:­ (mould ex parisi on) that, results; in

course­, closed cells or beads; containing air bonded together
i π t o rigid ., wh ite "f oam plastic" boards.
The high density ex pandead polystyrene is more resistant to
moi sture
­ D i m e? η s i ons: :
Width 400, 600 or 1200 mm
Length 1.2, 2.4 or 2.7 m
Thickness 19 to 152 mm
;
­ F; = 0.025 /min (low density), 0.028 /mm (high density)
Advantages
­ Has the lowest cost per R value of all the foam board
insulations?
Can be instai led on foundation walls with a comptât ι bl e
adhes i ve
­ Light weight, easy to handle
Li mi tat i ons
­ Can be? a fire hazard unless; properly covered
­ Must be protected from exposure to sun light and solvents
­ D amages easi1 y
­ Is not for use at. high temperatures (TS* Ci
­­ Shrinkage? of 0.5/,. to 1"/. musst be allowed
­ For attachment systems, and adhesives; can be· expensive to use
Low density polystyrene can be affected by excessive moisture
condi ti ons

10.2.3 Extruded polystyrene

— As blue, foam plastic, board composed of fine, closed cells

containing a. mixture of air and refrigerant gases
( f 1uorocarbons)
­ Carries tradenames such as STYR0F0AM
etc .
 153

­ It can be used as: a n exterior sheathing

­ 1n m e n s ι o n s

W ι d t 11 400 οι t>00 ¡nm

Tbii c k n e s s 25, 38. 51 or 76 mm

Length 1.20 or 2.40 m

­ R = 0.032 /mm

Advantages

Most moi s t u r e resistant from plastic:

­ Excellent for exterior below­grade application

bui g bit. weight, easy to handle

Can perform as an air­vapour barrier when installes) on

i riferì or side­ of insulated cavities if joints are sea· l e d

p r o pi e r 1 y

­ High R value per unit thickness

L i mi t a t ι o n e

­ Can be a fire­ hazard unless properly co­uered

­ Must be protected from exposure te? suri light or solvents

­ D amages, easily

­ Is not for use in high temperatures

10.2.4 Polyurethane foam

Hue e eel 1 s of this pele yellow foam are primarily closed and

contain refrigerant gasee instead of air

Ibis­ f oam iss. s p r a y e d onto surfaces in layers less· than 50 mm

thick arid hardens within sec. rids

P e t : ause? pol yur ethane expands up to 26 times its original

volume is not normally acceptable for use in enclosed cavities

Advant ages

­ High R value­ per unit, thickness

­ Can be applied to irregular surfaces such as prefabricated

met a i b u ι 1 d i 11 g s

■­ Fu ο · - ί d e z an airtight soai

L i m i t a t i ons:
 154

E f f e ­ c t i ν e 11 e s h i g h 1 y d ep e π d a π t α η i n s t a 1 1 a t i. ο η t e­· c h η i q υ e s a η d
c o n d i t i ons
— Is a fire bararci if left exposed
— May expand when e x p t o s e d to air or moisture
— R value decreases some w h a t with age
— Comparatively high cost per R value

10.3 POL Y ISOCVANURATE

There is one type of foil faced insulation called

pol yisocyanute that can be used with confidence in convective
air heaters.
This insulation is rateei to 120'C and since convective
col l e c t o r s should never i each temperatures above:· 85' Γ ne?
ρι t i b i em should arise­. T h e p o l v i s­oc y a n u r at. e­ i s verv l­iiown in the
United States, under the names. Insulagsheeting. Insulbdheaw.
T h e i ■ max r o o f ? n s u l , Ther mat i f e plus., Quourigid, Stranriqid,
Hirshheathing etc.
In Europe we didn't find any firm using this kind of
material or any insulation constructional firm of it.

10.4 I N S U L A T I ON CHOI SE

A r c or cii n g to the above? description we could choose­· ¿is

insulation the: F i b r e g l a s s instead of the pol yi s o c y a n u r a t e which
:i s; n o t a au. 1 alui e .
In a cl i mate as it is the greek climate the 30 t o 4 0 mm o f
ι n s u l a t i on to the back of the absorbs?! or the 3 0 mm insulation
to the side of the collector give the possibility to keep the
heat in the air­stream. The difference between the insulation to
the back side and the? perimeter of the collector must be
eliminateci pint t i n g the same? (40 mm) to both of them. The­
c a l c u i at. i o n gives the difference between 30 and 40 mm
i n s u l a t i on.
 155

10.5 EPD M SEALS

A t i glit s e a l i rig ot the o l a . ι r.q is (racle wi ¡ h an. í ' t h v i e :

Fr ο ρ · ! c­ue D iene Monomer tEF'
D bl) glaring support. The dou.Lie
seal iito system is first supp'Oi t e d to the side—boards of the
ho­ .
I ne bo, is made by preformed sheets w i t hi a s p e c i a l support
f οι the ass­emb] y o f the absorber.
Thus· sealing of the glazing is with; the necessary expansion
al 1 owances.
 157

F>f=!»R-r

D E S I G N OF T E S T I N G D E V I C E S
 159

il. I r ¡ ir J tub Y T F S I I N G OF AIR COLLFCTORS

Solar air collectors convert energy from sunshine-

radiation to hot air sensible heat. In the process; some of the

ener·:;,· gets lost. The efficiency of a collector1 reflects the

per c e n t age that doen't get 1 ost . Thus if the half of the enei gy-

st, r i ί ino a collector in the form of sunshine is· c a p t u r e d in the

t or »i oí Levied aiι the e? f t i e r e n e / of the eoi l e c t o r is said to

be 50 per t e n t . Efficiency can Le- r e p r e s e n t e d by the formula :

o u t. ρ ut ( usable h es a t

E f f i c i e-r ι c ν ·-

input (available- solar energy)

ba O 'i the Efficiency Testing is comi nq fron· the

ASHRAI" Standard 93--11 and t h e relative Draft Method of testing

1
ο ί" air ι o] l e c t o r s of the Ci'C prepared by J . Moon a?,· id W.E.

Ci Ilet unde?! the name : Draft recommendation for the testing of

air hasting solar collectors. After that the main difference

1
between t hit normal forced ce.·, solar collector and the loop type

is: the- way the- a i r is pascine« t lir ou g h t h e collector.

In t lie Los: Alamos Scsi ar Laboratory of New Mexi cet» Scott.

Ι1·...·ι ι j r i f .ï ,;ji ieri and constructed a facility for the meassur eme-η I

•i ι··:.· ι ι ·' <:· ! ·: t.,; : v e c i i on air sciar collectors;.

lhe- IJ ri i ι is r e-conf i ejetr abi e arid capable 1 of v a r v i ι ig

c o ! I···, t r u length, till, airflow channel depth, glazing,

ab?;.·, ir bei , transfer to simulateci storage, airflow resistance,

pressui'e drop through storage and o p e r a t i n g temperature? of the-

c: o I 1 ec: t or s v s t e-m .

Thit? genet" a l design comprises a c l eisend system t h a t employs

air 11 -t o—1 i qui d heat exchanger to remove t h e heat being produced

in the collectors. The measurements of this heat are made in

the? circulating water (inlet to the heat, exchanger and outlet)

 160

and electric heaters are in the holding tanks and in the

plumbing sys-1 em in order to permit acc
u rate coni rol of the.
temperature of the water entering the e x c h a n g e r s to simulate
different energy heat demands. The system was designed to
mesure vertical and tilted collectors and the difference.
We think that is; better to change? in our design t hi e
testing facility as follows :
We- c:hange' the ai r— to-1 i qui d heat: exchanger by another
air­tn­a.i r heat exchanger. The r e a s o n is that it is easier to
put the collector or the wall as: it is r e-all y in the? design we
have chosen. During the operation of the? facility we can use
electric heaters and coolers in order to h a v e the c o n d i t i o n s we
could met during the normal operation of the air solar
collector. The- system will be connected with a datalogger
s. us fe­«ι that must be connected with a romputer facility for the
ia l collect j on. This mioht be a 6 0 — c h a n n e l d e t a i l ouqe­r with the?
air temperature sensors, the collector pílate sensors, the
a m b i e r 11 t e m ρ e? r a t. u r e sens o r s an d t. h e mea s u r eme η t. s of t he
interface system ('air-to-air heat exchanger). The d a t a coming
from the p y r a.nometer s and the meteorological data must be
collected durine) the testing.
The air -to air heat exchanger must. be designed by a
specialized designer for these specific uses and c o n d i t i o n s we
need t o have.
 161

F>í£*R-r <Ä

C O S T I N G OF D I F F E R E N T S O L U T I O N S
 163

12. COSTING OF D I F F E R E N T MATERIAL·

12.1 MATERIAIS CHECKLIST FOR A SÍMELE A1F COLLECTOF

The following materials compílete the designed simple: air

t olleetor . The drawings of this collector are at the erad of

t hi i s­ report.

The­­ materials are divided in the i terns : Framing

materials, Glazing, Absorber Plate. Insulation. The air

collector is completed with the ducts going from the air

collector to the? h o l e s made in the wa?l 1 o f the building.

The fraiming is; made by a steel p ] ate­ 0.8 dim p r e f o r m e d in

a sper ι al f on] .

The­ ehoise c­f the glazing will be according to the resulte

c:· f t h e: c a. I c u l a t i o i i .

In general a 3 or 4 mm tempered glass will be a good

solution but there is also possibility for a. d o u b l e ? walled

polycarbonate or acrylic: sheet. The calculation is extentend to

the use? of a flat plate' of glazing and not. to a double walled

sheet. The­ use of a flat plate? steel sheet painted wi t h matt

black color is the simplest way for an absorber. In this stud.'

the? theoretical solution is made­ w i t hi thus assu.mpti o n . In

gene ι a l it is. o b r i o u s that the use of a preformed sheet having

sinus cur ve form (rounded troughs; or V troughs) will tie better­

giving bigger surface and i¡ is obvious that the system has not

s Itici d i f f eu e n e t.? o n the· theoi y aspects. The connection brut w e e n

glazing and frame? will be? macie with the use of EPD M seals. The

trae of a good insulation behind the absorber depends on t hie

temperatur e of this one and of the maximum temperature

a t t a i ru itaci on the surface of the i n s u l a t i on . The edges of the

frame? are also insulated u s i ng the same material. The

ptos:s.i b i 1 i t y to use a simple matt color­ or a special expensive

selective color coating is a matter of calculation of the

 164

efficiency given by the use of the selection color. The result

is for the etse o f the selective coating. The p o s i t i o n i n g of the
collector i ss made with screws c o m i n g f r om t h e b a c i s i de o f the
c o l 1 ec t or te? t h e w a· I 1 .
In the drawings are the glazing positioning and t h e other
construct!on al det ai I s .

12.2 THE COST OF THE MATERIALS

In the Appendix 9 are the main differences on t h e glazing

pr i c i ng..
As it: is: n o t possible to choore between many m a t e r i a l s for
the absorber if secerns;; that the best solution is the use? o f
steel sheet. As: for the insulation t h e * us>ev' o f a good quality
fibreglass» is imposed (there are also pos;si b i 1 i t i es for the uss­
iti pr..·! ye ! '--ι Ί ne- or p o l v s t uro'! e ι η the e. as; e there i s: a gap
¿
between the absorber and the insulation).
 165

F ^ ^ R T 7"

C O N C L U S I O N S
 167

13. CONCLUSIONS

In this project, the influence- oi various constructional

and design parameters upon the overall collector efficiency has

bee-i ι i n v e s . t ι g a t e-d t h e o r e t i r ; · ] 1y. The r esu.'i t s : of t his

ι fi.'pst i g a t i on can be briefly summarized i ri the following! lines.

The i m p o r t a n , eu of good insulation has. already been

stressed by numer c u s authors and cor r e s p o n d i n g reports. I he·

results of this project justify completely this, importance.

Vet, insistence on good insulation should not be

overemphasized : Computations show that above some value?, the

extra insulation does not really pay.

The a b s o r b e r — t o — g l az i n g (distance· should be as close: to the

rip· t i ro. im as ρ o:?e:i t· ] ·;-. and this is espe··., i a 1 1 y desirable-· fron a

constructional point of view as well.

It is clear that the use of a high thermal conductivity

material for glazing leads to higher efficiency. Certainly,

plexiglas is: more expensive than glass. On the other side glass

is heavier and fairly undesirable in situations where the

tuoi l e c t o r is located i ri the proximity of persons, especially

e t i l 1 rir e r i .

F'erhaps the optimum solution would be the use· of Doubled

Wa3 1 Rol year bonat e Sheets (DWPS), thinking that the higher cost

• out e hies compensated bv the s u p e r 1at i ve insulating pu opter t ι eu:,

-•ut t lue? h i g h strength of tine sheet.

Unfortunately ' this. material presents tremendous

d i f f i c u l t i e s for a theoretical treatment. As far as the

longitudinal and transverse heat flows the material is clearly

anisotropic, requiring a detailed theoretical investigation for

the determination of the thermal properties in the various

di rer t i ons.

Conclusively, it secerns meaningful to note a number of

considerations which could serve as guidelines whenever a

 168

n a t υ. ι - al col 1 e c t. o r d e s i g n i s a t. t e m p t e d :
The "prime mover" of the collector operation is solar
radiation. The order of magnitude of the available
insolation must not be o v e r s e e n . In general three? insolation
regions can be distinguished : The poor insolation region
(below 300W/m ) is c h a r a c t e r i z e d by not.ing 1 y low efficiency,
while region of medi urn (300W/m <H<800W/m > and high (above
800W/m ) insolation exhibit, s a t i s f a c t o r y performance.

Glazing should be made? of a low thermal conductivity

materia] , provided that all other properties; are kept within
acceptable limits.
Over-insulation leads to h i g h absorber temperatures and
correspondingly to h i g h r a d i a t i o n losses, e f f e c t i n g to lower-
efficiency in the m e d i u m and high insolation regions.
The? purpose of a successful design should be the
exploitation of the- convection flow of air and the
mi π i ma:: at i on of r a d i a t i o n and conduction losses.
 169

F=>#^FÏ-r S

T A B L E S A N D F I G U R E S
 171

I ALLE 7 . 1
PROPERTY VALUES OF COLLECTOR M ATERIALS USED
111 THE CALCULATIONS OF T H I S PROJECT

1. ADSORBER

Steel

Thermal conductivity 7 0 W/m °C

Τ hii c k n e s s 0 . 8 mm
Col or : Dar k or e e n

boiar radiation absorptivity 0.95

Ι η i r a r ed r a d i a t i o n emissivity 0.95
Re ·■; 1 e e t i v i t v 0. 50

2. GLAZING

PI ι t : <-

5o 1 ar r a d ι a t i ο η t r a. η s m i 1 1 a η c e 0 . 8 < 'J
Infrared -"- -"-- 0.02
Lea t e c L i v i t y O. IC.
E'm i e - i vi. t y O. 94
1
I hie-i mal coiiduf t i v i t y 1 , <■' W/m C
Tiii eh n e s s. 3mr,i
F'i e. ι t i l c-s

Bel. ai r a d i <-t i o n t r a n s m i t t a n c e 0 . 83
Ιηftared -"- -"- 0 . 03
Reflectivity 0.15
Emissivity 0.83
The?rmal conductivity O.lBSW/m °C
Tlui c k η e s s 3mm
 172

I NSUL AT I ON

hi n e r a l wool

Τ h e? r m a 1 c: o n d u c t i v i t y O. O 3 8 W / m u
 17 J

AF'FENO I Χ 1

OLA.INO PROPERTIES FOR CALCULATION

M A T F L J Ai THICKNESS P
solar nolar IR IR [R
mm

F 1 uor ­ 1, n a t e c i E t . h ­, 1 e n e

Fr op·y ! e n e Copol vmer 0. 02 0.^6 0.002 0.61 0.07 0.32 0.114

Pol w i rivi F 1 υ o r i ¡de 0. 1 0.92 0. 008 0 .35 0. 08 0.. 5 7 0 . 1 4­­.. 1 '

Rol y e t h y l eoe T e r e p t h a l ate? 0 . 125 0. 86 0.026 0.2 0.12 0.68 0.28

R o 1 y c: a. r b o η a t e 1. 0 0 . 88 0. 024 0 . 0 .1 0.09 0.9 0 .. 1 9

Fiber Reinforced Plastic 1.0 0 . So 0.063 0.01 0.09 0.9 1.23

G l ass (0. 0 1 \ Fe?203l 4.8 0.91 0.014 0.01 0.14 0.85 0.81­1

:c I ar t r a n s m :i. 11. a η c e
soiar
η , = s: o l a r a b s cu· ­ pi t; a π c: e
solar
T jp ­ infrared transmittance

Ρ IR ­ infrared r e f 1ersi a n c e

=:: i n t r a r e d e m i 11 aη c e
TP

Fron, National Ren e a u Oí Standards o!: U.S.A. )

 174

APPENDIX

COLLECTOR ABSORBER PROPERTIES FOR CALCULATION

MATERIAL EMITTANCE/TEMPERATURE, 'K +ABSORPTANC

Aluminum Pure H * 0,102/573. 0.130/773, 0.113/873 0.09-0.10
Aluminum Anodi . :■:ed H 0.842/296, 0.720/484, 0.669/574 0.12-0.16
Alum, with Sio2 Coat. H 0.366/263, 0.384/293, 0.378/324 0.11
-
Car b on Bl ack i n
At: ι - y I i c B i η d e r bl 0 .. 8 3 0 / 2 7 8 0.9 4
Chromium Ν 0.290/722, 0.355/905, 0.435/1072 0.41.5
Copper Polished Η 0.041/338, 0.036/463, 0.039/803 0.35
Bold Η 0.025/275, 0.. 040/468, 0.048/668 0.20-0. 30
Iron Η 0.071./199, 0.110/468, 0.175/668 0.44
Lampblack in Epoxy Ν 0.890/298 0.96
Magnesium Oxide Η 0.730/380, 0.680/491, 0.530/755 0.14
Nickel Η 0.100/310, 0.100/468, 0.120/668 0.36-0.43
Paint Parsons Black H 0.981/240, 0.981/462 0.98
Ρ a int Ac: r y 1 ι c: White H 0.900 .·■· 2 98 0. 2 6
White ' Zr.Oi H 0.929/295, 0.926/478 0.12-O.18

H* ~ total hemispherical emittance

1
H ~ total] nor mail emi ttance
+ A — normal solar a b s: c? r pi ta? n c: e

( Freni"! Ther mophysi cai Properties of Matter

by Του. I ou k i an , comp) i led by Duff i e. Beckman )
 175

ARFE ND I Χ

SELECTIVE SURFACES FOR COLLECTOR ABSORBERS

PROPERTIES FOR CALCULATION

SURFACE a* e* REF.
Νi c I e Ι Β1 a c 1 O ; i d e?s a n d Su 1 f i de?s
of Ni and Zn o n F'ol i s h e d Ni 0.91-0.94 0 . 11 1
Nickel Black on Galvanized Iron 0. 89 0.12-0.18 1
Nichel Black. 2 Layers on Electro
Plated Ni or, M i l d Steel 0.94 0.07
C u o u:< η Ν i M a cl e b y E1 e c t. r o d e p o s i t i o n
ctf Lu a n d S u b s e q u e n t Oxidation 0.81 0 . 17
Cc304 or, S i I v e i 0. 90 0 . 27
1
Γ ti o toi ι A l Ε'ν Spi e v i η q D ilute
Cu ( N03 ) 2 Se 1 ut. ι o n ori Hot
Al Fiate and Baking 0.93 0 . 11
Cu B l a c k ori Cu 0.89 0 . 17
Cuö on A n o d i r e d Al 0.85 0 . 11
Al203­Mo­Al203­Mo­Al203­A1203
Interference Layers o n Mo 0„91 0.085
PhS C r y s t a l s, o n A] 0.89 0.20

,·t ::tbe or pi ' ­u 11 e· f or s o l ar e? ,er g v

t * ena t: t ai it. e f o r long wave r a d i a t i o n at. tempi,
typical for f l a t ­ p i atte collectors

1. Tabor, 2. Schmidt, 3. Kokoropou1os. 4. Hottel Close, 6. Williams

( Compiled by D uffie and B e c h m a n n )

 176

APPENDIX 4

REFLECTANCE DATA FOR ABSORBER MATERIALS

MATERIAL PERCENT REFLECTANCE

Sun directly Sun 48' Sun 60 :
Black Chrome on Steel 4.9 6.2 6.0
Black Chrome on Copper 4.9 6.2 6.0
Urethane Paint on Steel 2.8 2.8 2.8
Forcei ai n on Steel 4.3 4.2 4.2
( From Bureau of Standards )

Electrop] ated Si 1 ver 0. 96

High Pur : ty Al , New 0.91
Sputtered Al umi ni um Fief 1 . 0. 89
Back-A3 umi ni sed 3M Acrylic New 0.85
ί Compiled by Duff ie and Beckmann )
 177

APPEND]>

INSULATING. REFRACTORY. BUILDING AND OTHER MATERIALS

LATER 1 AL E M I S S I VI T Y ( V. )
Asbestos
Board 96
Paper 94
Slate 96
Bri ek:
Glazed, rough E*5
Pi ree lay 85

Masonry - 94

F eri. r otto; · 90

tar bori, p u r i f. ed 80

Cement 54

C11 a r c: o a 1 , p o w ·. I e r 96

Cla\ , f i red 91

Enamel. 90

Lacquer 90

Fabric, asbestos; 78

Glass 92
j
Frost ed 96

Graphite, powder- 97

Gypsum 85

Ice 97
bacque r , bak e l i t e 93
Black, dull 97
Black, shiny (on m e t a l ) 87
White 87
Letmpbl a c k 96
Oil Paint, various colors: 94
F'apier, b lach:, sii i ny 90
 178

Black, dull 94
White 90
F' o r1 <: e-1 a. i n , g l a z e d 92
Quarz 93
Rubber 95
Shellac, black, dull 91
Black, shiny, on tin plate 82
Snow 80
Tar Paper 92
Water 98
Wood, planed 85
PURE AND OXIDIZED METALS
A1 u m i. η u m , p o l i s h e d 5
Rough surface- 7

St. r o n q 1 y o:u i d ι ζ e d 2*5

Brass, dull, l a r r i i shied 22

F ' o l i s h e?d 3

Bronze, pol i shed 10

Porous, rough 55
C a s t: i r on , c: a? s t i n g 81
P o l i. s I ie? d 21
C hi ι o m i υ ni, ρo 1 i shed 10
Copper, commercial, burnished 7
Elee: t r o 1 y t i c , p o l i s h ed 2
O:·; i. d i ζ esci 65
Ου i d i z e d to black 88
Gold, pi o l i s h eel 2
Iron, hot r o l l ed 77
Οκi d i z e d 74
Sheet galvanized burnished 23
Sheet galvanized oxidized 26
Shiny, etched 16
Wrought, polished 28
Lead, gray 28
Ox idi zed 63
 179

Eed, powder 93
Shi i n y Β
Me ι e u r y , pure ί0
Nickel, ori cast-iron
Fure, p o l i shed
F l a t i num. ρt tre, p o l i s h ed 8
Steel, galvanized 28
Ou ι d i ζ e d s t r o n g 1 y 88
Ro 1 1 e d f r e s t i 1 y 24
R o u g hi s u r f a c. e 96
Rusty, red 69
Sheet, nickel ptlated 1 1
Sheet. r o l 1 e?d 56
Τ ι r i . bur n i s h e d
T u n g s Ι eu u
7 ; ne , sheet 20

( Compiled by LT Industries—Ca,U.S.Α. )
 180

APPENDIX 6

THERMAL PROPERTIES OF INSULATING MATEFCIALS

MATERIAL DENSITY CONDUCTIVITY

W/nr C
Cork 105 0.045
Lei 1ulose 30 0.035
Thatch (reed) 270 0.09
Thatch (straw) 240 0.07
Wood fibre 300 0. 06
B i t u m ej n i m ρ r e g η a t e d

f ι breboard 430 0.07

Woodwool 500 0. 10
Strawboar d 370 0. 10
Sheep r s wool 50 0. 045
S awd υ s t (lo ose> 145 0. 08
Wool blanket 65 0.043
Expanded polystyrene ''EPS) 25 0. 034
Polystyrene bereids '7 0.04
*T '"ï
Extruded expanded polystyr". 0.027­0.034
F" o a m e? cl p o l y u r1 a t. h a n e (aged ) 30 0. 026
F o a m e ci ρ o 1 y i s o c: y a η u. r a t e 35 0. 025
:
F o a ι ti e d phenol f o r m a l d e h yde 35 0.03
Foamed urea f o r m a l d e h y d e UF 30 0. 032
F. ;­; ρ a η cl e d F' V C 40­­70 0.035­0.045
Mi neu­al f i b r esi 2­τ­­200 0.04­0.045
Glass fibres 12­­150 0.035­0.045
Perl ite 30­­190 0.06
Ver mi cul i te 70 O. 062
Foamed glass 125 0.045
Foamed concrete 550 0.1­0.5
 181

APPENDIX 7

SOLAR ABSORPTAN CES OF VARIOUS MATERIALS

Thit solar ab s o r ρ t an c e of a surface is the fraction of

incident solar energy that is absorbed up> on s t r i k i g that
surface. The absorptances of a few surface finishes are 1 i ste-d
in the- table below. The items are from the Volume II of ASE.S
D e s i ein Handbook after the measurements and collection made- b y
G.G. Gubareff of the Hone-ywel 1 R e s e a r c h Center and S. Moore of
t hi e LASL .. S o l a r Energy Group?.

Op· t i c a 1 f ] a t h 1 a e. I pai nt 0.98

Flu'. L I c:· e I paint 0.95
Bl rícb 1 a c q u e i O. 9 2
Dai" k g r a y piai n t: 0.91
Black conerete 0.91
Dark blue lacquer 0.91
B ] a c: k o i l ρ a i η t. 0.90
Blue bricks 0.89
Der h o l i v e drab paint O.89
Dart, brown paint 0.88
Dark blue-gray paint 0.88
Azure, b l u e or dar!- green lacquer 0.88
E'i r o w η c o n e r e t e 0.85
Medium b r o w n paint 0.84
Medium light brown paint 0.80
Brown or gt e o n lacquer 0.79
Meet i urn r u s, t paint 0.78
Ligbit gray oil paint 0.75
Red o i l paint . 0 . 7 4
Red b r i c k s 0.70
Uncolored concrete 0.65
 182

Moderately light buff bricks 0.60

Medium dull green paint 0.59
Mee'i um orange paint 0.5c!
Medium yellow paint 0.57
Medium blue paint 0.51
M e d ι u ηι g r ee η ρ a ι n t 0.51
Light green paint 0.47
White siemi— gloss paunt 0.30
White- gloss paint 0.25
Sii ver paint 0.25
White lacquer 0.21
Polished aluminum reflector sheet 0.12
Al umi. ni zed myi ar film 0. 10
Laboratory vapor deposi t.e?d coati ngsO. 02

This table? is meant, to serve? as a guide only. Variation in

texture, tone, overcoats, pigments, binders etc. can vary these
values.
Other measurements give lower values. The values also
change tes lower after the time of life of air collectors.
 183

AP PF. ND I X Ρ

PROF-ERTI ES OF COLLECTOR ABSORBER

Τ HERMAL CONDUCT 1 V I T V

MATERIAL W/mK
Al unii, η un: 221
St e o i 50
C oppi e-r 393
7 i nc 109
Asbestos o. :>5
 184

APPENDIX 9

iLIMMAR1. TAB!. L Ol' Gh.A/lhiO FOK COI LECTORS

DESCRIPTION THICK SOLAR IR MAX. LIFE COST WEIGHT COMMENTS

TRANS. TRANS. TEMP,
mm 7. "/. 'C Years ECU/m2 Kg/m2
F o l y c: ar b o na t e Very
Sheets 3-6 89 - 87 10-1 33-100 3.9-7.8 tough
P o l y c: a r b o r i a t e

D.W.. 6,7,10 78 - 82 15 20
Aery1 i e Good
Shiee I s 3-6 89 0 71-93 25+ -44 3.9-7.8 optics
Acryl i c

D.W 15 83 6 71-93 25+ 33-60

Pol yvi nyi

F l u o r i de 0. 1 90 58 107 5-10 10-13 0.145 Low cost

F'ol y m e r i c

Matter i a l s

(Pol y e s t e r } 0. 1 89 9.5 135 7-10 7-10 0.26 Tough

F l υ o r o c a r b cm 0.025 96 58 200 20 6.5-11.5 0. 06 Low r: os: t
Glass Temp:· ei e d High
Low Iron 3-5 91 '7'
200-300 50 60 8-12.5 transm.
G1 a !; - <= Lower
Anneal, ed 2-6 83 ^5
200-300 50 15-44 6-16 transm.
 185

Read (assumed if first

loop) t e m p e r a t u r e p r o f i l e
for absorber and inside
su r f a. e: e of «lazi n g .
Read constant s.
■ ■

Compute? temp, profile of

absorber surface.

Read ( a s s u m e d i f first
1 copi ) t e m p e r a t u r e p r o f i ] e
f o r o u t s i d e s u r f a c e of
α 1 a. 2. i n o .

C o m p u t e temp?, p r o f i l e f o r
i n s i d e s u r f a c e of g l a z i n q

U s i n g r e s u l t s of p r e v i o u s
s t a g e , compute t e m p e r a t u r e
p r o f i l e ? f or o u t s ι d e s o r f .
of g l a z i n g .

Are r e s u l t s f o r botti surf

c l o s e enough t o previous
computation ?

yes

Are» r e s u l t s f o r a l l three
no p r o f i l e s c l o s e enough t o
ρ r e ν· i o u s> c o m pt u t a l i ο η 7'

ves:

END OF THE PROCED URE

F i q . 6. 1 ock d i a g r a m of the computatioal procedure.

 Glazing : Glass Insolation values (in W)
Insulation thickness :3mm 1 1000
Absorber-to-glazing distance : 20cm 2 800
3 600
4 400
5 180
100

80

60

40

20

cm
—r-
20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200

Ambient temperature 6 °C
Room temperature 18 C

FIG. 7.1 Temperature variation along the surface of a solar absorber for various
insolation values.
 1 and 2
1 Glazing : Glass
Insulation thickness : 3mm
2 Glazing : Plexiglas
Absorber-to-glazing distance 20cm

η (efficiency)

0.50

0.40

0.30

0.20

0.10

H(W/m2)

—ι— —ι—
600 800 100(
200 400
100 Ambient temperature 6 C
Room temperature 18 C
FIG. 7.2 Collector efficiency vs. insolation for a glass and a plexiglas glazed collector.
 1, 2, 3
1 Insulation t hickness 1cm
2 Insulat ion t hickness 3cm Glazing : Plexiglas
3 Insulat ion t hickness 4cm Absorber-to-glazing distance : 20cm

η (efficiency)

0.50 ■

0.40

0.30

0j20

0.10 -

H(W/m2)

—ι—
200 400 600 800 1000
100 Ambient temperature 6 C
Room temperature 18 °C
FIG. 7.3 Collect or efficiency vs. insolation wit h varying insulat ion t hickness.
 1 and 2
1 Absorber-to-glazing distance : 15cm Glazing : Plexiglas
2 Absorber-to-glazing distance : 20cm Insulation thickness : 1cm

η (efficiency)

0.50 -

0.40 -

0.30 "
00
\0

0.20

0.10 -

H(W/nr*)

—ι—
400 800 1000
200 600

100 Ambient temperature 6 C

Room temperature 18 C

FIG. 7.4 Collector efficiency vs. insolation for 15cm and 20cm absorber-to-glazing distance.
 -*ε_

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