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X 5 X/ for positive internal pressure evaluation in partially enclosed

buildings where height 4 is defined as the level of the highest opening in
the building that could affect the positive internal pressure. For
buildings sited in wind-borne debris regions, glazing that is not impact
resistant or protected with an impact resistant covering, shall be treated
as an opening in accordance with Sec 2.4.9.3. For positive internal
pressure evaluation, X may conservatively be evaluated at height ℎ 5
(X 5 X3 )
, 5 gust effect factor from Sec 2.4.8

! 5 external pressure coefficient from Figures 6.2.6 or 6.2.8

, ! 5 internal pressure coefficient from Figure 6.2.5
X and X shall be evaluated using exposure defined in Sec 2.4.6.3. Pressure shall
be applied simultaneously on windward and leeward walls and on roof surfaces
as defined in Figures 6.2.6 and 6.2.8.
Low-Rise Building: Alternatively, design wind pressures for the MWFRS of low-
rise buildings shall be determined by the following equation:
W 5 X3 àÔ, ! Õ − Ô, ! Õá (kN⁄m ) (6.2.20)
Where,
X3 5 velocity pressure evaluated at mean roof height h using exposure
defined in Sec 2.4.6.3
, ! 5 external pressure coefficient from Figure 6.2.10
, ! 5 internal pressure coefficient from Figure 6.2.5
Flexible Buildings: Design wind pressures for the MWFRS of flexible buildings
shall be determined from the following equation:
W 5 X, ! − X Ô, ! Õ (k N⁄m ) (6.2.21)

Where, X, X , ! , and , ! are as defined in Sec 2.4.11.2 and , 5 gust effect

factor is defined as in Sec 2.4.8.
Parapets: The design wind pressure for the effect of parapets on MWFRSs of
rigid, low-rise, or flexible buildings with flat, gable, or hip roofs shall be
determined by the following equation:
W! 5 X! , !) (kN⁄m ) (6.2.22)

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Where,

W! 5 Combined net pressure on the parapet due to the combination of

the net pressures from the front and back parapet surfaces. Plus
(and minus) signs signify net pressure acting toward (and away
from) the front (exterior) side of the parapet
X! 5 Velocity pressure evaluated at the top of the parapet
, !) 5 Combined net pressure coefficient
5 +1.5 for windward parapet
5 −1.0 for leeward parapet

2.4.11.3 Design wind load cases

The MWFRS of buildings of all heights, whose wind loads have been determined
under the provisions of Sec 2.4.11.2, shall be designed for the wind load cases as
defined in Figure 6.2.9. The eccentricity e for rigid structures shall be measured
from the geometric center of the building face and shall be considered for each
principal axis ÔP , PH Õ. The eccentricity P for flexible structures shall be
determined from the following equation and shall be considered for each
principal axis ÔP , Pâ Õ:
È
<´ ³1.sµ¶F ÇÔ ´ R<´ Õ ³( É S<É )È
P5 (6.2.23)
È
1³1.sµ¶F ÇÔ ´ RÕ ³( É S)È
Where,

PR 5 Eccentricity e as determined for rigid structures in Figure 6.2.9

PS 5 Distance between the elastic shear center and center of mass of
each floor

./̅ , QR , ? , QS , @ shall be as defined in Sec 2.1.4

The sign of the eccentricity P shall be plus or minus, whichever causes the more
severe load effect.

Exception: One-story buildings with h less than or equal to 9.1 m, buildings two
stories or less framed with light-frame construction, and buildings two stories
or less designed with flexible diaphragms need only be designed for Load Case 1
and Load Case 3 in Figure 6.2.9.

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2.4.11.4 Components and cladding.

Low-Rise Buildings and Buildings with ℎ ≤ 18.3 m: Design wind pressures on
component and cladding elements of low-rise buildings and buildings with ℎ ≤
18.3 m shall be determined from the following equation:
W 5 X3 àÔ, !Õ − Ô, ! Õá (k N⁄m ) (6.2.24)
Where,
X3 5 Velocity pressure evaluated at mean roof height ℎ using exposure
defined in Sec 2.4.6.5
, ! 5 External pressure coefficients given in Figures 6.2.11 to 6.2.16
, ! 5 Internal pressure coefficient given in Figure 6.2.5
Buildings with ℎ > 18.3 m: Design wind pressures on components and cladding
for all buildings with ℎ > 18.3 m shall be determined from the following
equation:
W 5 XÔ, !Õ − X Ô, ! Õ (kN/m ) (6.2.25)
Where,
X 5 X/ for windward walls calculated at height 4 above the ground
X 5 X3 for leeward walls, side walls, and roofs, evaluated at height ℎ
X 5 X3 for windward walls, side walls, leeward walls, and roofs of
enclosed buildings and for negative internal pressure evaluation in
partially enclosed buildings
X 5 X/ for positive internal pressure evaluation in partially enclosed
buildings where height 4 is defined as the level of the highest opening in
the building that could affect the positive internal pressure. For
buildings sited in wind-borne debris regions, glazing that is not impact
resistant or protected with an impact-resistant covering, shall be
treated as an opening in accordance with Sec 2.4.9.3. For positive
internal pressure evaluation, qi may conservatively be evaluated at
height ℎ (X 5 X3 )
Ô, !Õ 5 external pressure coefficient from Figure 6.2.17.
Ô, ! Õ 5 internal pressure coefficient given in Figure 6.2.5. X and X
shall be evaluated using exposure defined in Sec 2.4.6.3.

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buildings with 18.3 m < ℎ < 27.4 m.

2.4.11.5 Alternative design wind pressures for components and cladding in

Alternative to the requirements of Sec 2.4.11.2, the design of components and

cladding for buildings with a mean roof height greater than 18.3 m and less than
27.4 m values from Figures 6.2.11 to 6.2.17 shall be used only if the height to
width ratio is one or less (except as permitted by Notes of Figure 6.2.17) and Eq.
6.2.24 is used.
Parapets: The design wind pressure on the components and cladding elements
of parapets shall be designed by the following equation:
W 5 X! Ô, ! −, ! Õ (6.2.26)
Where,
X! 5 Velocity pressure evaluated at the top of the parapet
, ! 5 External pressure coefficient from Figures 6.2.11 to 6.2.17
, ! 5 Internal pressure coefficient from Figure 6.2.5, based on the
porosity of the parapet envelope.
Two load cases shall be considered. Load Case A shall consist of applying the
applicable positive wall pressure from Figures 6.2.11 or 6.2.17 to the front
surface of the parapet while applying the applicable negative edge or corner
zone roof pressure from Figures 6.2.11 to 6.2.17 to the back surface. Load Case
B shall consist of applying the applicable positive wall pressure from Figures
6.2.11 or 6.2.17 to the back of the parapet surface, and applying the applicable
negative wall pressure from Figures 6.2.11 or 6.2.17 to the front surface. Edge
and corner zones shall be arranged as shown in Figures 6.2.11 to 6.2.17. , !
shall be determined for appropriate roof angle and effective wind area from
Figures 6.2.11 to 6.2.17. If internal pressure is present, both load cases should
be evaluated under positive and negative internal pressure.
2.4.12 Design Wind Loads on Open Buildings with Monoslope, Pitched, or
Troughed Roofs

2.4.12.1 General

Sign Convention: Plus and minus signs signify pressure acting toward and away
from the top surface of the roof, respectively.
Critical Load Condition: Net pressure coefficients CN include contributions from
top and bottom surfaces. All load cases shown for each roof angle shall be
investigated.

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2.4.12.2 Main wind-force resisting systems

The net design pressure for the MWFRSs of monoslope, pitched, or troughed
roofs shall be determined by the following equation:
W 5 X3 , (6.2.27)
Where,
X3 5 Velocity pressure evaluated at mean roof height h using the
exposure as defined in Sec 2.4.6.3 that results in the highest wind
loads for any wind direction at the site
, 5 Gust effect factor from Sec 2.4.8
5 Net pressure coefficient determined from Figures 6.2.18(a) to
6.2.18(d).
For free roofs with an angle of plane of roof from horizontal g less than or equal
to 5o and containing fascia panels, the fascia panel shall be considered an
inverted parapet. The contribution of loads on the fascia to the MWFRS loads
shall be determined using Sec 2.4.11.5 with X! equal to X3 .
2.4.12.3 Component and cladding elements
The net design wind pressure for component and cladding elements of
monoslope, pitched, and troughed roofs shall be determined by the following
equation:
W 5 X3 , (6.2.28)
Where,
X3 5 Velocity pressure evaluated at mean roof height ℎ using the
exposure as defined in Sec 2.4.6.3 that results in the highest wind
loads for any wind direction at the site
, 5 Gust-effect factor from Sec 2.4.8
5 Net pressure coefficient determined from Figures 6.2.19(a) to
6.2.19(c).
2.4.13 Design Wind Loads on Solid Free Standing Walls and Solid Signs
The design wind force for solid freestanding walls and solid signs shall be
determined by the following formula:
& 5 X3 , (kN) (6.2.29)

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Where,

X3 5 Velocity pressure evaluated at height ℎ (Figure 6.2.20) using

exposure defined in Sec2.4.6.3

, 5 Gust-effect factor from Sec 2.4.8

5 Net force coefficient from Figure 6.2.20

5 Gross area of the solid freestanding wall or solid sign, in m2

2.4.14 Design Wind Loads on Other Structures

The design wind force for other structures shall be determined by the following
equation:

& 5 X/ , (kN) (6.2.30)

Where,

X/ 5 Velocity pressure evaluated at height 4 of the centroid of area

using exposure as in Sec 2.4.6.3

, 5 Gust-effect factor from Sec 2.4.8

5 Force coefficients from Figures 6.2.21 to 6.2.23.

5 Projected area normal to the wind except where is specified for

the actual surface area, m2

2.4.15 Rooftop Structures and Equipment for Buildings with ã ≤ äå. æ ç

The force on rooftop structures and equipment with less than (0.1 ℎ)
located on buildings with ℎ ≤ 18.3 m shall be determined from Eq. 6.2.30,
increased by a factor of 1.9. The factor shall be permitted to be reduced linearly
from 1.9 to 1.0 as the value of is increased from (0.1 ℎ) to ( ℎ).

2.4.16 Method 3 - Wind Tunnel Procedure

2.4.16.1 Scope

Wind tunnel tests shall be used where required by Sec 2.4.3.1. Wind tunnel
testing shall be permitted in lieu of Methods 1 and 2 for any building or
structure.

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2.4.16.2 Test conditions

Wind tunnel tests, or similar tests employing fluids other than air, used for the
determination of design wind loads for any building or other structure, shall be
conducted in accordance with this Section. Tests for the determination of mean
and fluctuating forces and pressures shall meet all of the following conditions:

(i) Natural atmospheric boundary layer has been modeled to account for
the variation of wind speed with height.

(ii) The relevant macro- (integral) length and micro-length scales of the
longitudinal component of atmospheric turbulence are modeled to
approximately the same scale as that used to model the building or
structure.

(iii) The modeled building or other structure and surrounding structures

and topography are geometrically similar to their full-scale
counterparts, except that, for low-rise buildings meeting the
requirements of Sec 2.4.3.1, tests shall be permitted for the modeled
building in a single exposure site as in Sec 2.4.6.

(iv) The projected area of the modeled building or other structure and
surroundings is less than 8 percent of the test section cross-sectional
area unless correction is made for blockage.

(v) The longitudinal pressure gradient in the wind tunnel test section is
accounted for.

(vi) Reynolds number effects on pressures and forces are minimized.

(vii) Response characteristics of the wind tunnel instrumentation are

consistent with the required measurements.

2.4.17 Dynamic Response

Tests for the purpose of determining the dynamic response of a building or

other structure shall be in accordance with Sec 2.4.16.2. The structural model
and associated analysis shall account for mass distribution, stiffness, and
damping.

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