2012

MA202
The Art & Science of Extrusion
for Wire & Cable – Part II
Instructor: Dr. Yimsan Gau

Professional Development Courses

 Wire & Cable Extrusion

THE ART AND SCIENCE OF EXTRUSION

FOR WIRE & CABLE – PART II

DR. YIMSAN GAU

CABLE CONSULTING SERVICES
PRINCETON, NEW JERSEY
2012
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 POLYMER EXTRUSION IN WIRE & CABLE

Wire & Cable Extrusion

1. INTRODUCTION
* OVERVIEW OF WIRE EXTRUSION AND POLYMERS
2. POLYMER PROPERTIES
* SOLID, THERMAL, MELT
3. EXTRUDER COMPONENTS
* SCREW/BARREL, DRIVE
* HEATING/COOLING, INSTRUMENTATION
4. FUNCTION OF EXTRUDER SCREW
* SOLIDS CONVEYING, MELTING, MELT CONVEYING
5. MIXING/MIXING ELEMENTS
6. TYPE OF SCREWS
7. EXTRUSION DIE
8. EXTRUSION STABILITY
9. EXTRUSION OPTIMIZATION
10. CABLE EXTRUSION
11. TROUBLESHOOTING/CASE STUDY
12. NEW TREND IN EXTRUSION TECHNOLOGY
13. REFERENCES
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 1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 WIRE EXTRUSION LINE
Wire & Cable Extrusion

TYPICAL WIRE EXTRUSION LINE

Pay Off Pre Heater Extruder Control Panel Cooling Tanks Test Equipment Capstan/Puller Take Up

•••

CABLE PRODUCTION TYPE OF COMPOUNDS MARKET SEGMENT

PRIMARY INSULATION THERMOPLASTIC
POWER
CURING CROSSLINKABLE
TAPING INSULATION TELECOM
BUNDLING SOLID
FLAME RETARDANT
ARMORING CELLULAR
JACKETING SEMICONDUCTIVE
JACKET
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 1. INTRODUCTION
1.2 POLYMERS -- OVERVIEW
Wire & Cable Extrusion

POLYMER -- LONG CHAIN MOLECULES MADE FROM REPEATING SMALL UNITS

POLYETHYLENE

ETHYLENE BUTENE
MONOMER HOMOPOLYMER COPOLYMER
ETHYLENE

H H H H H H H H H H
C=C -- C -- C -- C -- C -- -- C -- C -- C -- C --
H H H H H H -C- H H H
C -- CH3

LINEAR

WEIGHT FRACTION
CRYSTALLINE THERMOPLASTIC BROAD

NARROW

AMORPHOUS CROSSLINKED
BRANCHED MOLECULAR WEIGHT
(THERMOSET)
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 1. INTRODUCTION
1.2 POLYMERS -- ADDITIVES/FILLERS
Wire & Cable Extrusion

PROCESSING STABILIZERS
ANTIOXIDANTS
UV STABILIZERS
FLAME RETARDANT ADDITIVES
IMPACT MODIFIERS
FILLERS/REINFORCEMENT
FOAMING AGENTS
CROSSLINKING AGENTS
COLORANTS
PROCESSING AIDS

PERFORMANCE REQUIREMENTS OF ADDIITVES:

EFFICIENT, STABLE UNDER PROCESSING AND SERVICE CONDITIONS, NO
SWEAT OUT, NO COLOR/ODOR, NOT TOXIC, NOT ADVERSELY AFFECT
PROPERTIES OF POLYMERS, AVAILABILITY AND COST EFFECTIVE

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 1. INTRODUCTION
1.2 POLYMERS IN WIRE & CABLE: PYRAMID CLASSIFICATION
Wire & Cable Polymers

COPA
SPECIALTIES PA 11/12
POLYMERS PEEK
PA 4/6
INCREASING VOLUME

PI

PERFORMANCE
ELASTOMERS

TEMPERATURE
FP
PET COPE TPU/TPV

PRICE
ENGINEERING PA 66 NITRILE
POLYMERS TPE CSPE
PBT EPDM
PC PA 6 TPO
PS EEA/EVA
ESSENTIAL ABS PP BUTYL
POLYMERS CPE SBC
PVC PE
NR
AMORPHOUS CRYSTALLINE

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 1. INTRODUCTION
1. 3 EXTRUSION PROCESS -- OVERVIEW
Wire & Cable Extrusion

POLYMERS AND ADDITIVES

FEED PREPARATION

CONVEYING MELTING PUMPING/MIXING DIE FORMING

MECHANICAL HEATING
ENERGY COOLING
COOLING
POSTFORMING

PRODUCTS

CABLE, PIPE
SHEET, FILM
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 1. INTRODUCTION
1.4 PARAMETERS AFFECTING EXTRUDER PERFORMANCE
Wire & Cable Extrusion
INPUT OUTPUT

POLYMER PROPERTIES PRODUCT QUALITY

SOLID THERMODYNAMIC MELT APPEARANCE
BULK DENSITY THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY SHEAR VISCOSITY PROPERTIES
FRICTION COEFF. SPECIFIC HEAT
PARTICLE SIZE/SHAPE LATENT HEAT
MELTING TEMP.
DECOMPOSITION TEMP.

EQUIPMENT
EXTRUDER
SCREW DESIGN DIE DESIGN
LENGTH FLOW CHANNEL
PERFORMANCE
HELIX ANGLE APPROACH ANGLE
CHANNEL DEPTH LAND LENGTH
MIXING SECTION

OPERATING PARAMETERS
BARREL/DIE/SCREW TEMPERATURES
PRODUCTION RATE
SCREW SPEED
HEAD PRESSURE (DIE DESIGN, SCREEN PACK)
POWER USAGE
STABILITY

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 2. POLYMER PROPERTIES
2.1 SOLID PROPERTIES
Wire & Cable Extrusion

BULK DENSITY
WEIGHT OF MATERIAL IN A CONTAINER DIVIDED BY VOLUME OF CONTAINER --
ASTM D 1895

EFFECT ON EXTRUSION PROCESS

HIGH COMPRESSED BULK DENSITY DISCHARGE PROBLEM
LOW BULK DENSITY CONVEYING PROBLEM
TAIL THIN DISK CURLY

COEFFICIENT OF FRICTION
RATIO OF SHEAR STRESS TO NORMAL STRESS AT INTERFACE
STATIC AND DYNAMIC COEFFICIENT OF FRICTION
INTERNAL AND EXTERNAL
f 
 yx

 yy
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 2. POLYMER PROPERTIES
2.2 THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES
Wire & Cable Extrusion

THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY
ABILITY TO CONDUCT HEAT, “K” IN [J/ms oC]
.
 dT
Q   KA
dX
LOW THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY OF POLYMER -- PROBLEM OF
HEATING/COOLING THROUGH CONDUCTION

SPECIFIC HEAT
ENERGY REQUIRED TO RAISE POLYMER TEMP. , Cp IN [kJ/ kgoC]

 
Q  m C (T  T )
p f i

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 2. POLYMER PROPERTIES
2.2 THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES
Wire & Cable Extrusion

LATENT HEAT
ENERGY REQUIRED TO MELT POLYMER AT MELTING TEMPERATURE
A FUNCTION OF LEVEL OF CRYSTALLINITY IN POLYMER

MELTING TEMPERATURE, Tm
- MELTING POINT OF CRYSTALLITES
- USUALLY A RANGE DUE TO NON UNIFORMITY OF CRYSTALLITES
- OFTEN TAKEN AS TEMPERATURE AT PEAK OF DSC CURVES

GLASS TRANSITION TEMPERATURE, Tg

- TRANSITION FROM BRITTLE TO RUBBERY STATE

PROCESSING TEMPERATURES
- CRYSTALLINE/SEMI CRYSTALLINE POLYMERS: 60 TO 100oC OVER Tm
- ARMORPHOUS POLYMERS: 60 to 100oC OVER Tg
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 2. POLYMER PROPERTIES
2.3 PROPERTIES OF A NUMBER OF POLYMERS(4)
Wire & Cable Extrusion

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 2. POLYMER PROPERTIES
2.3 SOLID AND THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES
Wire & Cable Extrusion

LOWER OUTPUT WITH AN EQUIVALENT GRADE OF PVC

EQUIPMENT
6” - 24 L/D EXTRUDER, BARRIER SCREW WITH MIXING HEAD
NO ELECTRICAL/MECHANICAL PROBLEMS
REVIEW

MATERIALS
SWITCH FROM ONE GRADE OF PVC JACKETING COMPOUND TO AN
EQUIVALENT GRADE
PROBLEM
ERRATIC OUTPUT, HEAD PRESSURE AND AMPS ON THE EQUIVALENT
GRADE OF PVC
QUESTIONS
ACTIONS TO DEFINE THE CAUSES OF THE PROBLEM?
RECOMMENDATIONS TO CORRECT THIS PROBLEM?

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 2. POLYMER PROPERTIES
2.4 MELT FLOW PROPERTIES
Wire & Cable Extrusion

VISCOSITY, [Pa.s] RESISTANCE AGAINST FLOW

SHEAR RATE, [1/s] DIFFERENCE IN VELOCITY PER UNIT NORMAL DISTANCE
V F APPLIED ON AREA A

SHEAR STRESS SHEAR RATE SHEAR VISCOSITY

F  V 
    
A Y 
 NEWTONIAN FLUID: VISCOSITY INDEPENDENT OF SHEAR RATE
 POLYMER VISCOSITY DECREASES AS SHEAR RATES INCREASE: SHEAR
THINNING OR PSEUDOPLASTIC BEHAVIOR
 POLMER VISCOSITY ALSO A FUNCTION OF TEMPERATURE, MW AND MWD
 RANGE OF POLYMER VISCOSITIES: 102 TO 106 PA.s VS. 10-3 FOR WATER 14
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 2. POLYMER PROPERTIES
2.4 MELT FLOW PROPERTIES
Wire & Cable Extrusion

CAPILLARY RHEOMETER

A RAM EXTRUDER FITTED WITH A CAPILLARY DIE

CAN MEASURE VISCOSITY OVER A WIDE RANGE OFSHEAR RATES

WALL APPARENT SHEAR RATE


 32V  VPDP2
 aw  V
DC3 4

APPARENT VISCOSITY
 CW FP DC3
WALL SHEAR STRESS a  

 aw 2DP4VP
F D P D
 CW  P C2  C C
LC DP 4 LC 15
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 2. POLYMER PROPERTIES
2.4 MELT FLOW PROPERTIES
Wire & Cable Extrusion

MELT INDEXER
A SIMPLE CAPILLARY RHEOMETER
WEIGHT = 2 .16 (I2), 5 (I5), 21.6 kg (I21)
SHORTER CAPILLARY LENGTH, Lc/Dc OF 4 vs. 20 TO 30 FOR A RHEOMETER
A MEASURE OF FLOW RATE, g/10 min.
TESTED TEMPERATURES: PE @ 190 C, PP @ 230C

APPARENT VISCOSITY
 CW  DC4 P
a  

 aw 128QLC

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 2. POLYMER PROPERTIES
2.4 MELT FLOW PROPERTIES
Wire & Cable Extrusion

LINEAR POLYMER

BRANCHED POLYMER

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 2. POLYMER PROPERTIES
2.4 MELT FLOW PROPERTIES
Wire & Cable Extrusion

MELT INDEX AND VISCOSITY

POLYMER A HAS A MELT INDEX OF 0.4

POLYMER B HAS A MELT INDEX OF 0.7
REVIEW

QUESTION
WHICH IS THE POLYMER THAT IS EASIER TO PROCESS?

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 3. EXTRUDER COMPONENTS
3.1 SCREW NOMENCLATURE
Wire & Cable Extrusion

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 3. EXTRUDER COMPONENTS
3.2 EXTRUDER DRIVE
Wire & Cable Extrusion

MOTOR
GENERALLY A VARIABLE SPEED DC MOTOR COUPLED TO A GEAR REDUCER
OTHER TYPES OF MOTOR USED: AC, HYDRAULIC DRIVE
IMPORTANT CHARACTERISTIC: CONSTANT TORQUE

THRUST/RADIAL BEARING
COUNTERACT AXIAL/RADIAL P max
FORCES DURING OPERATION

SCREW AND GEAR BOX COUPLING

KEY AND SLOT
SLEEVE AND AXIAL BEARING POWER

N max
SCREW SPEED

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 3. EXTRUDER COMPONENTS
3.3 HEATING AND COOLING
Wire & Cable Extrusion

OBJECTIVE TO MAINTAIN A TEMPERATURE PROFILE ON BARREL

BARREL HEATING GENERALLY BY ELECTRIC HEATERS

BARREL COOLING BY AIR -- SMOOTHER CONTROL

BY WATER -- MORE EFFECTIVE

SCREW COOLING GENERALLY BY WATER TO COMPENSATE FOR TOO

DEEP CHANNEL IN METERING SECTION

HEATING/COOLING REQUIREMENTS

MORE SEVERE FOR LARGE EXTRUDERS

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 3. EXTRUDER COMPONENTS
3.4 INSTRUMENTATION
Wire & Cable Extrusion

VERY IMPORTANT FOR PROCESS CONTROL AND TROUBLESHOOTING

RECOMMENDED INSTRUMENTATION
HEAD PRESSURE GAUGE
MELT TEMPERATURE THERMOCOUPLE
TACHOMETER
MOTOR AMPS, VOLTS (POWER)
ZONE TEMPERATURE OF BARREL AND DIE
AMPS ON HEATING ZONES

TYPE OF TEMPERATURE CONTROL

MANUAL
ON/OFF
PROPORTIONAL CONTROL
PID CONTROLLER

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 3. EXTRUDER COMPONENTS

Wire & Cable Extrusion

MOTOR OUT OF TORQUE BELOW max. RPM

EQUIPMENT 120 mm EXTRUDER EQUIPPED WITH 100 hp DC MOTOR

max. RPM 75
OPERATING RPM 60 WITH LLDPE
REVIEW

MATERIAL CHANGE FROM LLDPE TO MDPE

PROBLEM SCREW SPEED CAN NOT GO ABOVE 40 RPM EVEN

AFTER INCREASING BARREL TEMPERATURE BY 20 oC

QUESTIONS RECOMMENDATIONS TO REACH 60 RPM WITH MDPE?

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 4. FUNCTION OF EXTRUDER SCREWS
4.1 SOLID CONVEYING
Wire & Cable Extrusion

FEED RATE CONTROLLED BY INTAKE CAPACITY OF SCREW

FLOOD FEEDING
PROPER DESIGN OF HOPPER DISCHARGE ANGLE AND OPENING

MECHANISM OF SOLID CONVEYING BASED ON FRICTION

FIRST MODEL PROPOSED BY DARNEL AND MOL (1956)

APPROACH -- CONSIDER AN ELEMENT OF SOLID BED AND MAKE A

BALANCE OF ALL FORCES ACTING ON THE SOLID BED ELEMENT

MODEL VERY USEFUL TO STUDY EFFECT OF CHANNEL DEPTH, HELIX

ANGLE, FLIGHT SHAPE, MULTIPLE FLIGHTS, FLIGHT CLEARANCE ON
RATE OF SOLID CONVEYING

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 4. FUNCTION OF EXTRUDER SCREW
4.1 SOLID CONVEYING
Wire & Cable Extrusion

FINDINGS FROM SOLID CONVEYING MODEL

CHANNEL DEPTH 0.1 TO 0.2 D

HELIX ANGLE 15 TO 25o
FLIGHT SHAPE TRAPEZOIDAL BETTER THAN RECTANGULAR

NUMBER OF FLIGHTS LOWER RATE WITH MULTIPLE FLIGHTS

FLIGHT CLEARANCE NOT CRITICAL IN FEED SECTION

COEFFICIENT OF FRICTION HIGH ON BARREL, LOW ON SCREW

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 4. FUNCTION OF EXTRUDER SCREW
4.1 SOLID CONVEYING
Wire & Cable Extrusion

GROOVED BARREL SECTION

INCREASE COEFFICIENT OF FRICTION THROUGH GROOVES IN BARREL

CHARACTERISTICS OF GROOVED FEED SECTION

INTENSIVE COOLING OF FEED SECTION
SUBSTANTIAL LOSS OF ENERGY TO COOLING
HIGH PRESSURE IN FEED SECTION 100 TO 300 MPa (15000 - 30000 psi)
WEAR PRESSURE PROFILE

HIGH TORQUE GROOVED FEED

CONTAMINANTS IN GROOVE
LOW COMPRESSION RATIO SCREW PRESSURE

SMOOTH FEED

BENEFITS OF GROOVED FEED SECTION

IMPROVED OUTPUT AND STABILITY

DIE
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FEED SECTION
 4. FUNCTION OF EXTRUDER SCREW
4.2 MELTING
Wire & Cable Extrusion

SOURCES OF HEATING
VISCOUS HEATING THROUGH SCREW
HEAT CONDUCTION TO SOLID BED

DESCRIPTION OF MELTING BEHAVIOR MADDOCK (1959)

FIRST MELTING MODEL TADMOR (1966)

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 4. FUNCTION OF EXTRUDER SCREW
4.2 MELTING
Wire & Cable Extrusion

SEQUENCE OF CALCULATIONS

TEMPERATURE PROFILE IN MELT FILM (ENERGY/MOMENTUM EQUATION)

TEMPERATURE PROFILE IN SOLID BED (ENERGY EQUATION)

HEAT BALANCE AT INTERFACE SOLID /MELT TO FIND MELTING VELOCITY, AND

MELTING RATE

CROSS CHANNEL MASS BALANCE TO CALCULATE MELT FILM THICKNESS

DOWN CHANNEL MASS BALANCE TO FIND WIDTH OF SOLID BED

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 4. FUNCTION OF EXTRUDER SCREW
4.2 MELTING
Wire & Cable Extrusion

FINDINGS FROM MELTING MODEL

NUMBER OF FLIGHTS MULTIPLE FLIGHTS IMPROVE MELTING

FLIGHT WIDTH 0.05 TO 0.1 D

HELIX ANGLE 25 TO 30o

FLIGHT CLEARANCE 0.001 TO 0.002 D

TRANSITION SECTION LENGTH LONGER THAN CRITICAL LENGTH

MELTING RATE PROPORTIONAL TO WIDTH OF SOLID BED

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 4. FUNCTION OF EXTRUDER SCREW
4.3 MELT CONVEYING
Wire & Cable Extrusion

SEQUENCE OF CALCULATIONS

USE MOMENTUM EQUATION TO CALCULATE

VELOCITY PROFILE IN DOWN CHANNEL DIRECTION

VELOCITY PROFILE IN CROSS CHANNEL DIRECTION

ALLOW FOR OPTIMIZATION OF CHANNEL DEPTH AND HELIX ANGLE

EFFECT OF CLEARANCE

HIGH CLEARANCES REDUCE DRAG FLOW RATE BY A FACTOR OF d/H

WHERE d IS THE CLEARANCE AND H IS THE CHANNEL DEPTH

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 4. FUNCTION OF EXTRUDER SCREW
4.3 MELT CONVEYING
Wire & Cable Extrusion

DRAG FLOW FROM MOTION OF SCREW IN BARREL, QD

PRESSURE FLOW FROM BACK PRESSURE THROUGH BREAKER PLATE/DIE, QP

NEWTONIAN EQUATIONS
VOLUMETRIC DRAG FLOW RATE INDEPENDENT OF ANY FLUID PROPERTIES

VBZ    D  N  cos 
W  ( S  E )  cos 
1 dZ  dL / sin 
QD  VBZ  W  H D  SCREW  DIAMETER
2
N  SCREW  SPEED
1 dP
QP  W H3    HELIX  ANGLE
12  dZ S  PITCH
QNET  QD  QP E  FLIGHT  WIDTH
dL  AXIAL  DISTANCE
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H  CHANNEL  DEPTH 31
 4. FUNCTION OF EXTRUDER SCREWS

Wire & Cable Extrusion

EFFECT OF SCREW CLEARANCE ON MELTING/MELT CONVEYING

THE DIMENSIONS OF THE SCREW ON ONE OF THE PRODUCTION

LINES WERE MEASURED.

THE CLEARANCES IN THE MELTING AND METERING SECTIONS WERE

REVIEW

AROUND 7 TIMES THE NOMINAL CLEARANCE.

THE CHIEF OPERATOR WITH YEARS OF EXPERIENCE POINTED OUT

THAT HIS EXTRUDER RAN BETTER AS THE SCREW GOT OLDER, AND
ESPECIALLY WITH THE WORN SCREW.

QUESTION
DO YOU AGREE? WHY OR WHY NOT?

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 5. MIXING/MIXING ELEMENTS

Wire & Cable Extrusion

NON UNIFORM MIXING IN SINGLE SCREW EXTRUDERS

IN MELTING ZONE FROM SEQUENTIAL MELTING

IN METERING ZONE FROM DISTRIBUTION OF VELOCITY

NEED MIXING DEVICES TO IMPROVE PRODUCT QUALITY

MIXING ELEMENTS ON SCREW

MIXING ELEMENT DOWNSTREAM OF SCREW: STATIC MIXERS

MIXING QUALITY AND HIGH OUTPUT -- CONFLICTING REQUIREMENTS

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 5. MIXING/MIXING ELEMENTS

Wire & Cable Extrusion

MIXING: PROCESS TO REDUCE NONUNIFORMITY OF A COMPOSITION

NEED METHODS TO CHARACTERIZE MIXING QUALITY

MIXING MODELS HIGHLY SIMPLIFIED
MIXING DEVICES MOSTLY EMPIRICAL

TYPES OF MIXING
DISPERSIVE
DISTRIBUTIVE

DISPERSIVE DISTRIBUTIVE

WELL MIXED

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 5. MIXING/MIXING ELEMENTS
5.2 DISTRIBUTIVE MIXING
Wire & Cable Extrusion

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 5. MIXING/MIXING ELEMENTS
5.3 STATIC MIXERS
Wire & Cable Extrusion

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 5. MIXING/MIXING ELEMENTS
5.1 DISPERSIVE MIXING
Wire & Cable Extrusion

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 5. MIXING/MIXING ELEMENTS

Wire & Cable Extrusion

LOCATION OF DISPERSIVE AND DISTRIBUTIVE ELEMENTS ON SCREW

YOU’RE ABOUT TO ORDER A SINGLE FLIGHT METERING SCREW WITH

MIXING ELEMENTS TO MIX COMPOUND “A” WITH A COLOR
MASTERBATCH .
REVIEW

THE SCREW MANUFACTURER SUGGESTS A MADDOCK HEAD AND A SET

OF PIN.

QUESTION
THE SCREW MANUFACTURER ASKS FOR YOUR RECOMMENDATION ON
THE LOCATION OF THE MADDOCK HEAD AND THE SET OF PIN

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 6. TYPE OF SCREWS

Wire & Cable Extrusion

STANDARD EXTRUDER SCREWS

THREE SECTIONS
FEED
TRANSITION
METERING

TOTAL LENGTH -- 20 TO 30 L/D

LENGTH OF FEED 4 TO 8 L/D
LENGTH OF METERING 6 TO 15 L/D

FEED CHANNEL DEPTH 0.1 TO 0.2 D

COMPRESSION RATIO 2 TO 4
FLIGHT WIDTH 0.1 D
SQUARE PITCH, HELIX ANGLE 17.66o

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 6. TYPE OF SCREWS
6.1 METERING SCREWS
Wire & Cable Extrusion

MODIFICATION OF STANDARD SCREWS

ZERO FEED- ZERO METERING
VENTED (TWO STAGE SCREWS)
VARIABLE PITCH (DECREASING/INCREASING PITCH SCREWS)

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 6. TYPE OF SCREWS
6.1 METERING SCREWS
Wire & Cable Extrusion

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 6. TYPE OF SCREWS
6.1 METERING SCREWS
Wire & Cable Extrusion
BARRIER TYPE SCREWS

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 6. TYPE OF SCREWS
6.3 RATING OF SCREWS
Wire & Cable Extrusion

LITTLE AGREEMENT AS TO WHICH TYPE IS BETTER

FROM FUNCTIONAL ANALYSIS, MELTING LENGTH IS THE CONTROLLING

PARAMETER -- THE SHORTER THE BETTER

SELECTION CRITERIA
COST
PERFORMANCE

PRACTICAL EXAMPLES OF USE OF SCREWS

SINGLE/DOUBLE FLIGHT METERING PVC, FILLED COMPOUNDS

METERING WITH MIXING HEAD CROSSLINKED PE
BARRIER/METERING WITH MIXING HEAD LD, LLD, MD, HDPE

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 6. TYPE OF SCREWS
6.3 RATING OF SCREWS
Wire & Cable Extrusion

TYPICAL PRODUCTION RATES FOR SINGLE SCREW EXTRUDERS – 100 RPM

SIZE LENGTH RATE

in mm L/D lb/hr kg/hr

1 1/2 40 24 50 - 60 23 - 27
2 50 24 90 - 120 42 - 54
2 1/2 60 24 150 - 250 68 - 113
3 1/2 90 24 300 - 400 136 - 181
3 1/2 90 30 350 - 450 159 - 204
4 1/2 120 24 700 - 1000 317 - 453
6 150 24 1200 - 1600 564 - 725

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 6. TYPE OF SCREWS

Wire & Cable Extrusion

SCREWS FOR FILLED COMPOUNDS

CURRENT PRACTICE RECOMMENDS THE USE OF METERING SCREWS

WITHOUT MIXING ELEMENTS ON FILLED COMPOUNDS.
REVIEW

QUESTION

EXPLAIN THE REASONS FOR THIS PRACTICE.

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 7. EXTRUSION DIE

Wire & Cable Extrusion

BREAKER PLATE
MINIMIZE ROTATING MOTION
SUPPORT SCREEN PACK
Breaker Plate
PROVIDE SEAL

Conductor Die
SCREEN PACK
REMOVE IMPURITIES
IMPROVE MIXING
INCREASE BACK PRESSURE
IMPORTANCE OF SCREEN STACKING

Mandrel Guider Tip

COARSE SCREEN AGAINST BREAKER PLATE

TO SUPPORT FINE SCREENS
CROSSHEAD ASSEMBLY
USE SYMMETRIC SCREEN PACKS TO INSURE
CORRECT INSTALLATION

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 BREAKER PLATE

Wire & Cable Extrusion

47
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 BREAKER PLATE

Wire & Cable Extrusion

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 7. EXTRUSION DIE

Wire & Cable Extrusion

Die
Die

Conductor Cable Core

Guider Tip Guider Tip

Pressure Type Die Tube Type Die

Mainly Used For Insulation Mainly Used For jacketing

DRAW DOWN RATIO FOR TUBE DIE, DDR

DDR = (DO2 - DI2) / (dO2 - dI2)

DO IS THE OD OF THE BUSHING (CORE TUBE)
DI IS THE DIAMETER OF THE DIE PIN
dO, dI ARE THE OD AND ID OF PLASTICS ON CABLE

DDR FOR MOST JACKETING OPERATION: 1.5 TO 3.5

HIGH DDR INCREASE RISK OF SHRINKBACK
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 7. EXTRUSION DIE

Wire & Cable Extrusion

DIE WELD LINE

A NEW JACKET COMPOUND IS EVALUATED ON ONE OF THE PRODUCTION

LINES.
REVIEW

THE CHIEF OPERATOR REPORTED THE PRESENCE OF A WELD LINE ON THE

JACKET.

QUESTION

RECOMMENDATIONS TO ADDRESS THE PROBLEM?

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 8. EXTRUSION STABILITY

Wire & Cable Extrusion

EXTRUSION STABILITY RELATED TO:

FLUCTUATIONS IN EXTRUSION PARAMETERS

SPECIFIC OUTPUT RATE
MOTOR AMPS
MELT TEMPERATURE
HEAD PRESSURE

VARIATIONS IN PRODUCT QUALITY

APPEARANCE OF EXTRUDATE
DIMENSIONS OF EXTRUDATE (CABLE DIAMETER, WALL. ......)
PROPERTIES

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 8. EXTRUSION STABILITY

Wire & Cable Extrusion

MELT TEMPERATURE
DIFFICULT TO MEASURE
DEPTH OF THERMOCOUPLE INTO MELT STREAM > 1/8”
NOT CONSTANT: HAS SOME VARIATIONS
PEAK TO PEAK VARIATIONS: A MEASURE OF MELT HOMOGENEITY

HAND HELD THERMOCOUPLE:

AVERAGE OF MELT TEMPERATURE
NO INDICATION OF MELT HOMOGENEITY

MELT PRESSURE
NOT CONSTANT -- HAS SOME VARIATIONS
PEAK TO PEAK VARIATIONS -- A MEASURE OF EXTRUSION STABILITY

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 8. EXTRUSION STABILITY

Wire & Cable Extrusion

EXAMPLE OF GOOD/POOR EXTRUSION STABILITY

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 8. EXTRUSION STABILITY

Wire & Cable Extrusion

EFFECT OF METERING SECTION ON EXTRUSION STABILITY

THE LENGTH AND CHANNEL DEPTH OF THE METERING SECTION OF A

SCREW IS Lm AND Hm.
REVIEW

THE HEAD PRESSURE VARIATIONS CAUSE FLUCTUATIONS IN THE

DIAMETER OF THE FINISHED CABLE BEYOND THE SPECS LIMITS

QUESTION

CHANGES IN Lm AND Hm TO IMPROVE EXTRUSION STABILITY?

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 9. EXTRUSION OPTIMIZATION

Wire & Cable Extrusion

OPERATING VARIABLES TO BE OPTIMIZED

TEMPERATURE SETTINGS ON BARREL AND DIE
SCREEN PACK
SCREW COOLING (NOT RECOMMENDED ON WHOLE LENGTH OF SCREW
IN MOST CASES )

EQUIPMENT
SCREW DESIGN (L/D, CHANNEL DEPTH, PITCH OF DIFFERENT SECTIONS)
DIE DESIGN

55
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 9. EXTRUSION OPTIMIZATION

Wire & Cable Extrusion

BARREL/DIE TEMPERATURE PROFILE

 MOST COMMON TEMPERATURE SETTINGS

FEED TRANSITION METERING
LOW INTERMEDIATE HIGH
EXAMPLE, oF 340 360 380
OC 170 180 190
 HUMP TEMPERATURE PROFILE SETTINGS
LOW HIGH INTERMEDIATE
EXAMPLE, oF 370 390 380
OC 165 195 190
 REVERSE TEMPERATURE SETTINGS
HIGH INTERMEDIATE LOW
EXAMPLE, oF 400 390 380
OC 200 195 190
 DIE TEMPERATURE SETTINGS
20 TO 30 oF HIGHER THAN METERING ZONE
1O TO 15 OC
56
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 9. EXTRUSION OPTIMIZATION
ENERGY INPUT BARREL/SCREW
Wire & Cable Extrusion

4
SPECIFIC ENERGY INPUT

3 COOLING
100%
2
80%
BARREL VISCOUS
HEATING HEATING

1
0%
SCREW SPEED

57
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 9. EXTRUSION OPTIMIZATION

Wire & Cable Extrusion

RATE
RATE/RPM ~ CONSTANT
KEY PROCESS CURVES

RPM

MAX AMPS
AMPS

RPM
MELT TEMP

CURVES DEPEND ON
BARREL TEMPS

RPM 58
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 9. EXTRUSION OPTIMIZATION

Wire & Cable Extrusion

SCREW/DIE CHARACTERISTICS SCREW/DIE CHARACTERISTICS

FOR NEWTONIAN FLUIDS FOR NON NEWTONIAN FLUIDS

DEEP SCREW LOW PRESSURE

LOW PRESSURE
DIE
DIE
HIGH PRESSURE
HIGH PRESSURE
DIE
DIE
LESS VISCOUS
RATE

RATE
SHALLOW SCREW MORE VISCOUS

PRESSURE
PRESSURE OPERATING POINT 59
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 9. EXTRUSION OPTIMIZATION

Wire & Cable Extrusion

SCREW OUTPUT OUTPUT vs. RPM

300
RPM kg/hr
20 90
250
40 170
60 240
REVIEW

200
80 280

Output, kg/hr
150 OUTPUT, kg/HR

QUESTION 100

COMMENTS ON SCREW
PERFORMANCE? 50

0
0 20 40 60 80 100
RPM

60
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 10. CABLE EXTRUSION
10.1 WIRE & CABLE SEGMENTS
Wire & Cable Extrusion

TELECOM
SOLID INSULATION
FOAM, FOAM/SKIN INSULATION
CHEMICAL FOAMING
PHYSICAL FOAMING
JACKET
SLOTTED CORE/BUFFER TUBE

POWER
SOLID INSULATION
CV (CONTINUOUS VULCANIZABLE) PROCESS
JACKET

FLAME RETARDANT
SOLID INSULATION
CV PROCESS
JACKET

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 10. CABLE EXTRUSION
10. 2 CRITICAL PARAMETERS

Wire & Cable Extrusion

EXTRUDATE QUALITY
MATERIAL
MELT HOMOGENEITY
EXTRUSION STABILITY (CABLE DIMENSIONS)
DIE DROOL/MELT FRACTURE
SURFACE SMOOTHNESS/GLOSS

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES (T/E, AGING, SHRINKBACK)

MATERIAL
CONDUCTOR CLEANLINESS
CONDUCTOR PREHEAT
COOLING RATE
DEGREE OF MELT STRETCHING

ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES
MATERIAL
PROCESS STABILITY 62
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 10. CABLE EXTRUSION
10.3 PRODUCTION - PE SOLID/CELLULAR INSULATION
Wire & Cable Extrusion

INSULATION TYPE SOLID SKIN of FOAM of

foam/skin foam/skin
EXTRUDERS, mm 60 - 80 40 - 65 60 - 80
EXTRUDER LENGTH, L/D 20 - 24 20 - 24 20 - 24
EXTRUDER SCREW PE METERING SCREWS CR = 3:1
OTHER SCREWS: DOUBLE FLIGHT, BARRIER
SCREENS 20/60/20 OR 20/40/60/20
TEMP. PROFILE, oC 190 - 230 190 - 230 190 - 230
TEMP. HEAD/DIE, oC 230 - 240 230 - 240 200 - 210
MELT TEMP, oC 245 - 255 245 - 255 205 - 215

TOOLING ON SIZE ON/UNDERSIZE ON/UNDERSIZE

--- SINGLE/DUAL COEXTRUSION DIE
FIXED CENTERED
TIPS
ESTABLISH STANDARD CONDITIONSDOCUMENT SETUP, OPERATING DATA
KEEP SAMPLES FOR FUTURE REFERENCE 63
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 10. CABLE EXTRUSION
10.3 PRODUCTION - CELLULAR INSULATION
Wire & Cable Extrusion

FOAMED EXTRUSION
% Expansion (1/Capacitance)

Good Operating Point

Poor Operating Point

Poor Cell Quality

increasing Melt Temperature

64
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 10. CABLE EXTRUSION
10.3 PRODUCTION – FOAMING BY GAS INJECTION PROCESS
Wire & Cable Extrusion

Solid Extruder
Homogenization

Gas
Injection Melt
Homogenization
Nucleation
Final
Dimensional
Control

Water Trough Electrical Testing

Bubble Growth/
Expansion
65
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 10. CABLE EXTRUSION
10.3 PRODUCTION - CCV EXTRUSION LINE
Wire & Cable Extrusion

Typical Extruder Sizes for MV CCV Line

Conductor Conductor shield extruder: 60 mm - 20 L/D
Insulation extruder: 150 mm - 24 L/D
Insulation shield extruder: 80 mm - 20 L/D

Cleaner Continuous Vulcanizable Tube

Tube Length: 30 to 80 m
Pre Tube Temperature: 200 - 300°C
Heater Tube Pressure: 1 MPa

Triple head

Cooling Section
Cooling Length: 60 to 150 m

Take-up Reel

66
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 10. CABLE EXTRUSION
10.3 PRODUCTION – ZERO HALOGEN FLAME RETARDANTS
Wire & Cable Extrusion

EXTRUDERS 80 TO 150 mm -- 18 TO 24 L/D

SCREW METERING TYPE
DIE PRESSURE, SEMI PRESSURE, TUBE ON
SINGLE TAPERED SHORT LAND PREFERRED
SCREENS 20/80/20 OR 20/40/80/20

FILLER/COMPOUND TYPE MGH ATH PEROXIDE XL

TEMP. PROFILE , oC 150 - 190 150 - 160 100 - 115
DIE TEMP., oC 190 - 195 160 - 170 115 - 120
MELT TEMP., oC < 200 < 175 < 140

TIPS
DRYING OF COMPOUNDS ARE CRITICAL DUE TO HIGH FILLER LOADINGS

67
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 10.CABLE EXTRUSION
10.4 PRODUCTION – PVC/PE JACKETING
Wire & Cable Extrusion

EXTRUDERS 120 TO 150 mm -- 24 L/D

SCREW METERING W/MIXING HEAD, DOUBLE FLIGHT, BARRIER
DIE SINGLE TAPERED “TUBE” DIE (PVC TYPE DIE)
DIE LAND LENGTH: 2 TO 5 TIMES DIE GAP, ENTRY ANGLE: 25 TO 30O
CORE TUBE: HARDENED STEEL WITH CARBIDE COATING OR DIAMOND
INSERT AND USUALLY LARGER THAN CORE BY 0.125 TO 0.25 mm

SCREENS 20/60/20, 20/40/60/20

LINE SPEEDS 60 TO 100 ft/min. (20 TO 30 m/min.)
LLDPE TEMP. 170 TO 200 ON BARREL 200 TO 210oC ON HEAD/DIE
POLYMER MELT

CORE
TUBE

CORE

68
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 10 CABLE EXTRUSION
10.4 COOLING
Wire & Cable Extrusion

PLASTIC EXTRUDATE ORIENTED LEAVING DIE

RAPID COOLING OF EXTRUDATE AFTER LEAVING DIE

- FREEZE IN PLACE MOLECULAR ORIENTATION
- INCREASE AMOUNT OF STRESS RETAINED IN PLASTIC EXTRUDATE

INTERNAL STRESS AND SHRINKBACK

HIGHER INTERNAL STRESSES CAUSE HIGHER SHRINKBACK AFTER
EXTRUSION

RAPID COOLING OF SEMI CRYSTALLINE PLASTIC

ONLY ALLOW SMALL CRYSTALS TO FORM

THIN INSULATION – OUTER/INNER LAYER SOLIDIFIES RAPIDLY WITHOUT

RELEASING ORIENTATION LEADING TO POOR PHYSICAL PROPERTIES.

GRADIENT COOLING
LONG AIR GAP AND/OR
FIRST WATER THROUGH OF 6-8 m FILLED WITH WARM WATER, 60 – 70°C

69
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 10 CABLE EXTRUSION
10.4 EXAMPLE OF COOLING CALCULATIONS
Wire & Cable Extrusion

Simplified Model
• Cable insulation/jacket as a thick slab with
100
width equal to 2 times the wall thickness
• Calculate heat transfer coefficient from Nu
80 nb of turbulent flow over a flat plate:
Nu=hLw/kP=0.036*Prw^0.33*Re^0.8
• Calculate Biot nb= hLP/kP
Temperature, C

60
• Select ratio temp=(Tinner –Tw)/(TPini-Tw)
• Go to Heisler chart for slab
40
• Read Froude nb=aP t/LP^2
• Calculate t to reach temperature
• Calculate Cooling Length=t*line speed
20
h=heat transfer coefficient - k=thermal conductivity - LP= Wall Thickness
Lw= Cooling Length - Nu=Nusselt nb – Pr= Prandtl nb - RerP*V* Lw/w -
t=time
0 a= thermal diffusivity – r = density - Subscript P= PE or PVC, w=water
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Cooling Length, m
Example of cooling profile for:
PE Inner Temp PE Outer Temp LP =30 mils wall of polyethylene
PVC Inner Temp PVC Outer Temp V =400 ft/min (2m/s) line speed
TPini =392oF (200oC) PE, 338oF (170oC) PVC
Tw =86oF (30oC) 70
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 10. CABLE EXTRUSION

Wire & Cable Extrusion

POOR PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF INSULATION

CONDUCTOR COPPER, 1.63 mm OD (14 AWG)

INSULATION WALL 0.76 mm

MEASURED SPECS PLAQUE

REVIEW

TENSILE STRENGTH, MPa 11 12 13

ELONGATION, % 250 300 375

QUESTIONS
ADDITIONAL INFO TO DEFINE AND ADDRESS PROBLEMS?
RECOMMENDATIONS TO RESOLVE PROBLEMS?

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 11. TROUBLESHOOTING
Wire & Cable Extrusion

REQUIREMENTS FOR SUCCESSFUL TROUBLESHOOTING

GOOD UNDERSTANDING OF THE PROCESS
GOOD INSTRUMENTATION
STEP BY STEP APPROACH
CHANGE ONE VARIABLE AT A TIME
GIVE ENOUGH TIME FOR EXTRUDER TO STABILIZE
DOCUMENTATION, DOCUMENTATION, DOCUMENTATION!

TWO TYPES OF PROBLEMS: UPSET OR DEVELOPMENT

FOR EACH TYPE, NEED TO CONSIDER
MATERIAL, EXTRUSION, DOWNSTREAM

TIPS
NO SUBSTITUTE FOR EXPERIENCE
MURPHY’S LAW WILL APPLY -- IF IT CAN HAPPEN IT PROBABLY WILL
ALL PARAMETERS ARE IMPORTANT. DON’T OVERLOOK THE TRIVIAL
AS LINE SPEEDS INCREASE, SO WILL PROBLEMS 72
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 11. TROUBLESHOOTING

Wire & Cable Extrusion

POLYMER MELT IS PARTLY VISCOUS AND PARTLY ELASTIC

IN EXTRUDERS POLYMER MELT IS PRIMARY A VISCOUS FLUID

IN FLOW THROUGH DIES POLYMER MELT HAS A VISCOELASTIC BEHAVIOR

DEFORMATION HISTORY SEEN BY A POLYMER MELT

SHEAR HISTORY
ELONGATIONAL HISTORY

VISCOUS -- MELT FRACTURE, DIE LIP BUILD UP

ELASTIC -- DIE SWELL, SHRINKBACK

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 11. TROUBLESHOOTING

Wire & Cable Extrusion

RELATED TO VISCOUS CHARACTERISTICS OF MATERIALS

OCCURRED ABOVE A CRITICAL SHEAR STRESS
MELT FRACTURE

LED TO
POOR SURFACE APPEARANCE -- SHARK SKIN
SEVERE DEFORMATION OF EXTRUDATE

CONTROLLED BY
STREAMLINING FLOW CHANNEL
ENLARGING EXIT FLOW CHANNEL
CHANGING DIE MATERIAL OF CONSTRUCTION
INCREASING TEMPERATURE OF DIE
INCREASING MELT TEMP/REDUCING THE MELT VISCOSITY
REDUCING FLOW RATE/LINE SPEED
USING AN EXTERNAL LUBRICANT

74
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 11. TROUBLESHOOTING

Wire & Cable Extrusion

POLYMER NEXT TO DIE WALL MOVING OUT OF FLOW STREAM AND

COATED THE DIE LIP

PARAMETERS CONTROLLING DIE LIP BUILD UP:

DIE LIP BUILD UP

MELT VISCOSITY
SHEAR RATE/SHEAR STRESS IN EXIT FLOW CHANNEL
SMOOTHNESS AND MATERIAL OF CONSTRUCTION OF DIE
DEGREE OF MIXING

MINIMIZED BY:
LOW PRESSURE DIE
STREAMLINED FLOW IN DIE
USE OF DIE COATING (SMOOTHNESS)
HIGH MELT/DIE TEMPERATURE
LOW LINE SPEED
PROCESSING AID
75
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 11. TROUBLESHOOTING

Wire & Cable Extrusion

SWELLING OF THE EXTRUDATE AT THE DIE EXIT

RELATED TO ELASTIC CHARACTERISTICS OF MATERIALS
NOT UNIFORMLY DISTRIBUTED OVER THE EXTRUDATE
DEPENDENT ON TYPE OF POLYMERS, i.e., PE SWELLS MORE THAN PVC
DIE SWELL

76
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 11. TROUBLESHOOTING
Wire & Cable Extrusion

CAUSED BY ELASTIC RECOVERY OF STRAIN SEEN BY A POLYMER

BEFORE AND IN THE DIE
AFTER SHAPING AND COOLING
SHRINKBACK

SHRINKBACK DEPENDS ON TYPE OF POLYMERS

SHRINKBACK IS MINIMIZED BY:

USE OF PRESSURE DIE
HIGH WIRE PREHEAT
HIGH MELT TEMPERATURE
LOW DRAW DOWN RATIO
SLOW COOLING
LENGTH AFTER SHRINKBACK
LOW LINE SPEED
INITIAL LENGTH
THIN WALL
LOW VISCOSITY
LOW DENSITY
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 11. TROUBLESHOOTING

Wire & Cable Extrusion

EFFECT OF SCREW WEAR

DROP IN OUTPUT
HIGH MELT TEMPERATURE
LOWER PRODUCT QUALITY IN MANY CASES
SCREW WEAR

SHORT TERM WEAR --- A VERY SERIOUS PROBLEM

LONG TERM WEAR --- REPLACE WORN PARTS

WHEN IN DOUBT, DISASSEMBLE MACHINE AND MEASURE ALL

RELEVANT DIMENSIONS

78
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 11. TROUBLESHOOTING -- COMMON PROBLEMS

Wire & Cable Extrusion

PROBLEMS POSSIBLE CAUSE POSSIBLE SOLUTION

DIAMETER VARIATIONS SOLID CONVEYING ADJUST FEED TEMPERATURES

POOR MELTING RAISE TEMP. IN TRANSITION/METERING

ROUGH SURFACE INCOMPLETE MELTING RAISE TEMP. IN TRANSITION/METERING

USE FINER SCREENS/DIFFERENT SCREWS
SCRATCHES IN DIE RESURFACE TOOLING
MOISTURE IN COMPOUND DRY COMPOUND
GEL IN COMPOUND SWITCH TO NEW LOT OF COMPOUND
IMPROPER COOLING REDUCE SPLASHING

VOIDS CONTRACTION VOIDS REDUCE COOLING RATE

MOISTURE IN COMPOUND DRY COMPOUND
DIRTY CONDUCTOR/CORE USE CLEAN CONDUCTOR/CORE

OUT OF ROUNDNESS TOOLING NOT CENTERED ADJUST TOOLING

SAGGING AT DIE LOWER MELT TEMP/INCREASE COOLING
CABLE DEFORMING IN INCREASE COOLING/LOWER LINE SPEED
CAPSTAN/PULLER LOWER CAPSTAN CONTACT PRESSURE 79
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 11. TROUBLESHOOTING

Wire & Cable Extrusion

SWITCH FROM PVC TO PP COMPOUNDS

EQUIPMENT
2 1/2” -- 24 L/D EXTRUDER
CONVENTIONAL METERING SCREW WITHOUT MIXING HEAD
NO MECHANICAL OR ELECTRICAL PROBLEMS
REVIEW

MATERIALS
SWITCH FROM PVC TO PP

PROBLEMS
PROCESSING OF PVC WITHOUT PROBLEM
SEVERE SURGING REPORTED WITH PP

QUESTIONS
ADDITIONAL INFORMATION TO RESOLVE THE PROBLEM?
RECOMMENDATIONS TO ADDRESS THIS PROBLEM?
80
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 12. NEW TREND IN EXTRUSION TECHNOLOGY

Wire & Cable Extrusion

EXTRUSION
- GOOD MATCHING OF L/D TO COMPOUNDS
- LARGER MOTOR
- BETTER TEMPERATURE CONTROL
- BETTER INSTRUMENTATION
- WIDE CHOICE OF SCREWS/MIXING HEADS/DIES

WIRE LINES
- HIGHER LINE SPEEDS
- MORE AUTOMATED/LESS HANDS ON
- SOPHISTICATED SET UP TO PRODUCE COMPLEX CABLE DESIGNS

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 12. REFERENCES

Wire & Cable Extrusion

1. P.N. RICHARDSON, “INTRODUCTION TO EXTRUSION,” SOCIETY OF PLASTICS ENGINEERS PROCESSING SERIES,

CT, 1974.

2. S. LEVY, “PLASTICS EXTRUSION TECHNOLOGY HANDBOOK,” INDUSTRIAL PRESS INC.., N.Y., 2nd EDITION, 1989.

3. M.J. STEVENS, “EXTRUDER PRINCIPLES AND OPERATIONS,” ELSEVIER APPLIED SCIENCE PUB., N.Y., 1985.

4. C. RAUWENDAAL, “POLYMER EXTRUSION,” HANSER PUB., N.Y., 2005.

5. Z. TADMOR AND I. KLEIN, “ENGINEERING PRINCIPLES OF PLASTICATING EXTRUSION” R.E. KRIEGER PUB., N.Y.,
1978.

6. W. MICHAELI, “EXTRUSION DIES FOR PLASTICS AND RUBBER,” HANSER PUB., N.Y., 2 nd EDITION, 1992.

7. N.S. RAO, “DESIGNING MACHINES AND DIES FOR POLYMER PROCESSING WITH COMPUTER PROGRAMS,” HANSER
PUB., N.Y., 1981

8. R. BARTNIKAS, K.D., STIVASTAVA, EDITORS, “POWER AND COMMUNICATION CABLES THEORIES AND
APPLICATIONS” MC GRAW-HILL 2006

9. I.K. GILLETT, M.M. SUBA, EDITORS “ELECTRICAL WIRE HANDBOOK” THE WIRE ASSOCIATION INTERNATIONAL,
1983

10. SPE PLASTICS TECHNICIANS TOOLBOX – EXTRUSION, 2006

11. SPE GUIDE ON EXTRUSION TECHNOLOGY AND TROUBLESHOOTING, 2003 82

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