DATACOM

INSTITUTEOFCOMPUTERTECHNOLOGY

INTRODUCTION TO WORLD RELIGIONS AND BELIEF

SYSTEMS
2nd semester/Quarter 3 AND 4

Second Semester AY 2020-2021

(SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL)

Inquiries and comments on this syllabus should be addressed to:

Tessie F. Besario

Teacher

Gizelle Rodero

Teacher

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 WEEK 7 – 8

I. Comparative Analysis of Mahayana and Theravada Buddhism

Explain the uniqueness and similarities of Mahayana and Theravada Buddhism

At the end of the module, you should be able to: K: Identify the similar features of Theravada and
Mahayana Buddhism; S: Conduct a comparative analysis of the two major Buddhism sects; and A: show
appreciation to the differences and similarities of the two religions/belief systems.
In the previous module, we have discussed the core teachings, fundamental beliefs, and related
issues of Mahayana Buddhism. You have also learned how it seems to have an interesting appeal to a vast
majority of followers.
In this module, we will explore the connection between the two Buddhist religions- Theravada
and Mahayana Buddhism and how essential is the concept of dharma in these two major sects of
Buddhism.

Both the Buddhist schools originated in India. In Buddhism (Mahayana and Theravada), dharma
is an integral concept. Dharma (Sanskrit) or dhamma (Pali) is a word Buddhists use often. It may pertain
to the cosmic law and order or to Buddha’s teachings. Apart from the Buddha and the sangha, the dharma
is one of the “Three Jewels” to which Buddhist followers go for refuge. The word often is defined as "the
teachings of the Buddha," but dharma is really more than just a label for Buddhist doctrines, as we shall
see below.
The word dharma comes from the ancient religions of India and is found in Hindu and Jain
teachings, as well as Buddhist. Its original meaning is something like "natural law." Its root word, dham,
means "to uphold" or "to support." In this broad sense, common to many religious traditions, dharma is
that which upholds the natural order of the universe. This meaning is also part of the Buddhist
understanding.
In addition, dharma supports the practice of those who are in harmony with it. On this level,
dharma refers to ethical conduct and righteousness. In some Hindu traditions, dharma is used to mean
"sacred duty." For more on the Hindu perspective of the word dharma, see " What is Dharma?" by
Subhamoy Das.

Dhamma in Theravada Buddhism

Dhamma is the nature of what-is; the truth of what the Buddha taught. In Theravada Buddhism,
as in the quote above, it is sometimes used to indicate all the factors of existence.
Thanissaro Bhikkhu wrote that "Dhamma, on the external level, refers to the path of practice the
Buddha taught to his followers" This Dhamma has three levels of What is It 6 meaning: the words of the
Buddha, the practice of his teaching, and the attainment of enlightenment. So, Dhamma is not just
doctrines--it is teaching plus practice plus enlightenment.

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Dharma in Mahayana Buddhism
Mahayana Buddhism generally uses the word dharma to refer to both the teachings of the Buddha
and the realization of enlightenment. More often than not, use of the word incorporates both meanings
at once. Mahayana texts sometimes use the word dharma to mean something like "manifestation of
reality.”
To speak of someone's understanding of dharma is not to comment on how well that person can
recite Buddhist doctrines but on his state of realization. In the Zen tradition, for example, to present or
expound upon the dharma usually refers to presenting some aspect of the true nature of reality.

The Dharma Body

Both Theravada and Mahayana Buddhists speak of the "dharma body" (dhammakaya or
dharmakaya). This is also called the "truth body."
Very simply, in Theravada Buddhism, a Buddha (an enlightened being) is understood to be the
living embodiment of dharma. This does not mean that a Buddha's physical body (rupa-kaya) is the same
thing as dharma, however. It's a bit closer to it to say that the dharma becomes visible or tangible in a
Buddha.
In Mahayana Buddhism, the dharmakaya is one of the three bodies (tri-kaya) of a Buddha. The
dharmakaya is the unity of all things and beings, unmanifested, beyond existence and non-existence.
In sum, the word dharma is nearly indefinable. But to the extent that it can be defined, we can
say that dharma is both the essential nature of reality and also the teachings and practices that enable
the realization of that essential nature.
There are more than 370 million Buddhists around the world that represent about 6% of the entire
population. Quite interestingly, while Buddhism began in India, it almost died out as a living religion in its
place of origin. Majority of its followers can be found in China Japan, Korea, and Indochina Peninsula. The
major sects of Buddhism include Theravada and Mahayana schools of thought.

Let us now explore the different aspects where these two schools are alike and different from each
other.

ORIGIN

Buddhism traces its origins in northern India around the sixth century B.C.E. as another
interpretation of the Hindu belief. This religion is closely linked to its founder Siddhartha Gautama who is
also referred to as the Buddha or the “Enlightened One.” A son of a Kshatriya chief, the once affluent
Siddhartha abandoned the comfort of his palace and family as he set to discover the remedy to universal
suffering he observed in this world. After long periods of abstinence and meditation, he finally reached
enlightenment (nirvana) and became known as the “Buddha” or the “enlightened one.” He preached
mainly in the eastern part of the Indian subcontinent such as in Magadha and Kosala. About 500 years
after Buddha’s enlightenment, a schism within the Buddhist religion resulted in the emergence of two
major branches around the first century C.E, namely, the Theravada and Mahayana schools of tradition.

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Both schools owe their fundamental teachings to the Buddha whose life has become an inspiration to
millions of followers all over the world.
Around the third century B.C.E., Buddhism reached neighboring Asian countries as a result of the
missionary zeal of Indian rulers. A different outlook to salvation attracted many Asian people to embrace
the tenets of Buddhism as it reached China, India, Korea, and Indochina Peninsula. However, while
Buddhism was successfully converting people in faraway places, Buddhist fervor gradually waned in native
India as a result of resurging Hinduism. The resurgence in Hinduism is due to how Hinduism absorbed the
rising challenge of other new religions as it incorporated their elements into the Hindu belief.

MORALITY
While Siddhartha Gautama embraced the general framework of Indian ideas, he radically altered
many of them. Similarly, the cycle of rebirth persists in Buddhism and succeeding lives may be affected by
the moral laws of cause and effect or karma. Until one has achieved enlightenment, one’s deed in the
present lifetime will affect the MAHAYANA BUDDHISM AND THERAVADA BUDDHISM Origin Morality
Purpose Destiny View on Women 8 course of future rebirths. Buddhist moral thoughts and actions are
principally guided by the “Four Noble Truths” formulated by the Buddha, along with the basic guide called
the “Eightfold Paths” that are divided into three categories, namely, right view, right conduct, and right
practice. Unhappiness of life (dukkha) is principally caused by people’s unending desires. People are
advised to scrutinize their motivations and ponder upon the outcome of their actions keeping in mind
Buddha’s teachings. Anything harmful to others, in deed and in thought, must always be avoided. The two
major schools of Buddhism, the Theravada and Mahayana sects, follow the “Four Noble Truths” and the
“Noble Eightfold Path.”

PURPOSE
In Buddhism, the principal purpose of one’s life is to terminate all forms of suffering caused by
attachment to impermanent entities, such as material things, friends, and health. All these do not offer
enduring happiness but sorrow. When one recognizes the impermanence of all these things, an individual
begins to free one’s self from attachment thereby reducing suffering and ending the cycle of rebirth.
Buddha’s teachings on the “Four Noble Truths” and the “Noble Eightfold Path” form the basic tenets of
all Buddhist sects.
In Theravada Buddhism, the monastic way of life ensures the path toward enlightenment. For the
Buddhist laity, they must first be reborn as monks for them to be eligible for enlightenment. As members
of the laity perform good deeds, positive karma may bring forth a pleasant condition in the next life.
In contrast, Mahayana Buddhism offers enlightenment to anyone, not only for the members of
the monastic order, but also for those with families and secular careers. Moreover, the Mahayana branch
of Buddhism attracts followers because it offers a faster route to enlightenment than the Theravada sect.

DESTINY
Meanwhile, Buddhism holds that no soul is being reborn because there is no permanence in
anything (Bowker 1997). The Buddha preached to his followers to achieve their own salvation
conscientiously because external forces have no control over their life and circumstances. They control

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their own fate as they are bound to the law of causality. Buddhist destiny, therefore, is the direct result
of natural law or dharma and one’s accumulated deeds or karma. Here lies the glaring difference of
Buddhism as a dharmic religion when compared to other world religions that teach the concept of fate or
predestiny. For Buddhist followers, life and events are not controlled by an all-powerful creator or
universal force.
In contrast to Hinduism and other religions, the Buddhist goal is neither absorption into Brahman
nor union with God. Instead, Buddhists aspire to reach nirvana or the extinguishing of fires of longing and
suffering (Bowker 1997). When one has achieved nirvana, one has attained the state of perfect peace
wherein attachment, aversion, and ignorance have ceased once and for all.
In the Theravada school of Buddhism, the trainings on the development of ethical conduct,
meditation, and insight assist in eradicating all forms of evil in order to acquire goodness and purify the
mind. All worldly things are momentary and impermanent. By following the “Middle Path” and practicing
the basic doctrines of Buddhism, there is a realization that desire can be terminated and suffering reduced.
In the end, a perfected state of insight can be accomplished. A person who has 9 attained this position is
called an arhat or a “worthy person” who must be emulated by Theravada Buddhists. Adherents can reach
an enlightened status through their own ways without any assistance from any divine beings, such as gods
or goddesses. With the help of Buddha’s teachings, the journey toward nirvana becomes possible.
Meanwhile, the Mahayana sect devotes much attention to the bodhisattvas or “enlightened
beings” who delay their own enlightenment for them to benevolently aid other beings to reach their
ultimate end. All beings can follow the path of the bodhisattvas which is the ideal way for all Buddhists to
live. Well-known in the Mahayana sect are Avalokitesvara, Manjusri, Ksitigarbha, and Samantabhadra. The
Theravada sect only accepts Maitreya as bodhisattva.

VIEWS ON WOMEN
Women have enjoyed considerable freedom in their religious life in Buddhism as compared to
Hinduism. The Buddha himself allowed the full participation of women in all major Buddhist rites and
practices. For so long, a time when women’s duties were confined to household and kitchen duties,
Buddha radically changed this when he allowed women to join the monastic order and attain
enlightenment in equal footing with men. In the past, learned women members of sangha include
Dhammadinna, Khema, and Uppalavanna. Fully-ordained Buddhist female monastic members are
bhikkunis.
For the Buddha, men are not always wise and women can also be wise. In Buddhism, women
should not be treated as inferior to men because both are equally valuable in society. Women as wives
and mothers have roles to fulfill in the family and society. Husbands and wives must equally share
responsibilities in the family with the same zeal. Wives must also familiarize themselves in trade and
business dealings so that they can also handle these affairs. Men and women have equal status in Buddhist
societies.

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QUIZ 1
Directions: Write T if the statement is TRUE, and F if it is FALSE. Write your answers in your PAPER.
1. Both Theravada and Mahayana Buddhism, trace their origin in China.
2. Buddhism is founded by Siddhartha Gautama who is also referred to as the Buddha or the “Enlightened
One.”
3. The two major schools of Buddhism, the Theravada and Mahayana sects, follow the “Four Noble Truths”
and the “Noble Eightfold Path.”
4. Buddhist followers, life and events are controlled by an all-powerful creator or universal force.
5. A person who has attained a perfected state of insight in called bodhisattvas or “enlightened beings” in
Theravada school of Buddhism.
6. Arhat or a “worthy person” in Mahayana sect, delay their own fulfillment for them to benevolently aid
other beings to reach their ultimate end.
7. The Buddhist goal is to reach nirvana or the extinguishing of fires of longing and suffering.
8. Theravada Buddhism offers enlightenment to anyone, including those with families and secular careers.
9. A Buddhist’s destiny is the direct result of natural law or dharma and one’s accumulated deeds or karma.
10.Women in Buddhism have enjoyed considerable freedom in their religious life compared to their
Hindus counterpart.

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 II. CONFUCIANISM
Analyze the brief history, core teachings, fundamental beliefs, practices, and related issues of
Confucianism
At the end of the module, you should be able to: K: identify the essential elements of Confucianism
such as its founder, sacred texts, core teaching, and related issues; S: presents a character sketch of a
person who personifies the Confucian virtues; and A: show importance to Confucianism’s legacy to world
culture.
In the previous lesson, you have learned how the two Buddhist sects- Theravada and Mahayana
Buddhism- share some similarities with regard to their belief in dharma, origin, morality, purpose and
views on women. In this module, we will discuss about a religion that emerged just beyond the border of
India-in China- which is known as Confucianism.

CONFUCIANISM
Life and Times of Confucius

Confucius is the Latinized version of Kongzi and the honorific Kong Fuzi
both meaning “Master Kong.” He was born on September 28 on 551 B.C.E.
Hence, it is considered a day of celebration in East Asia—an official holiday in
Taiwan (Teacher’s Day), and a day of cultural celebration in mainland China,
Hong Kong, and Singapore. Confucius was born in a small feudal state of Lu
(now Shantung province) in Qufu. His personal name was Qiu and his family name was Kong. He came
from a noble family, but by the time of his birth, they had already lost much of their wealth. His first
teacher was his mother, and at the age of 15 he set his heart upon learning, thus love of learning became
one of the highest virtues in Confucian ethics. He married at the age of 19 and had a son at the age of 20.
At this point in his life he had already served in minor government posts and had already gained a
reputation as an all-around scholar. When he was in his 30s he had already started a brilliant teaching
career because of his mastery of the arts of ritual, music, archery, charioteering, calligraphy, and
arithmetic. He was also familiar with classical tradition, particularly in poetry and history. He is often
considered as the first person to devote his whole life to learning and teaching for the purpose of social
transformation and improvement. He held several government positions including as arbiter, assistant
minister of public works, and minister of justice in the state of Lu. Frustrated that his ideals and policies
were brushed off by his superiors, he soon left Lu. For 13 years, he wandered from state to state, trying
to put his theories to practice. At 67, he returned home to teach (where he gained more disciples) and to
preserve his classical traditions by writing and editing. He died in 479 B.C.E at the age of 73 and he left
around 3,000 followers who preserved and put his other teachings to writing. It is believed that his ideas
were documented in writing by a successor known as Mencius.
Confucius lived during a critical time in Chinese history called the Warring States period (475–221
BCE) during which several states fought against each other in an attempt to expand their influence over

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what is now China. It was out of this period that the China known today emerged in the third century BCE

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under the unification of the Qin Empire. While several important schools of thought emerged at this time,
the ideas developed by Confucius had lasting impact for China and the entire region. After his death,
varying successors and adherents contributed to the spread of the Confucian tradition. As with many great
schools of thought, continued debate and discussion about Confucius’ ideas have kept his teachings alive.

SACRED SCRIPTURES: THE CONFUCIAN CLASSICS

The Five Classics are a group of books which was regarded as early Confucianism’s basic texts. This
includes the Book of Changes, the Book of History, the Book of Poetry, the Classic of Rites, and the Spring
and Autumn Annals. The Analects is also considered an important source of Confucian teachings since it
contains a record of his conversations with his disciples. Let us now take a look at what these classics are
all about.
Confucius has often been considered as the author or editor of the Classics, but contemporary
scholarship has shown that even though many of these texts can be traced back to Confucius, they have
undergone a long period of development. Moreover, these Classics were burned during the reign of the
Qin dynasty and was restored only during the Han dynasty. It was Confucius’ followers who exerted effort
in writing and collating his teachings and philosophies.

Book of Changes
Also known as the I-Ching, the Book of Changes is believed to have existed at the time of
Confucius and is the oldest of the Classics. It focuses on short predictions following a type of divination
called cleromancy wherein six random numbers are picked and arranged under sixty-four hexagrams.

Book of History
Also known as the Book of Documents or Shangshu, the Book of History is conventionally
attributed to Confucius by early scholars. It is composed of speeches (or prose) of royalty and ministers
mainly from the Shang and Zhou dynasties.

Book of Poetry
The Book of Poetry, also known as the Book of Songs/Odes/Shijing, is a collection of three
hundred and five songs compiled around 600 B.C.E. which includes four sections of various themes such
as love, courtship, abandonment and dances. It also includes feast songs or state chants.

Classic of Rites
Originally the Three Li/Three Rites/San Li, the Classic of Rites is a compilation of
ceremonial rituals, administration, and social forms of the Zhou Dynasty. It is considered as a complete
body of work which includes the Ceremonials (I-li/Yili), an early manual of protocol for the nobility,
describing such occasions as marriages and funerals, sacrifices and even archery competitions.

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 Analects
The Analects, or Lunyu (“conversations” or “sayings”), is also known as the Analects of
Confucius. It is a collection of sayings and ideas attributed to the Chinese philosopher Confucius and his
contemporaries, traditionally believed to have been written by Confucius' followers. It is believed to have
been written during the Warring States period (475 B.C.E.-221 B.C.E.) and finalized during the middle of
the Han dynasty. At first it was considered as merely a commentary on the Five Classics, but later on
acquired tremendous significance that it has been classified as one of the Four Books along with Great
Learning, Doctrine of the Mean, and Book of Mencius. Among other important Confucian works, it has
become an influential canonical resource in Chinese and East Asian philosophy.

CONFUCIAN DOCTRINES/BELIEFS
Perhaps Confucius is more often celebrated for his Golden Rule: “Do not do unto others what you
would not have them do unto you.” Found in the Analects, this saying teaches the ethics of mutuality and
reciprocity. Thus, it requires people to treat others equal to themselves and in equally the same manner
as they would have wanted to be treated. Some of the most important Confucian doctrines include the
idea of Tian or heaven; human nature; rectification of names; the five constants; filial piety; and ancestor
worship.

Rectification of Names
Confucius believed that to return to the ancient Dao, people must play their assigned
roles in society. This was later called the rectification of names, or zhengming, The Five Relationships
include: 1) ruler-subject; 2) father-son; 3) husband-wife; 4) elder and younger brother; and 5) friend and
friend. The responsibilities originating from these relationships are shared and reciprocal. For example, a
minister owes loyalty to his ruler, and a child owes filial respect to the parent. In return, rulers must care
for their subjects, and parents must care for their children. The Five Relationships emphasize the upright
sense of hierarchy. Among friends, for example, seniority of age requires a certain deference. Zhengming
helps bring social order for it advocates the idea that every person has a particular role at a particular time
in life, and that by abiding to this particular role, one is able to fulfil one’s social duties and responsibilities,
thus creating social harmony.

The Five Constants

The Five Constants, also known as the Five Classical Virtues, or Wuchang, are the five most
important Confucian ethics mentioned in the Analects and the Book of Mencius. These include the
following: ren or benevolence; yi or righteousness; li or propriety; zhi or knowledge/wisdom; and xin or
fidelity. Ren, or benevolence, can be achieved by returning to li, or the traditional Chinese rituals. It means
following the social hierarchy patterned after family relationships. Ren can also be achieved by extending
one’s filial love for parents and siblings to fellow human beings. It can also be achieved by avoiding envy
or harm. Yi, or righteousness, can be achieved by having the moral disposition to do good, which can only

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be possible after recognizing what is right and good. It can also be achieved through the ability to feel
what is the right thing to do. Li, or propriety, which is considered as the concrete guide to human action
and social order, can be achieved by following the guide to human relationships (rectification of names,
doctrine of the mean, The Five Relationships); it can also be achieved by following the norms of ren, or
righteousness. Zhi, or knowledge/wisdom, can be achieved by knowing what is right and what is wrong,
which is innate in people who are basically good according to Mencius. Lastly, xin, or fidelity can be
achieved by keeping one’s word and being faithful, for Kung Fuzi believed that only people who are faithful
can be trusted with important tasks. Fidelity is also seen as the key to nation-building.

Filial Piety as an Important Virtue

For Confucius, family relations provide a model for social behavior. Respect for elders,
whether your own or others, is emphasized, as well as kindness to your own children and juniors, including
those of others. These were said to be instructed by Mencius and have provided inspiration for
generations of Confucians. Filial piety is said to have provided China with a strong sense of solidarity not
only in the Chinese family, but also in Confucian social organizations and even among Chinese
communities in different parts of the world. Ancestor worship is a manifestation of filial piety, or respect
for one’s parents, which is directed toward older relatives and ancestors. The idea of ancestor worship is
based on the key Confucian idea that it is expected of children to respect and obey their parents in life,
and to continue remembering them after they have died through the proper observance of rituals. One
way to remember them is by worshipping ancestral tablets which can be kept at home. These ancestral
tablets contain the information regarding the place where the family originated and the names of the
ancestors. Another way to remember ancestors is to worship them in their graves. People occasionally
visit the graves of their loved ones, clean the graves, offer food and wine. The ancestors were believed to
have tasted the food before the whole family eat the meal being offered. Ancestor worship is an
expression of a union between the living and the loved one, clearly a manifestation of filial piety.
The concept of hun-po or soul is important in Chinese cosmology and early concept of
dualism. Accordingly, the human being is made up of two souls: an upper or intellectual soul (hun) which
becomes the spirit (shen) and climbs to the world above; and a lower soul (po), which becomes the ghost
and goes down with the body into the grave. Thus, ancestor worship is important because of the belief
that even the bodies of the dead ancestors possess souls which need to be worshipped and revered.

WORSHIP AND OBSERVANCES

The Book of Rites recorded the rituals practiced by the Chinese for many centuries. Some of these
rituals have been classified under Family Rituals, also known as the “Four Rites,” which are rituals or
ceremonies that characterize a person’s growth and maturity, namely: coming of age rites, marriage
ceremonies, mourning rites, and sacrificial rituals. Many of these rituals are no longer observed, but they
offer functional proof of the religious nature of Confucianism.

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Four Rites
COMING OF AGE RITES are ceremonies held to signify that a young person has reached the
marriageable age and could join the different activities of his/her clan as an adult. Two important coming
of age rites among the Chinese are capping and hair pinning ceremonies.

Capping refers to doing the male teenager’s hair in a bun/coil and wearing a cap. This is a ritual
that male teenagers have to go through sometime between the ages of 15 and 20. In this occasion, a male
Chinese receives his formal hat and ceremonial gown, as well as his formal name. Also, a wine libation (a
drink poured out as an offering to the deity) is made and the young man is formally introduced to his
ancestors.

Hair Pinning refers to the gathering of a girl’s hair into a knot, and securing it using a hairpin or a
hairclip; often done by 16-year old women after engagement and before their wedding day.

MOURNING RITES often involve intricate practices, which include the following steps: First, there
should be public announcement of grief through weeping, and the wearing of white funeral clothes by
the family of the deceased. Mourning also constitutes the offering of symbolic goods like money and food
from the living to the dead, preparation and setting up of a spirit tablet, payment of ritual experts, the
playing of music and chanting of scriptures to accompany the corpse and to pacify the spirit, the sealing
of the corpse in a coffin, and the removal of the coffin from the community. There is also a tradition of
exerting effort to recover the deceased, which is being practiced to avoid false death. They do this by
trying to call or shout over the wandering soul through the person’s clothes, in case the soul just lost its
way back to the body of the person.

MARRIAGE CEREMONIES are an important aspect of Chinese culture since marriage is considered
as a central feature of society; through marriage, patience and love are cultivated to promote the right
virtue. Traditionally, a marriage is decided by the parents of the couple, with wealth and social status as
the primary considerations. Monogamy is preferred, which means married couples should be loyal to their
partners for the rest of their lives. Marriage rituals include giving of gifts and following the necessary
etiquettes, from marriage proposal to the wedding ceremony itself, in which the groom and his family
meet the bride at her home, after the bride sent the dowry to the groom’s house; on the wedding day,
rites include carrying the bride to the sedan and the couple leading the festivity at the bridal chamber; on
the wedding night, friends, and relatives are supposed to banter the couple; and on the third day, the
couple would go back to the bride’s parents’ home to pay respect.

SACRIFICIAL RITUALS are performed regularly by the descendants of the deceased ancestors.
Sacrifices are often given at festivals. One such festival is the Qingming Festival celebrated annually by
Chinese all over the world to honor their dead. Qing Ming means “clear and bright” which describes the
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weather on that particular day of the year. It is observed by visiting the ancestor’s grave to clean and
repair it, and through offertories, such as food, fruit, wine, incense, or candles. Descendants of the
deceased normally bury their ancestors with belongings that they wanted to be transported to the spirit
world with the dead. During ancient times, some royal families put bronze vessels, oracle bones, and
human or animal sacrifices in the grave. These were considered as things one may need in the spirit world
and as a form of continued filial piety. It is the oldest and most enduring Confucian ritual still observed
today.

SELECTED ISSUES

Certain issues arise when we try to reconsider the relevance of Confucianism and Neo-
Confucianism. One characteristic of the Confucian social order is the fixed and strict hierarchy, with the
higher partners being composed of men—fathers, husbands, and rulers exercising more right and privilege
over women who are placed in a subordinate position. Another issue related to hierarchy would be
authoritarianism, which was an influence of the philosophy of Legalism and which became the guiding
principle of the Chinese government during the Qin dynasty. Still, the issue of Confucianism’s
incompatibility with environmentalism is another aspect being analyzed by scholars.

Female Subordination
It is often said that a woman’s life under Confucianism can be summed up in three
periods, also known as the “Three Obediences:” obedience to her father while at home; obedience to her
husband when married; and obedience to her son when widowed. Women, being at the bottom of the
Confucian hierarchy, are expected to display ideal behavior and accommodation. They are expected to
demonstrate obedience before all other virtues and are not expected to act as independent beings.
Women lived separately from men by custom. Women were also assigned the role of providing a male
heir to ensure the continuation of the tradition that male children should perform the ancestral rites. This
also excuses the husband to take on secondary wives if the first wife failed to provide him with a son,
while women were not allowed to see other men other than their husbands and close male relatives. In
the “Five Relationships,” it is very clear that the relationship between husband and wife should be based
on male supremacy. In the Book of Changes, the male-female relationship is represented in terms of the
superiority of heaven over inferior earth. The patriarchal nature of Confucianism is manifested in certain
beliefs like preference for male children. Men are expected to inherit the family names and property, and
are responsible for the care of their parents, that is why having male children is preferred. For one, women
are the ones expected to give dowry to the family of their groom when they get married, and among poor
families, having female children has become a burden rather than a blessing. This also paved the way for
more cases of female infanticide and abortion every year (although abortion is prohibited in Confucianism
except in cases when the life of the mother is at risk). Implementation of the one-child policy by the
Chinese government in the 1970s and the 1980s made it even worse for women. Some would say that
despite the elevation of the status of women in China during the time of communist rule, the one-child
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policy paved the way for the return of Confucian values and made it once again trendy not to have girls.
If the parents have a daughter for a first born, they would often try to have a son. If the first three children
were girls, it is not unusual to keep the first girl, give away the second girl, and abort the third girl. For
critics, it is obvious that the more Confucian the society became, the less freedom the women enjoyed.

Authoritarianism
Authoritarianism is another challenge that Confucianism still faces at present. Because
Confucianism stresses the hierarchy between relationships, this has reinforced top-down values and
hierarchical systems by encouraging deference to one’s superiors—ruler, father, teacher, or anyone older.
When Confucian values are used to suppress opposition, thwart fresh ideas to surface, or to protect
apathy, then Confucianism poses a serious threat to the development of society and the flourishing of
democracy. Confucianism has been criticized on the issue of father-son relationship, especially on the
aspect of allowing the bad behavior of a father and requiring the son to accept it when this occurs. After
all, Confucianism teaches that a father must be respected at all costs and a son must obey his father no
matter what. This suggests that children must not question the authority of their parents and simply
accept their subordinate status. When they become parents, the son will become a father hence that is
the time that he will enjoy a superior status over his son. Meanwhile, the daughter, when she becomes a
mother, will continue to be in an inferior position, this time to her husband.

Environmental Ethics
One more issue that Confucianism faces today is that of environmentalism. While it is true
that Confucianism advocates respect for the environment, its acceptance of people’s dominance of nature
poses a threat to the issue. The Analects mentioned the subordination of animals to social interests. Some
experts also say that when faced with the dilemma between maintaining social duties and the
environment, Confucianism would lead one to choose the former than the latter. Confucian logic would
give priority to defense of social duties over environmental protection.

What Role Does Confucianism Play Today?

Confucius is one of the world's most influential philosophers. Today, his philosophy
continues to influence large groups of people across Asia and throughout the world. Countries that show
the most significant imprint of Confucianism are China, Korea, Japan, and Vietnam. Confucianism
manifests itself in the way children defer to their elders and parents (filial piety) and in the hierarchical
structure within offices among employees of different ages and levels of experience. Confucianism also
plays a role in the expectations people place upon government and upon its legitimacy

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 ACTIVITY 1

Create a character sketch of a person who personifies the Confucian virtues. Your output should be
written in your ANSWER SHEET/PAPER.

The sketch shown below may serve as a guide for you to draft your character sketch.

The reading below may also help you create your character.

HOW TO WRITE A CHARACTER SKETCH

Get inside your character's head
A character sketch is a quick rendering of a character, and writing a sketch is about asking and
answering questions. In order to write a character sketch, you must ask yourself questions about your
character.
Who is your character physically?
Physical characteristics are the first things we notice when we meet someone. Therefore, this is
a good starting point when writing a character sketch. Is your character a woman or a man? Is he or she
tall or short? Is your character bald? How old is your character? Does he or she have a disability?
What is your character doing?
This is the next question to ask because it brings into account other aspects of story writing such
as setting and time. The answer to this question will also affect other aspects of your sketch, such as
what your character is wearing or how he or she is feeling. Is your character walking down the street? Is
he or she sitting in a park? Is your character working on a boat? Asking what your character is doing will
not only help you understand your character, but also his or her relationship to the setting in your story.
What is your character feeling?
This is probably one of the more complex questions you can ask about your character. Is your
character angry? Is he or she happy, sad, tired, or depressed? Does your character love something or
someone? Asking questions about your character's emotional life might evolve into the production of a
character history.

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 III. TAOISM

In this module, you are provided with information about Taoism. After a brief explanation on its origin,
follows the sacred scriptures of this religion. Also, this deals with the philosophy of this religion in the
doctrines and ethical teachings which will be looked into detail.
In this module, you will learn about
1. Brief history of Taoism
2. Core teachings of Taoism
3. Fundamental beliefs and practices
4. Related issues of Taoism

Taoism (also known as Daoism) is a Chinese philosophy attributed to Lao-Tzu (c. 500 BCE, also
known as Laozi or Lao-Tze) which contributed to the folk religion of the people primarily in the rural areas
of China and became the official religion of the country under the Tang Dynasty. Taoism is therefore both
a philosophy and a religion. It emphasizes doing what is natural and "going with the flow" in accordance
with the Tao (or Dao), a cosmic force which flows through all things and binds and releases them.
The philosophy grew from an observance of the natural world, and the religion developed out of
a belief in cosmic balance maintained and regulated by the Tao. The original belief may or may not have
included practices such as ancestor and spirit worship but both of these principles are observed by many
Taoists today and have been for centuries.
Taoism exerted a great influence during the Tang Dynasty (618-907 CE) and the emperor
Xuanzong (reigned 712-756 CE) decreed it a state religion, mandating that people keep Taoist writings in
their home. It fell out of favor as the Tang Dynasty declined and was replaced by Confucianism and
Buddhism but the religion is still practiced throughout China and other countries today.

ORIGINS

The historian Sima Qian (145-86 BCE) tells the story of Lao-Tzu, a
curator at the Royal Library in the state
of Chu, who was a natural philosopher. Lao-Tzu believed in the
harmony of all things and that people could live easily together if
they only considered each other's feelings once in a while and
recognized that their self-interest was not always in the interest of
others. Lao-Tzu grew impatient with people and with the
corruption he saw in government, which caused the people so
much pain and misery. He was so frustrated by his inability to
change people's behavior that he decided to go into exile.
As he was leaving China through the western pass, the gatekeeper Yin Hsi stopped him because
he recognized him as a philosopher. Yin Hsi asked Lao-Tzu to write a book for him before he left civilization
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forever and Lao-Tzu agreed. He sat down on a rock beside the gatekeeper and wrote the Tao-Te-Ching
(The Book of the Way). He stopped writing when he felt he was finished, handed the book to Yin Hsi, and
walked through the western pass to vanish into the mist beyond. Sima Qian does not continue the story
after this but, presumably (if the story is true) Yin Hsi would have then had the Tao-Te-Ching copied and
distributed.

TEACHINGS: THE TAO-TE-CHING

A good reason to believe that Lao-Tzu was not the author of the Tao-Te-
Ching is that the core philosophy of Taoism grew up from the peasant
class during the Shang Dynasty (1600-1046 BCE) long before the
accepted dates for Lao-Tzu. During the Shang era, the practice of
divination became more popular through the reading of oracle bones
which would tell one's future. Reading oracle bones led to a written text
called the I-Ching (c. 1250-1150 BCE), the Book of Changes, which is a
book still available today providing a reader with interpretations for certain hexagrams which supposedly
tell the future.
A person would ask a question and then throw a handful of yarrow sticks onto a flat surface (such
as a table) and the I-Ching would be consulted for an answer to the person's question. These hexagrams
consist of six unbroken lines (called Yang lines) and six broken lines (Yin). When a person looked at the
pattern the yarrow sticks made when they were thrown, and then consulted the hexagrams in the book,
they would have their answer. The broken and the unbroken lines, the yin and yang, were both necessary
for that answer because the principles of yin and yang were necessary for life. Historian John M. Koller
writes:
Yin-yang thought began as an attempt to answer the question of the origin of the universe.
According to yin-yang thought, the universe came to be as a result of the interactions between the two
primordial opposing forces of yin and yang. Because things are experienced as changing, as processes
coming into being and passing out of being, they must have both yang, or being, and yin, or lack of being.
The world of changing things that constitutes nature can exist only when there are both yang and yin.
Without yang nothing can come into existence. Without yin nothing can pass out of existence (207).
Although Taoism and the Tao-Te-Ching were not originally associated with the symbol known as
the yin-yang, they have both come to be because the philosophy of
https://personaltao.com/taoism/what-is-yin-yang/ 6 Taoism embodies the yin-yang principle and yin-
yang thought. Life is supposed to be lived in balance, as the symbol of the yin and the yang expresses. The
yin-yang is a symbol of opposites in balance - dark/light, passive/aggressive, female/male - everything
except good and evil, life and death, because nature does not recognize anything as good or evil and
nature does not recognize a difference between life and non-life. All is in harmony in nature, and Taoism
tries to encourage people to accept and live that kind of harmony as well

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WU WEI
Wu wei’ does not signify not acting at all, but rather not forcing things on
their way. Wu wei signifies that the action should be immediately in
accordance with the Tao, hence the necessary will be done without
exaggeration, hyperbole or over eagerness as these are considered
obstructive, though rather in an easy, facile, non-disturbing way, leading to
overall harmony and balance. It is a state of inner tranquility, which will show
the right effortless action at the right time. (i.e. the harmonious complexity of

natural ecosystems- the tao- works well without man made changes- wu wei).
Wu wei could be characterized by the adaptability of the flow of water in a stream. I.e. Water
flows without awareness, or naturally, downriver (principle of tao). It might be blocked by an object
(branch or stone), though without contriving to do so, finds it way around the object. Water acts without
motive, it acts with wu wei.
If one wants to travel on water, one will use a boat or ship, since it is suitable as she moves around
adequately on water. If one wants to walk on land, a boat is not suitable to move around. One will only
be annoyed and only have difficulties, not gaining anything but inflicting damage to oneself.)
The wu wei is characterized by an activity undertaken to perceive the Tao within all things and to
conform oneself to its "way."
The practice and efficacy of wu wei are fundamental in Taoist thought.
The goal of ‘wu wei’ is alignment with Tao, revealing the soft and invisible power within all things.

LONGEVITY AND CHI

According to some interpretations of the Tao Te Ching, is “to live the

longest possible natural life by living in harmony with one’s social and
natural environment.” (Adler 2002, 47). In light of this, some Taoist
practices aim to prolong and enhance the life force or the chi of the
person. One of them is the “internal alchemy”.” The "chi" energy is
believed to be the life-breath of the universe. It is within and around
each person. People are born with all the chi they will need for their lifetimes. Often, people will do
exercises to help preserve their chi, therefore extending their lifetimes.

BELIEFS AND RELATED ISSUES IN TAOISM

Other Chinese texts relating to Taoism are the Chaung-Tzu (also known
as the Zhuangzi, written by Zhuang Zhou, c. 369-286 BCE) and the Daozangfrom

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the Tang Dynasty (618-907 CE) and Sung Dynasty (960-1234 CE) which was
compiled in the later Ming Dynasty (1368-1644 CE). All of these texts are based

19
on the same kinds of observation of the natural world and the belief that human beings are innately good
and only needed a reminder of their inner nature to pursue virtue over vice. There are no "bad people"
according to Taoist principles, only people who behave badly. Given the proper
education and guidance toward understanding how the universe works, anyone could be a "good person"
living in harmony with the earth and with others.
According to this belief, the way of the Tao is in accordance with nature while resistance to the
Tao is unnatural and causes friction. The best way for a person to live, according to Taoism, is to submit
to whatever life brings and be flexible. If a person adapts to the changes in life easily, that person will be
happy; if a person resists the changes in life, that person will be unhappy. One's ultimate goal is to live at
peace with the way of the Tao and recognize that everything that happens in life should be accepted as
part of the eternal force which binds and moves through all things.
This philosophy corresponds closely with the Logos of the Roman stoics like Epictetus and Marcus
Aurelius. They claimed the Logos was a force of reason and that nothing which happened according to the
Logos could be bad; only people's interpretations of what happened made those circumstances seem bad.
Taoism claims the same thing: nothing is bad in itself, only our self-interest makes us think that some
events in life are bad and others good. Actually, all things happen in accordance with the flow of the Tao
and, since the Tao is natural, all things are natural.
Unlike Buddhism (which came from India but became very popular in China), Taoism arose from
the observations and beliefs of the Chinese people. The principles of Taoism impacted Chinese culture
greatly because it came from the people themselves and was a natural expression of the way the Chinese
understood the universe. The concept of the importance of a harmonious existence of balance fit well
with the equally popular philosophy of Confucianism (also native to China). Taoism and Confucianism
were aligned in their view of the innate goodness of human beings but differed in how to bring that
goodness to the surface and lead people to act in better, unselfish, ways.

TAOISM & CONFUCIANISM

The philosophy of Taoism grew into a religion of the peasant classes of the Shang Dynasty, who
lived closely with nature. Their observations of the natural world influenced their philosophy, and one of
the things they incorporated was the concept of eternity. The tree which seemed to die came back to life
in the spring season and the grass grew again. They concluded that when people died they went
somewhere else where they continued to live, they did not just disappear. Everyone's ancestor who had
ever died still lived on in another place and in the presence of the gods; Confucians believed in this same
concept and revered their ancestors as part of their daily practices.
Ancestor worship became a part of Taoist rituals, although the Tao-Te-Ching does not support it
outright, and a reverence for nature and the spirits in nature - very similar to the Shintoism of Japan -
came to characterize Taoist observances. Even though Taoism and Confucianism are very similar in many
core beliefs, they are different in significant ways. A refusal to participate in strict rites and rituals sets
Taoism apart most dramatically from the philosophy of Confucius. Koller writes:
Confucius advocated rites and music so that the desires and emotions might be developed and
regulated, for therein lay the development of humanity. To Lao-Tzu, efforts to develop and regulate the
desires and emotions seemed artificial, tending to interfere with the harmony of nature. Rather than

20
organize and regulate things to achieve perfection, Lao-Tzu advocated letting things work to their
perfection naturally. This means supporting all things in their natural state, allowing them to transform
spontaneously (245).
To Lao-Tzu (the name is used here as an expression of Taoist thought), the more regulations one
demanded, the harder one made one's life and the lives of others. If one relaxed the artificial rules and
regulations which were supposed to improve life, only then would one find that life naturally regulates
itself and one would fall into pace with the Tao which runs through and regulates and binds and releases
all things naturally.

RITUALS
This belief in allowing life to unfold in accordance with the Tao
does not extend to Taoist rituals, however. The rituals of Taoist
practice are absolutely in accordance with the Taoist understanding
but have been influenced by Buddhist and Confucian practices so that,
in the present day, they are sometimes quite elaborate. Every prayer
and spell which makes up a Taoist ritual or festival must be spoken
precisely and every step of the ritual observed perfectly. Taoist
religious festivals are presided over by a Grand Master (a kind of High Priest) who officiates, and these
celebrations can last anywhere from a few days to over a week. During the ritual, the Grand Master and
his assistants must perform every action and recitation in accordance with tradition or else their efforts
are wasted. This is an interesting departure from the usual Taoist understanding of "going with the flow"
and not worrying about external rules or elaborate religious practices.
Taoist rituals are concerned with honoring the ancestors of a village, community, or city, and the
Grand Master will invoke the spirits of these ancestors while incense burns to purify the area. Purification
is a very important element throughout the ritual. The common space of everyday life must be
transformed into sacred space to invite communion with the spirits and the gods. There are usually four
assistants who attend the Grand Master in different capacities, either as musicians, sacred dancers, or
readers. The Grand Master will act out the text as read by one of his assistants, and this text has to do
with the ascent of the soul to join with the gods and one's ancestors. In ancient times, the ritual was
performed on a staircase leading to an altar to symbolize ascent from one's common surroundings to the
higher elevation of the gods. In the present day, the ritual may be performed on a stage or the ground,
and it is understood from the text and the actions of the Grand Master that he is ascending.
The altar still plays an important part in the ritual as it is seen as the place where the earthly realm
meets with the divine. Taoist households have their own private altars where people will pray and honor
their ancestors, household spirits, and the spirits of their village. Taoism encourages individual worship in
the home, and the rituals and festivals are community events which bring people together, but they
should not be equated with worship practices of other religions such as attending church or temple. A
Taoist can worship at home without ever attending a festival, and throughout its history most people
have. Festivals are very expensive to stage and are usually funded by members of the town, village, or
city. They are usually seen as celebrations of community, though are sometimes performed in times of

21
need such as an epidemic or financial struggle. The spirits and the gods are invoked during these times to
drive away the dark spirits causing the problems.

Afterlife
Taoism doesn't pay close attention to what happens after death, the afterlife. Taoist have an
ambition through their whole life which is immortality. Taoism stresses health and longevity through diet
and meditation. Death is nothing but a return to Tao. Taoist were traditionally not concerned with death
because they expected to live forever.

Taoism significantly influenced Chinese culture from the Shang Dynasty forward. The recognition
that all things and all people are connected is expressed in the development of the arts, which reflect the
people's understanding of their place in the universe and their obligation to each other. During the Tang
Dynasty, Taoism became the state religion under the reign of the emperor Xuanzong because he believed
it would create harmonious balance in his subjects and, for a while, he was correct. Xuanzong's rule is still
considered one of the most prosperous and stable in the history of China and the high point of the Tang
Dynasty.
Taoism has been nominated as a state religion a number of times throughout China's history but
the majority preferred the teachings of Confucius (or, at times, Buddhism), most likely because of the
rituals of these beliefs which provide a structure Taoism lacks. Today, Taoism is recognized as one of the
great world religions and continues to be practiced by people in China and throughout the world.

QUIZ 2

A. Multiple Choice Direction: Read each item carefully and write the letter of the best answer. Use your
notebook or prescribed answer sheet to write your answers.
1. Which of the following is NOT a Taoist practice?
A. Fortune-telling C. Feng Shui
B. Yoga D.Reading scripture
2. What is the name given to the ancient Chinese philosophy created through the writings of Lao Tzu?
A. Taoism B. Confucian
C. Buddhism D. Hinduism

3. How many chapters are there in the Tao Te Ching?

A. 81 chapters C. There are no chapters, first a giant book
B. Compiled in the 3rd century D. 43 chapters
4. is the religious text of the Chinese people.
A. Quran B. Bible
C. Tao Te Ching D. cellphone
5. Chinese people believed that there is life after death.
A. Yes B. Do not believe. C. No beliefs D. All of these

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B. True or False Direction: Write true if the statement is correct, write false if it is incorrect. Write your
answer on the prescribed answer sheet or notebook.
6. Chinese people believed in one God.
7. Does Taoism have sacred text?
8. Tao in Chinese belief is a man.
9. Quran is the religious text of Taoism.
10.Chaung-Tzu is the author of Tao Te Ching.

ACTIVITY 3
Choose a belief of Taoism you like and give your reason(s) why you like it. Draw the Yin-yang and
write your reasons in the white part of the drawing. (20 POINTS)

EXRCISE 5

Answer the following questions comprehensively. Write your answer in your PAPER.

1. What do you think is the most important message imparted by Taoism?

2. How should one relate to nature according to Taoism?
3. Discuss and explain the core teachings of Tao-Teh-Ching?
4. Give one belief in Taoism that you think is important. Share your thoughts on how you will apply and
practice in you daily life.

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