O Level

Mathematics

Audrey Simpson
University Printing House, Cambridge CB2 8BS, United Kingdom

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Contents

Introduction iv
Acknowledgements v

Chapter 1 Understanding Number 1

Chapter 2 Fractions, Decimals and Percentages 19

Chapter 3 Beginning Algebra 35

Chapter 4 Working with Numbers I 59

Chapter 5 Working with Algebra 102

Chapter 6 Geometry and Shape I 126

Chapter 7 Algebra and Graphs I 173

Chapter 8 Length, Area and Volume I 206

Chapter 9 Trigonometry I 234

Chapter 10 Transformations and Vectors 262

Chapter 11 Statistics I 294

Chapter 12 An Introduction to Probability 332

Chapter 13 Real Numbers 348

Chapter 14 Algebra I 364

Chapter 15 Working with Numbers II 384

Chapter 16 Algebra II 395

Chapter 17 Geometry and Shape II 428

Chapter 18 Algebra and Graphs II 445

Chapter 19 Length, Area and Volume II 475

Chapter 20 Further Algebra 501

Chapter 21 Trigonometry II 534

Chapter 22 Transformations, Vectors and Matrices 562

Chapter 23 Statistics II 598

Chapter 24 Further Probability 625

Revision and Examination Technique 642

Answers to Essential Skills, Exercises and Exam Practice Questions 645
Glossary 707
Index 713

iii
 Introduction

This book covers the entire syllabus for the Cambridge O Level Mathematics from
Cambridge International Examinations.
Students will find that the structure of the book allows them to proceed at their own pace
through each chapter by:

• working through the essential skills exercise

• reading the explanatory text
• following and understanding the worked examples
• working through each exercise with frequent checking of the answers at the back of
the book
• and finally working through the mixed exercise at the end of the chapter.

The book is designed to be worked through sequentially as the required skills and
knowledge are built up chapter by chapter and the questions in each chapter only refer to
work already covered.
The mixed exercises contain original questions and also carefully chosen questions from
past examination papers. These are taken from the O Level examination papers but some
appropriate examples are also taken from Cambridge IGCSE papers.
The mixed exercise should consolidate the work covered in the chapter and the past
examination questions help students to prepare for examination, and also a sense of
achievement that the student has taken steps towards their goal.
The Cambridge O Level Examination consists of two papers. Calculators are not allowed
in Paper One, but may be used in Paper Two. This book provides plenty of practice in, and
methods for, working without a calculator. Students are encouraged to work without a
calculator where possible.
A final section provides suggestions for revision and support as students prepare for
examination.
Note to students
• The text in each chapter introduces you to essential mathematical tools.
• The exercises help you gain confidence in using these tools.
• To make the best progress you should ensure that you understand the worked
examples. When you have read through each of these examples it can be very helpful to
cover up the working and try to reproduce it yourself.
• You should check your answers as you go along. It is important to practise working
correctly, and you will not help yourself if you work through a lot of questions

iv
 Introduction

incorrectly before you realise that you have been in error. Of course you will be helping no one if you
look up the answer before you try the question!
• If you work through the whole of this book you will have covered every topic in the O Level syllabus
and will have built up a bank of skills to help you be successful in the future and feel prepared for
examination.

Acknowledgements
I would like to thank Professor Gordon Kirby for his invaluable advice and encouragement. I am also
grateful for his efforts to check my work patiently for errors, both mathematical and stylistic.
I am also indebted to my sister, Pat Victor, for the times she sorted out frustrating problems with both my
computer and the software needed for the production of the manuscript.
Audrey Simpson

v
Understanding Number 1
Learning Objectives (Syllabus sections 1, 3, 4, 7, 8)

In this chapter you will learn to: • understand operations and inverses
• identify and use different types of number • recognise common mathematical symbols
• express numbers as products of prime • understand and order integers
numbers • convert numbers to and from standard form
• find the lowest common multiple and highest • use the recognised order of working in
common factor of two or more numbers calculations.

1.1 Introduction
By the end of this chapter, you should know more about the different types of numbers
that you need to study for the rest of the course. You may feel that you know most of it
already, but please work through it as there are plenty of things in it that will help you build
the skills you need to be successful in your course. Treat it as revision if you like.

1.2 Essential Skills NO CALCULATOR IN THIS EXERCISE

To get the most from this course, you should know the multiplication tables from 2 to 10
and be able to recall them without hesitation. It is also important to know the facts about
addition and subtraction.
Try the following mini-test and see how quickly you can answer the questions without
using a calculator.
a 4×6 b 3×7 c 8×5 d 9×8 e 2×7
f 6×9 g 8×8 h 9×5 i 7×7 j 3×6
k 6+7 l 5+8 m 9+7 n 3+5+9 o 8+9
p 11 + 9 q 13 + 6 r 3+4+5 s 16 + 5 t 4 + 17
u 9−4 v 11 − 7 w 15 − 9 x 7−4 y 16 ÷ 8
z 24 ÷ 6

1
1 Understanding Number

1.3 Sets of Numbers

The numbers that we use today have developed over a period of time as the need arose.
At first, humans needed numbers just to count things, so the simplest set of numbers was
Key terms the set of natural or counting numbers. We use the symbol ` to represent the counting
Natural (or Counting) numbers, and we use curly brackets to list some of these numbers.
numbers (`) are the
` = {1, 2, 3, 4, …}
whole numbers you
need to count The dots at the end mean ‘and so on’ because the list goes on forever. (Lists like these are
individual items, for often shown in curly brackets. However, this is not essential.)
example 1, 5, 72, 1000.
Integers (]) are the When addition and subtraction were introduced, a new set of numbers was needed.
counting numbers and For example, I had three goats. Three were stolen. How many goats do I have now?
also zero and negative
whole numbers, for We know that the answer is none or zero, which does not appear in the counting numbers.
example −50, −2, 0, 11, 251.
Subtraction also meant that negative numbers were needed, as we will see later in this
chapter.
Our next set of numbers is the set of integers, which have the symbol ], and include negative
whole numbers, zero and the natural numbers.
] = {…, −3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3, …}

Practical work • Make yourself an integer number line on a long strip of paper, like in Figure 1.1.
• Mark on it the integers from −20 through zero to +20. Make sure they are evenly spaced.
• Fold the strip and stick it on the inside cover of your exercise book so that you can unfold it
whenever you need it later in the course.

−5 −4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6

Part of the number line

Figure 1.1

After addition and subtraction came division and multiplication. What happens when we
Key term divide two by three?
Rational numbers
The answer is that we get the fraction 23. But where does that fit in with our latest set of numbers?
(_) are the counting
numbers, integers and
We need another set which includes all the fractions or rational numbers. This is the set _.
also numbers which can Rational numbers can all be expressed as fractions or ratios made up of one integer over
be written as fractions another. Remember, for example, that 5 can be written as 51, so integers themselves are
(or ratios), for example
included in the set of rational numbers. We can only list some examples of this set because
−20, − 3 0, , 50 1 .
4 2 there is an infinite number of members belonging to _.
Some examples of rational numbers are:
2 , 5 , − 2 1 , 3 , 5, 0, 29, −500, and so on.
3 2 2 100

2
 1 Understanding Number

The last set we need for our number sets is the set of real numbers, \. This includes all the
previous sets and also the irrational numbers. Irrational numbers are numbers which cannot
Key terms be written as fractions (or ratios) made up of one integer over another.
Real numbers (\)
include natural numbers,
The Greek letter π (which is spelled and pronounced as pi) is used to represent what is
integers, rational perhaps the most famous irrational number. Pi is the number you get when you divide the
numbers and also length of the circumference of a circle by its diameter. You can never find the value of π exactly.
irrational numbers. We will do some experiments later in the course to see how close we can get to the calculated
Irrational numbers are value of π.
numbers which cannot
Irrational numbers include square roots of numbers that are not perfect squares themselves,
be written as fractions,
and as we find in the case of π, irrational numbers are decimals that go on and on forever,
for example π, 2 , 51.
and never repeat any pattern.
The number π (= 3.1 4 1 5 9 2 6 5 3 5 8 9 7 9 3 2 3 8 4 6 2 6 4 ...) has been calculated to
billions of places of decimal by high-powered computers, using a more advanced method
than measuring the circumference and diameter of a circle. However, no recurring pattern has
been found.
Recurring decimals are not irrational numbers because they can always be written as fractions.
For example, 0.666 666 666 66… = 23 , and 0.285 714 285 714 285 714… = 72 .
Recurring decimals do, of course, have a repeating pattern, unlike irrational numbers.
Write down the sequence of numbers that recur in the decimal equivalent of 72 .
Figure 1.2 will help you to see how these sets of numbers build up.
Each number type has been drawn with two or three examples in it.
Another way to show these sets is on number lines like in Figure 1.3. Some examples of each
set are shown below. The arrows show that the sets go on forever in that direction.

1 2 3 4
4
1 2/3 2
−2 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4
51

−100 0 0.5 π −3.5 −3 −2 −1.5 −1 0 0.5 1 2 3 4

−3.5 −3 −2 −1.5 −1 0 0.5 1 2 32 3 4

3

Figure 1.2 Number sets Figure 1.3 Number lines

Example 1
2 3 1
1000
−99 21 − 41 π 0.3 0 2005
2
From the list given above, select:
a the natural numbers b the integers c the rational numbers
d the irrational numbers e the real numbers.

3
1 Understanding Number

Answer 1
a The natural numbers ( ` ) are: 2 and 2005.
b The integers (]) are: −99, 0, 2 and 2005 (because each larger set includes the set before it).
c The rational numbers ( _ ) are: −99, − 41 , 0, 1 , 0.3, 2 1 , 2, 2005.
1000 2
d The irrational numbers are: 3 and π (because these are decimals that go on forever with
no repeating pattern).
e The real numbers ( \ ) are: 2, 3 , 1 , −99, 2 1 , − 41 , π, 0.3, 0, 2005.
1000 2

Within the above sets of numbers there are other, smaller sets. Some of these sets are
Key terms discussed below.
Prime numbers
are divisible only
by themselves and
1 without leaving a 1.4 Prime Numbers, Factors
remainder, for
example 2, 11, 37, 101. and Multiples
Factors of a number can
be multiplied together to In this section we will use natural numbers only.
make that number, for Prime numbers are natural numbers that are only divisible by themselves or by 1.
example 1, 2, 3 and 6 are
factors of 6. Some examples of prime numbers are:
Multiples of a number
2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, …
are the result of
multiplying that number Notice that 1 is not counted as a prime number, and 2 is the only even prime number.
by any of the natural
numbers, for example
6, 12, 36 and 600 are Example 2
multiples of 6. Write a list of all the prime numbers between 20 and 35.
A number which can Answer 2
be divided by another 23, 29, 31
number without leaving (All the other numbers between 20 and 35 are divisible by numbers other than just
a remainder is said to
themselves or 1.)
be divisible by that
number. For example,
39 is divisible by 3.
The factors of a number are the natural numbers that can be multiplied together to make the
number.
For example, 2 and 3 are factors of 6 because 2 × 3 = 6.
NOTE:
You may need to find The multiples of a number are obtained by multiplying the number by other natural numbers.
a way of remembering
which are factors of a
For example, the multiples of 12 would include 12, 24, 36, 48 and so on.
number, and which are The factors of 12 in Figure 1.4 are shown multiplied together. This is called a product
multiples of the number. of factors. So numbers that are multiplied together are called factors, and the result of
Perhaps you can multiplying them together is called the product. There are other factors of 12.
remember that multiples
are bigger than the
original number, or A product of two factors of 12 --------------------- 3 × 4
that they are in the
multiplication tables
(times tables) for that 12
number.
×2 ×3 × 10
So the multiples of 2 are
2, 4, 6, 8, 10, …
Some multiples of 12 ------------------ 24 36 120

Figure 1.4 Factors and multiples of 12

4
 1 Understanding Number

Altogether the factors of 12 are: 1, 2, 3, 4, 6 and 12 (all the numbers that will divide into 12
without leaving a remainder).
Of particular interest are the prime factors. The prime numbers among the factors of 12 are 2
and 3. We can write 12 as a product of its prime factors:
12 = 2 × 2 × 3
or we can list the prime factors of 12: {2, 3}.
A factor tree is a neat method for finding prime factors of larger numbers. The following
example will show you how to make a factor tree.

Example 3
Write 200 as a product of its prime factors.
Answer 3
First make a list of the smaller prime numbers: 200
2, 3, 5, 7, … 2 × 100
Start by dividing by 2, and repeat until 2 × 50
the number will no longer divide by 2. 2 × 25 (25 will not divide by 2 or 3, so try 5)
Then work through your list in order,
5 × 5
trying 3, then 5 and so on.
5 × 1 (1 is not a prime number)
The answer is: 200 = 2 × 2 × 2 × 5 × 5.
(Check this by multiplying out.)
Example 4
a List all the factors of 18. b List the prime factors of 18.
c Write 18 as a product of its prime factors. d List three multiples of 18.
Answer 4
a {1, 2, 3, 6, 9, 18} b {2, 3} c 18 = 2 × 3 × 3
d For example, 36 (18 × 2), 54 (18 × 3), 90 (18 × 5).

Exercise 1.1 NO CALCULATOR IN THIS EXERCISE

99 6
1 5, −100, −3.67, π, 0, 1507, ,
7 1
From the list above:
a Write down all the real numbers. b Write down all the rational numbers.
c Write down all the integers. d Write down all the natural numbers.
e One of the numbers is irrational. Which is it?
2 a List all the factors of 30. b List the prime factors of 30.
c Write 30 as a product of its prime factors. (Multiply out to check your answer.)
d Write down three multiples of 30.
3 1, 4, 30, 45, 5, 15, 9, 1500, 3, 10
From this list choose:
a the multiples of 15 b the factors of 15.
4 Use a factor tree to find the prime factors of 240. Write your answer:
a as a list of prime factors b as a product of prime factors.
5 Write down all the prime numbers between 20 and 40.
6 Which of the following numbers are prime numbers?
37, 49, 53, 81, 87, 93, 101

5
1 Understanding Number

7 Write down a list of numbers between 80 and 90, including 80 and 90.
From your list find:
a two prime numbers b three multiples of 5 c a factor of 348.

1.5 Highest Common Factor (HCF) and

Lowest Common Multiple (LCM)
Key terms
The Highest Common ‘Common’ in this case means ‘belonging to all’.
Factor (HCF) of two or
We often need to find the factors or multiples of two (or more) numbers that belong to both
more given numbers
(or all) the numbers. One way to do this is to list all the factors or multiples of both numbers
is the highest number
which will divide into and see which factors or multiples occur in both lists.
both or all of the given The following example shows how this is done.
numbers without leaving
a remainder, for example 3
is the HCF of 9, 12 and 15. Example 5
The Lowest Common a i List all the factors of 30. ii List all the factors of 20.
Multiple (LCM) of two iii From your two lists find the common factors of 20 and 30 (not including 1).
or more given numbers
is the lowest number b i List the first four multiples of 30 (not including 30 itself).
which is a multiple of ii List the first five multiples of 20 (not including 20 itself).
both or all of the given iii From your two lists, find any common multiples.
numbers, for example 18
c Find the HCF of 30 and 20. d Find the LCM of 30 and 20.
is the LCM of 2, 6 and 9.
Answer 5
a i {1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 10, 15, 30} ii {1, 2, 4, 5, 10, 20} iii {2, 5, 10}
b i {60, 90, 120, 150} ii {40, 60, 80, 100, 120} iii {60, 120}
c 10 d 60

Using the above example you should see that finding the highest common factor (HCF) of
20 and 30 is simple. It is the highest number that appears in both lists of factors of both the
numbers. The HCF of 20 and 30 is 10.
Similarly, the lowest common multiple of 20 and 30 is the smallest number that appears in
both lists of multiples. The LCM of 20 and 30 is 60.
An alternative method for finding the HCF of two or more numbers is first to write them as
products of their prime factors, and then pick out the factors common to both lists. The
example shows this.

Example 6
a Write
i 360 and ii 980
as products of their prime factors.

b Find the highest common factor of 360 and 980

Answer 6
a i 360 = 2 × 2 × 2 × 3 × 3 × 5 ii 980 = 2 × 2 × 5 × 7 × 7
b HCF = 2 × 2 × 5 = 20

6
 1 Understanding Number

1.6 Tests of Divisibility without

Using a Calculator
Before you go any further you might like to try some tests of divisibility which can help you
save time in these questions. These tests show what will divide into a number without leaving
a remainder.
• Divisibility by 2: All even numbers divide by 2. (All even numbers end in 2, 4, 6, 8 or 0.)
• Divisibility by 3: This is a rather surprising test, but it does work!
Add all the digits (individual numbers) of the entire number together. If the result is 3, 6 or 9
then the number will divide by 3. If the result is 10 or more, keep adding the digits until you
get to a single digit. This is called finding the digital root of the number. If the digital root is
3, 6 or 9 then the number will divide by 3.
For example, the digital root of 2115 is 2 + 1 + 1 + 5 = 9, so 2115 will divide by 3 (check it on
your calculator).
Of course, it does not matter what order the digits of the number appear or if any zeroes
appear in the number, so 5121, 2511, 12 510, 105 120 (and so on) will all divide by 3.
To find the digital root of 3672:
3 + 6 + 7 + 2 = 18
1+8=9
So the digital root of 3672 is 9. Hence, 3672 will divide by 3.
• Divisibility by 5: All numbers ending in 5 or 0 will divide by 5. Therefore, 3672 will not
divide by 5 whereas 3670 will.
• Divisibility by 6: All even numbers with a digital root of 3, 6 or 9 will divide by 6. 3672 will
divide by 6.
• Divisibility by 9: All numbers with a digital root of 9 will divide by 9. 3672 will divide
by 9.

Example 7
a Test 552 for divisibility by 2, 3, 5, 6 and 9.
b Test 6165 for divisibility by 2, 3, 5, 6 and 9.
Answer 7
a 552 is even, so it will divide by 2.
5 + 5 + 2 = 12 → 1 + 2 = 3, so it will divide by 3.
552 does not end in 5 or 0, so it will not divide by 5.
552 is even and it will divide by 3, so it will also divide by 6.
The digital root of 552 is 3, not 9, so it will not divide by 9.
b 6165 is not even, so it will not divide by 2.
6 + 1 + 6 + 5 = 18 → 1 + 8 = 9, so it will divide by 3.
6165 ends in 5, so it will divide by 5.
Although 6165 will divide by 3 it is not even, so it will not divide by 6.
The digital root of 6165 is 9, so it will divide by 9.

7
1 Understanding Number

Exercise 1.2 NO CALCULATOR IN THIS EXERCISE

1 a List all the factors of 8. Then list all the factors of 12.
b Find the highest common factor of 8 and 12.
2 Find the highest common factor of 21 and 42.
3 a List all the factors of:
i 15 ii 35 iii 20
b Write down the highest common factor of 15, 35 and 20.
4 a List the first six multiples of 12 and of 8.
b Write down the lowest common multiple of 12 and 8.
5 Find the lowest common multiple of 3, 5 and 12.
6 Test 21603 for divisibility by 2, 3, 5 and 9. Explain your reasoning (see Example 6).
7 Test 515196 for divisibility by 2, 3, 5, 6 and 9. Explain your reasoning.

1.7 Operations and Inverses

Mathematical operations like addition, or division, have inverses which ‘undo’ the operation.
For example, 2 × 3 = 6, and 6 ÷ 3 = 2.
Division is the inverse of multiplication because it ‘undoes’ multiplication.
Also, multiplication is the inverse of division, as you can see in Figure 1.5.
What do you think is the inverse of addition? Look at Figure 1.6.

2 ×3 6 2 +3 5

2 ÷3 6 2 −3 5

Figure 1.5 Multiplication and Figure 1.6 Addition and

division are inverses subtraction are inverses

1.8 Squares and Square Roots,

Cubes and Cube Roots
The square of a number is the result of multiplying a number by itself.
For example, the square of 9 is 9 × 9 = 81, the square of 11 is 11 × 11 = 121, and the square of
35 is 35 × 35 = 1225.
The compact way of showing that the number is to be squared is to write it to the power of 2.
So the square of 9 is written as 92 = 81. Similarly, 112 = 121 and 352 = 1225.
Finding the square root of a number undoes the squaring, so for example, the square root of
81 is 9, the square root of 121 is 11, and the square root of 1225 is 35.
The compact way of showing that the square root of a number is to be found is to use the
square root sign: .
So the square root of 81 is written as 81 = 9; also, 121 = 11 and 1225 = 35.

8
 1 Understanding Number

You should be able to see that squaring and finding the square root undo each other.
Key term
As we have seen above, operations which ‘undo’ each
An inverse operation
other are inverses of each other. 3 square 9
reverses the effect of
another operation. For Hence, squaring and finding the square root are inverse
example, divide and operations (see Figure 1.7). square
multiply are inverses of 3 9
root
each other, or square We will come across more inverse operations later in the
and square root. course. Figure 1.7 Square and square
root are inverses
We can find the square of any number. My calculator tells
me that the square of 2.41 is 5.8081. It also tells me that
468.2896 = 21.64.

However, not all numbers have exact square roots. For example, 2 , 3 or 5 are numbers
with decimals that ‘go on forever’ without any repeating pattern; they are irrational numbers.

49 = 7 exactly, so 49 is a rational number. As we see above, 468.2896 = 21.64 , so

NOTE: 468.2896 is a rational number.
It would be helpful to
learn to recognise some My calculator tells me that 7 2 = 2.683 281 573 before it runs out of space on its display, so
of the irrational numbers, 7 2 looks as if it could be an irrational number, although we cannot tell for certain by this
such as π, 2 , 3 , 5 , method alone.
7 and 10 , so that you
can give examples when The numbers that you get when you square the natural numbers are called perfect squares.
required.
They are called perfect squares because on being square rooted they give whole numbers.
The first four perfect squares are 1, 4, 9, 16. Write down the next three square numbers.
The cube of a number is the result of multiplying that number by itself twice.
NOTE:
It would be useful to The cube of 4 = 4 × 4 × 4 = 16 × 4 = 64.
make a list of the first five The compact way of writing the cube of a number is to write it to the power 3, so the cube
square numbers and the
of 4 is: 43 = 4 × 4 × 4 = 64.
first five cube numbers
and learn to recognise The cubes of the first four numbers are 1, 8, 27, 64. What is the cube of the next number?
them. You will come
across them quite often. Cube numbers are also often called cubic numbers.
The inverse of cubing a number is finding the cube root, and you may find that your
calculator has a cube root button if you look carefully.
The cube root sign is 3 , so 3 27 = 3 (because 3 × 3 × 3 = 27).

Example 8
a 12, 6, 7, 36, 125, 5, 15, 4

From the list of numbers choose:

i a perfect square ii the square root of 49 iii 62
iv 25 v 53

b Use your calculator to find:

3
i 42.32 ii 9 61 iii 1.63 iv 64

Answer 8
a i 36 or 4 ii 7 iii 36
iv 5 v 125

b i 1789.29 ii 3.1
iii 4.096 iv 4

9
1 Understanding Number

Exercise 1.3 NO CALCULATOR UNLESS SPECIFIED

1 For each of the operations below state the inverse.
a multiply b subtract c square d cube root
2 Write down:
a the square of 6 b the square root of 9
c 23 d 25 e 102 f 103
3 Use your calculator to find:
3
a 5.22 b 82.81 c 100 d 1000

4 256 61 841 7 449.44

Use your calculator to choose from the above list:
a three numbers that you think are rational
b two numbers that you think are irrational.
In each case write down all the figures on your calculator display.
5 Write a list of the first seven square numbers.
6 Fill in the gaps in this list of cube numbers.
1, 8, …, 64, …, 216.
7 Using your answers to questions 5 and 6, write down a number which is both a perfect
square and a perfect cube.
8 Using your calculator, find another number which is both a perfect square and a
perfect cube.
9 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
Copy Table 1.1. Enter each of the numbers in the list above in the correct rows in your
table. (Some numbers may fit in more than one row.)

Natural numbers
Prime numbers
Even numbers
Multiples of 3
Square numbers
Cube numbers
Factors of 20
Table 1.1 Number types

Key term 1.9 Directed Numbers

Directed numbers We have looked at integers, which are positive (with a plus sign) or negative (with a minus
are numbers that can
sign) whole numbers, or zero, which has no sign.
be positive as well
as negative. The sign Directed numbers are also positive or negative but include the whole set of real numbers,
indicates a direction, for hence they also include rational and irrational numbers, as well as integers.
example −10 °C is 10 °C
below freezing. They are called directed numbers because they indicate a direction along a number line.
Think of a thermometer that measures temperatures above and below zero.

10
 1 Understanding Number

If the temperature starts at 4 °C and falls by 5 °C, it will end at −1 °C. This can be written
as 4 − 5 = −1.
The minus sign in front of the 5 shows the direction in which the temperature has moved from 4.
The minus sign in front of the 1 shows that it is 1 degree below zero. If the temperature starts
at 4 °C and rises by 5 °C, it will end at +9 °C. This can be written as 4 + 5 = +9.
The plus sign shows that the temperature is 9 degrees above zero. In practice we do not
usually write in the plus sign. If a number is written without a sign it is assumed that it is
positive. We are not restricted to whole numbers, so 4 − 5.5 = −1.5.

Example 9
°C a Use the thermometer shown in Figure 1.8 to find the new temperature in each case below.
7 i The temperature starts at −5 °C and rises by 4 °C.
6 ii The temperature starts at −1 °C and falls by 2 °C.
5
iii The temperature starts at −2.5 °C and rises by 5.5 °C.
4
3 b Use the thermometer to work out the following:
2 i 3−6 ii −5 + 9 iii −1 − 3.5
1
iv 3 − 5 + 6 v the difference between 4 °C and 7 °C
0
vi the difference between −2 °C and −4 °C
−1
−2 vii the difference between −2 °C and 4 °C.
−3
c Which is warmer, 2 °C or −5 °C?
−4
−5 Answer 9
a i −5 + 4 = −1, so the new temperature is −1 °C.
ii −1 − 2 = −3, so the new temperature is −3 °C.
iii −2.5 + 5.5 = +3, so the new temperature is +3 °C, (or just 3 °C).
Figure 1.8
b i 3 − 6 = −3 ii −5 + 9 = + 4 (or just 4) iii −1 − 3.5 = −4.5
iv 3 − 5 + 6 = − 2 + 6 = 4 v 3 °C (look at the thermometer)
vi 2 °C vii 6 °C

c 2 °C is warmer than −5 °C.

Exercise 1.4 NO CALCULATOR IN THIS EXERCISE

1 Draw a thermometer, with temperatures between −10 °C and +10 °C.
Use it to complete the following statements.
a −10 + 5 = b −2 − 3 = c 5−8=
d 0−7= e 6+2−3=
2 Figure 1.9 shows a marker in a reservoir which is used to show the level (in metres) of the
water. Copy the diagram and use it to answer the following questions.
a Overnight the water level sinks from the level shown in the diagram to −1.5 metres.
By how many metres has the water level in the 4
3
reservoir fallen? 2
1
b The water level falls another 2.1 metres. What is 0
−1
the new level? −2
−3
−4
c By how much does the water have to rise to
bring the level up to 2 metres? Figure 1.9 Water level

11
1 Understanding Number

3 Figure 1.10 shows the cross-section of a mountain region. Sea level is 0 metres. A climber starts
at 15 metres below sea level and climbs 100 metres. How high is he above sea level now?

Metres

40 100 m
20
0 Sea level
–15
–20

Figure 1.10

4
Bank Account

Start Money in Money out Balance

−$216 −$216

$503 (a)

$290 (b)

(c) $0.00

Table 1.2 Bank statement

My bank account is overdrawn by $216. The balance (the amount of money I have in the
bank) is shown in the first line in Table 1.2 as −$216. This means that I owe the bank $216.
a I pay in $503. What should my account balance show now?
b I write a cheque for $290 to pay for my electricity. Am I still overdrawn?
c If so, how much would I need to pay in to clear my debt?
We will learn more about directed numbers in Chapter 3.

1.10 Important Mathematical Symbols

You are already familiar with some mathematical symbols.
For example, +, −, ×, ÷, π, and =.
Another symbol which is sometimes used is ≠, which means ‘is not equal to’.
For example, 4 ≠ 7, or ‘four is not equal to seven’.
We also need to be able to use symbols to mean ‘is greater (or larger) than’, or ‘is less (or
smaller) than’.
For example, we need a mathematical way of writing ‘four is less (or smaller) than seven’.
This is written as 4 < 7.

12
 1 Understanding Number

We can also write 7 > 4. This means that ‘seven is greater than four’.
NOTE:
If you have difficulty
Suppose we wanted to say that the number of days in February is greater than or equal to 28?
remembering the This would be written as: Number of days in February ⩾ 28.
inequality signs, you So ⩾ means greater than or equal to and > means strictly greater than. What do you think ⩽ means?
might be able to
remember that the The signs > and < are called inequality signs.
inequality sign points to
the smaller number, or
even that the smaller end
of the sign is on the side
of the smaller number.
1.11 Ordering Integers
Getting Larger

−8 −7 −6 −5 −4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

Figure 1.11 The number line

The number line in Figure 1.11 shows the integers from −8 to 11. The rest of the real numbers
fit in their correct places along the line, so −2.5 would be halfway between −3 and −2.
The numbers get larger as you go from left to right.
For example, 8 > 3 (as we know).
Also, 1 > −2, −4 < 0 and so on.
This is also true for all the positive and negative real numbers, so −6.25 < 3.5.

Example 10
Use the number line you made earlier to insert the correct symbol between the following
pairs of numbers:
a 7 … 20 b −5 … 10 c 2 … −1
1
d −8 … −19 e 4.5 … −6.5 f − …−4
2
Answer 10
a 7 < 20 b −5 < 10 c 2 > −1
1
d −8 > −19 e 4.5 > −6.5 f − > −4
2

Exercise 1.5 NO CALCULATOR IN THIS EXERCISE

1 Write down the symbol for:
a pi b square root c cube root
d is not equal to e is less than f is greater than or equal to
2 Fill in the correct inequality sign between each of the following pairs of numbers.
a 2…4 b −2 … −5 c −10 … 4 d −1 … 0
3 Arrange the following integers in the correct order, starting with the smallest.
100, −1, −100, 0, −89, −76, 75, 101, 61, −62

13
1 Understanding Number

1.12 Standard Form

Sometimes we have to work with very large numbers (the distance from earth to the moon is
approximately 384 400 000 metres), or very small numbers (the thickness of a page in one of
my books is approximately 0.000 021 3 metres).
There is a neater way of writing these numbers without having to use so many zeroes.
It is called standard form. Using standard form we write numbers in the form a × 10n, where a
is a number greater than or equal to 1 and less than 10 (1 ⩽ a < 10) and n is an integer.
To write 230 000 (two hundred and thirty thousand) in standard form:
• First identify the place where the decimal point belongs (since it is not shown). We know
that if the decimal point is not shown, it actually comes after the last digit.
So 230 000 could be written as 230 000.0.
• Next count how many places the decimal point would have to be moved back until it is
between the 2 and the 3. You will see that it is 5 places.
• So 230 000 = 2.3 × 105. This is read as ‘two hundred and thirty thousand is equal to two
point three times ten to the power five’.
You will learn more about powers and working with standard form in a later chapter. For the
moment, you just have to understand how to write numbers in standard form.
To write 0.000 003 546 in standard form:
• Count how many places the decimal point would have to be moved forward to lie
between 3 and 5. It is 6 places.
• So 0.000 003 546 = 3.546 × 10−6 (this is ten to the power of negative six).

NOTE:
If it is a problem to remember which power to use, you should notice that numbers less than one
have a negative power and numbers greater than 10 have a positive power in standard form.

Example 11
a Write in standard form:
i 20 015 ii 175 iii 3 200 000
iv 0.127 v 0.005 06

b Write in the normal way:

i 9.013 × 10 −3 ii 1.0007 × 107
Answer 11
a i 2.0015 × 10 4 ii 1.75 × 102 iii 3.2 × 106
iv 1.27 × 10 −1 v 5.06 × 10 −3

b i 0.009 013 ii 10 007 000

14
 1 Understanding Number

1.13 Order of Working

in Calculations
Ram was asked to calculate 5 + 2 × 3, without using a calculator. His answer was 21.
He checked his answer with a calculator. The calculator answer was 11.
What has happened?
Both Ram and the calculator were correct in different ways.
Ram first added 5 and 2 and then multiplied by 3 (5 + 2 = 7 then 7 × 3 = 21).
The calculator multiplied 2 and 3 first and then added 5 (2 × 3 = 6 then 6 + 5 = 11).
It is clearly not satisfactory to get two different answers to the same question, so an order of
NOTE: working had to be decided to ensure that all calculations yield the same answer.
There are different ways
of remembering this The accepted order is:
order. For example, the • First Brackets.
made-up word BoDMAS • Next Division and Multiplication (in either order).
is often used. You could
• Lastly Addition and Subtraction (in either order).
say that the ‘o’ stands
for ‘of’, which usually Try to follow this example.
means multiply, as in 1 of
35 = 1 × 35.
7
To calculate 7 + 3 × 2 − (6 − 2) ÷ 2,
7
B (brackets) =7+3×2−4÷2 [(6 − 2) = 4]
D (division) =7+3×2−2 [4 ÷ 2 = 2]
M (multiplication) =7+6−2 [3 × 2 = 6]
A (addition) = 13 − 2 [7 + 6 = 13]
S (subtraction) = 11 [13 − 2 = 11]
Answer: 7 + 3 × 2 − (6 − 2) ÷ 2 = 11
Try putting this in your calculator in exactly the same order as it is written and see if
your calculator arrives at the same answer when you press the ‘equals’ button. Most
calculators now use this form of logic (order of working), but you need to be sure about
your own.
There will be more about this in Chapter 4.
Work out 4 × 6 ÷ 2 by doing the multiplication first.

4 × 6 ÷ 2 = 24 ÷ 2 = 12

Now do the same sum but do the division first.

4 × 6 ÷ 2 = 4 × 3 = 12

You should note that multiplication and division can be done in either order. Can you find a
rule for addition and subtraction?
It is very important that you learn this order of working, and know how to use it.

15
1 Understanding Number

Example 12
Work out the following, showing your working:
a 4 + 3 × 10 − 6 ÷ 2 b (4 + 3) × 10 − 6 ÷ 2 c 4 + (3 × 10) − 6 ÷ 2
d 4 + 3 × (10 − 6) ÷ 2 e (4 + 3) × (10 − 6) ÷ 2 f 4 + (3 × 10 − 6) ÷ 2
Answer 12
a 4 + 3 × 10 − 6 ÷ 2
= 4 + 30 − 3 = 31

b (4 + 3) × 10 − 6 ÷ 2
= 7 × 10 − 3
= 70 − 3 = 67

c 4 + (3 × 10) − 6 ÷ 2 (This is the same as (a) because the multiplication is done

= 4 + 30 − 3 = 31 first anyway, and so does not need brackets.)

d 4 + 3 × (10 − 6) ÷ 2
=4+3×4÷2 (Notice that 3 × 4 ÷ 2 = 12 ÷ 2 = 6 or 3 × 4 ÷ 2 = 3 × 2 = 6)
= 4 + 6 = 10

e (4 + 3) × (10 − 6) ÷ 2
= 7 × 4 ÷ 2 = 14

f 4 + (3 × 10 − 6) ÷ 2 (The working inside the brackets also follows BoDMAS, so

= 4 + (30 − 6 ) ÷ 2 3 × 10 first, then −6)
= 4 + 24 ÷ 2
= 4 + 12
= 16

Setting Out Your Working

It is important to be able to communicate in mathematics. You have to be able to explain to
another person how you have arrived at your answer in a mathematical and concise way.
If you write an equals sign, the things that come before and after that sign must be equal to
each other.
Look at how two students answer the same question, showing their working.
Rita writes: (10 + 2) ÷ 4 = 10 + 2 = 12 ÷ 4 = 3 Sara writes: (10 + 2) ÷ 4
= 12 ÷ 4
=3
Which is the easier to follow?
In the first case, Rita has written 10 + 2 = 12 ÷ 4. But this is not true!
Sara has set out her work so that the equals sign means exactly that. She has also used a new
line between each bit of working, which makes it easier to read.
The examples throughout this book will show you how to set out your work, so do practise
this right from the beginning. In general, writing one equals sign per line is good practice.
However, please note that in this book, for reasons of economy and space, it has not always
been possible to restrict working to one equals sign per line.

16
 1 Understanding Number

Exercise 1.6 NO CALCULATOR UNLESS SPECIFIED

1 Write in standard form:
a 12 000 b 365 c 59 103 d 6000 e 7 010 400
2 Write in standard form:
a 0.0035 b 0.156 c 0.0005 d 0.000 0043 e 0.0102
3 Write in standard form:
a 0.003 45 b 520 160 c 112
d 0.001 e 0.1001 f 2 million
4 Write as a normal number:
a 5.6 × 103 b 2.7 × 10−4 c 1.16 × 10−2 d 6 × 105 e 2 × 10−3
5 Calculate the following, without using a calculator:
a 4+7×2 b 12 ÷ 3 × 2 + 6
c 1 + 2 + 3 − (2 × 3) d (4 + 5) ÷ (4 − 1)
Check your answers with a calculator.
6 Use your calculator to work out the following:
a (5 + 7 − 2) ÷ (6 − 4) b 2×3+5×7 c 3 × (14 − 7) − 2
Check your answers by calculating without the calculator.
7 Put brackets in the right places to make each of these sums correct:
a 5−3×4=8 b 9 + 50 − 24 + 2 = 22 c 31 −15 ÷ 10 − 2 = 2

Exercise 1.7 NO CALCULATOR IN THIS EXERCISE

Mixed exercise
1 a {−5, −4, −3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17}
Using the set of numbers above, answer true or false to the following:
i All the numbers come from the set of real numbers.
ii All the numbers come from the set of rational numbers.
iii All the numbers come from the set of natural numbers.
iv All the numbers come from the set of integers.
b Insert an inequality sign to make the following true:
i −4 … 3 ii 0 … −2 iii 5 … −5 iv 3 … −2
c List (in curly brackets):
i the set of prime numbers less than 10
ii the set of factors of 45
iii the set of multiples of 3 less than 20.
2 Find the LCM of:
a 12 and 20 b 5 and 15 and 90
3 Find the HCF of:
a 16 and 12 b 20 and 8 and 12
4 Calculate the following:
3
a 2.12 b 33 c 81 d 8100 e 125

5 Write 600 as a product of its prime factors.

6 List all the factors of 160.

17
1 Understanding Number

Exam-style questions
7 Tasnim records the temperature, in °C, at 6 a.m. every day for 10 days:
−6, −3, 0, −2, −1, −7, −5, 2, −1, −3
a Find the difference between the highest and the lowest
temperatures.
b Find the median temperature. (4024 paper 12 Q2 June 2012)
8 Add brackets to the expression to make it correct.
1 + 72 ÷ 4 × 2 = 10 (4024 paper 01 Q3b June 2012)
9 Work out 43 − 52. (0580 paper 01 Q1 June 2004)
10 The Dead Sea shore is 395 metres below sea level. Hebron is
447 metres above sea level. Find the difference in height. (0580 paper 01 Q2 June 2004)
11 a Express 154 as the product of its prime factors.
b Find the lowest common multiple of 154 and 49. (4024 paper 01 Q6 June 2007)
12 Place brackets in the following calculation to make it a correct
statement.
10 − 5 × 9 + 3 = 60 (0580 paper 01 Q2 November 2004)
13 Write down a multiple of 4 and 14 which is less than 30.
(0580 paper 01 Q1 November 2008)
14 Write 0.003 62 in standard form. (0580 paper 01 Q7 June 2008)
15 Written as the product of its prime factors, 360 = 23 × 32 × 5.
a Write 108 as the product of its prime factors.
b Find the lowest common multiple of 108 and 360.
Give your answer as the product of its prime factors.
c Find the smallest positive integer k such that 360k
is a cube number. (4024 paper 01 Q8 November 2006)
16 a Write down the two cube numbers between 10 and 100.
b Write down the two prime numbers between 30 and 40. (4024 paper 01 Q3 June 2009)
17 a Write down all the factors of 18.
b Write 392 as the product of its prime factors. (4024 paper 01 Q6 June 2009)
18 The numbers 294 and 784, written as the product of their prime factors, are
294 = 2 × 3 × 72 784 = 24 × 72
Find
a the largest integer which is a factor of both 294 and 784
b 784 . (4024 paper 01 Q4 November 2009)

18
 Fractions, Decimals 2
and Percentages
Learning Objectives (Syllabus sections 5, 6, 8, 12)

In this chapter you will: • work with fractions, decimals and

• revise and learn more about fractions, percentages
decimals and percentages and, without using • order quantities expressed as fractions,
a calculator, decimals and percentages.
• convert between fractions, decimals and
percentages

2.1 Introduction
This chapter should give you the basic skills for working with fractions, decimals and
percentages that you will need later in the course. You may already have a good grasp of
the basic ideas, but misunderstandings and errors in the handling of fractions are often the
cause of difficulties in arithmetic and algebra. Make sure you can complete the examples
and exercises confidently.
You should not use a calculator when working through this chapter. It is important that
you first understand the principles so that you will be able to work more easily with
algebra. We will go on to more difficult work requiring a calculator in a later chapter.
Remember: no calculator in this chapter!

2.2 Essential Skills NO CALCULATOR IN THIS EXERCISE

Make sure you can calculate the following. Look back to the previous chapter if you need a
reminder.
1 Find the LCM of the following numbers:
a 2, 5 b 7, 14 c 3, 8, 12 d 3, 5, 12, 60
2 Find the HCF of the following numbers:
a 12, 36 b 18, 24 c 50, 150, 200 d 40, 24, 56

19
2 Fractions, Decimals and Percentages

2.3 Understanding Common Fractions

When we use the word fraction we normally think of numbers like 78 , 23 or 21.
Key term These are actually common or vulgar fractions.
Common or vulgar
In your O Level course the word fraction will normally mean common fraction, but sometimes
fractions are ordinary
fractions, for example 23 , it will help you to understand your work if you remember that decimals (decimal fractions)
usually just abbreviated and percentages are also fractions. Percentages are fractions with a denominator of a
21
to ‘fractions’. Here, 2 is hundred. For example, 21% is the same as 100 .
the numerator, 3 is the
As you know, common fractions have a number above the fraction line, and another number
denominator.
below the fraction line. These numbers are called the numerator and the denominator
respectively. So in the fraction 23 , 2 is the numerator and 3 is the denominator.
You can think of the denominator as the name of the fraction with the numerator showing the
number of fractions with this name. Figure 2.1 should help you to see this.

one third one third one third

Figure 2.1 Two thirds

The strip in Figure 2.1 has been divided into three equal parts.
Each part is one third ( 31) of the whole strip.
Three thirds( 33) make up the whole strip.
Two thirds ( 23 ) are shaded.
The numerator is the top number in a common fraction.
The denominator is the bottom number in a common fraction.
The denominator shows into how many equal parts the whole strip has been divided. The
denominator tells us the name of the fraction, in this case ‘thirds’.
The numerator shows the number of these fractions, in the case 2 ‘thirds’ have been shaded.
Look at Figure 2.2 to see this drawn out.

Numerator There are 2 ‘thirds’

2
3

Denominator The fraction is ‘thirds’.

The whole has been
divided into 3
equal parts.

Figure 2.2 Common fraction

Key term
Mixed Numbers and Improper Fractions
Mixed numbers Mixed numbers have a whole part and a fraction part. The mixed number 123 means there is
combine integers and one whole part and 2 thirds. Figure 2.3 shows two strips, each divided into three equal parts.
fractions, for example
3 2. Here, 3 is the whole One whole is shaded
5
number part and 52 is the
fraction part. Two thirds are shaded

Figure 2.3 One and two thirds

20
 2 Fractions, Decimals and Percentages

Figure 2.3 also shows how we can write a mixed number as an improper fraction. An improper
NOTE: fraction is a mixed number written entirely in fractions, so the numerator is larger than the
An improper fraction is denominator. The diagram shows the shaded parts of the two strips as either 123 or 53
often referred to as a ‘top (or 5 thirds).
heavy’ fraction, which
describes it well because
the top number is larger Equivalent Fractions
than the lower number.
Fractions can be given different names, and if the rules for doing this are followed, the
resulting fraction is of the same size as the original.

Key terms Equivalent fractions are fractions of the same size, but with different denominators (names)
and numerators. Look at Figure 2.4.
Improper fractions are
‘top heavy’ fractions, for
example 9 .
5
Equivalent fractions Figure 2.4 Two thirds
represent the same
number, for example Figure 2.4 shows the strip divided into three equal parts with the fraction 23 shaded as before.
3 , 6 , 90
5 10 150
all represent 53 If we divide each third into two equal parts you should see that there are now six equal parts,
of the whole. and four of these are equivalent in size to 2 thirds. Figure 2.5 shows this.

Figure 2.5 Four sixths

This shows that 2 = 4 . These two fractions are called equivalent fractions because they
3 6
represent the same amount of the whole strip. The rule for finding equivalent fractions is that
the denominator and numerator have to be multiplied (or divided) by the same number. In
this case the first fraction has had the numerator and denominator multiplied by 2. You will
find out more about this later.

More Examples of Fractions

We can work with things other than strips of paper to understand fractions. Imagine a bag
containing 20 sweets. You want to share these sweets equally among four people. The 20
sweets would have to be divided into 4 equal parts. There would be 5 sweets in each part.
Each part would be one quarter of the whole.
This could be written as 41 × 20 = 5, as shown in Figure 2.6.

Figure 2.6 Twenty sweets

2
How many counters would there be in 3 of 15 counters?
You can use the diagram of 15 counters in Figure 2.7 to help.

Figure 2.7 Fifteen counters

Look at the clock face in Figure 2.8.

We know that 15 minutes is a quarter of an hour, and that there are 60 minutes in one
( )
hour. The hour is divided into sixty equal parts. So each minute is 1 sixtieth 1 of an hour.
60
Therefore, fifteen minutes is fifteen sixtieths of one hour.

21
2 Fractions, Decimals and Percentages

11
12
1 Simplifying shows that 15 1
= (divide numerator and denominator by 15).
60 4
10 2 How do we work out what fraction of an hour is ten minutes?
9 3 Write ten sixtieths and simplify.
10 1
8 4 = (divide numerator and denominator by 10).
60 6
7 5
6 So ten minutes is one sixth of an hour.
Figure 2.8 Fractions of
Other shapes can be divided into equal parts.
an hour

Figure 2.9 Other representations

The rectangle in Figure 2.9 has been divided into six equal areas, and so each is 61th of the
rectangle.
Two of these are shaded. This means that 62, which is equivalent to 31 of the rectangle, is shaded.
The circle has been divided into 8 equal parts, and 3 are shaded, so 83 of the circle is shaded.

2.4 Working with Common Fractions

Changing a Mixed Number to
an Improper Fraction
As an example, the steps to be followed to change 3 1 to an improper fraction are given below:
5
• multiply: 3 × 5 = 15 (there are 15 fifths in three wholes, so 3 1 = 15 + 51)
5 5
• add: 15 + 1 = 16 (add the extra 1 fifth)
• answer: 16
5
(16 fifths).

Changing an Improper Fraction to

a Mixed Number
As an example, the steps to be followed to change 23
4
to a mixed number are given below:
• divide: 23 ÷ 4 = 5 remainder 3 (23 quarters = 5 wholes with 3 quarters left over)
• answer: 5 3 .
4

Equivalent Fractions
4
As an example, to change 10 to equivalent fractions:
4 2
• either multiply numerator and denominator by the same number: 10 = 8
× 2 20
4 2
• or divide numerator and denominator by the same number: 10 = 2.
÷2 5

Addition and Subtraction of Fractions

Before fractions are added or subtracted, we have to make sure they have the same name.
For example, look at Figure 2.10, which represents the addition sum 43 + 81. The only way we
can add these two is to write them with the same name (denominator).

22
 2 Fractions, Decimals and Percentages

Figure 2.10 Three quarters plus one eighth

To do this we divide each of the quarters into two equal parts, to make eighths. The three
quarters has become six eighths and can now be added to the one eighth, as in Figure 2.11.

Figure 2.11 Six eighths plus one eighth

It is now easy to see that 43 + 81 = 68 + 81 = 78 .
The answer is seven eighths.
It can be easier to add or subtract mixed numbers by changing them to top heavy (improper)
fractions first, as you will see in Example 1, part f iv.
You may have to change both fractions to equivalent fractions with the same denominator.
For example, consider 23 + 54 .
Follow these steps to see how to work this out:
• Change any mixed numbers to improper fractions.
• Find the lowest common multiple of both denominators (LCM of 3 and 5 is 15).
•
2 5 4
Change both fractions to equivalent fractions with the same denominator 3 5 + 5 ( 3 = 10 + 12
3 15 15 ).
• Add or subtract the fractions in the usual way 10 (
+ 12 = 22 .
15 15 15 )
• Simplify and change to a mixed number if necessary ( 22 = 1 7
15 15 ).
• Answer: 23 + 54 = 115
7
.

Simplifying Fractions
4
Simplifying fractions refers to writing them in the simplest equivalent form. For example, 10
Key terms can be simplified by dividing both the numerator and denominator by 2. This means
4 2
Simplifying fractions that 10 = .
5
means expressing them
This is often called ‘cancelling down’ the fraction.
in their lowest terms, for
example 20 35
simplifies 42
For example, the steps to be followed to simplify 162 are given below.
to 47 .
Either:
Cancelling down is
writing a fraction in a • Find any common factor and divide the numerator and denominator by this number:
simpler form by dividing 42 ÷ 2 = 21
the numerator and 162 ÷ 2 81
denominator by the ÷3 = 7
same number. • Repeat if possible: 21
81÷ 3 27
.
• Stop when there are no more common factors.
7
• Answer: 27 .
Or:
• Find the HCF of the numerator and denominator to simplify in one step:
42 ÷ 6 7
=
162 ÷ 6 27

23
2 Fractions, Decimals and Percentages

Example 1
a Change the top heavy (improper) fraction 27 to a mixed number.

b Change the mixed number 4 3 to an improper fraction.

5

c Which of these fractions are equivalent?

20 2 3 4 3 8
, , , , ,
50 5 10 10 5 20
4
d Change 5 to twentieths.

e Fill in the blank spaces to give equivalent fractions.

3 30 15
= = =
16 8
f Calculate, simplifying and writing the answers as mixed numbers if necessary:
i 3 + 56 ii 58 + 21 iii 43 − 23

iv 2 1 4 5 v 1− 7
3 6 9
g Write each of the following fractions in their simplest forms:
i 5 ii 6 iii 18
40 48 72

h How many sheep are there in 3 fifths of a flock of 25 sheep?

i How many students are there in 27 of a class of 35?

Answer 1
7 = 31 4 3 = 23 20
a
2 2
b
5 5
c =2= 4 = 8
50 5 10 20
4=4 4 = 16 6 = 3 = 30 = 15
d e
5 5 4 20 16 8 80 40
f i 3 5 35 ii 5+1=5+4 = 9 = 11
6 6 8 2 8 8 8 8

iii 3 −2 = 3 3−2 4 = 9 − 8 = 1 iv 21+ 45 = 7 + 29 = 14 + 29 = 43 = 7 1

4 3 4 3 3 4 12 12 12 3 6 3 6 6 6 6 6

v 1− 7 = 9−7 = 2
9 9 9 9

g i 5 = 5 5 = 1 ii 6 = 1 iii 18 = 18 ÷ 2 = 9 = 1
40 40 ÷ 5 8 48 8 72 72 ÷ 2 36 4

h One fifth of the flock is 5 sheep, so 3 fifths is 15 sheep.

1
i 7
of 35 = 5, so 72 of 35 = 10. Answer: 10 students.

Exercise 2.1 NO CALCULATOR IN THIS EXERCISE

1 Change to mixed numbers:
a 19 b 201 c 33
5 10 2
2 Change to improper fractions:
a 37 b 100 21 11
c 3 12
8
3 Fill in the blank spaces to give equivalent fractions:
5 = 10 = = 7 = 21
30 3
4 Write the following as hundredths (denominator = 100):
4 19
a 7 b 25 c 20
10
52 81
d e 900
200
5 Calculate the following, simplifying and writing your answers as mixed numbers if
necessary:
a 73 + 72 b 54 − 53 c 127 −1
6
d 92 + 43
e 2 51 + 1 43 f 3 2 − 11 g 1− 6 h 1− 5
5 2 7 12
24
 2 Fractions, Decimals and Percentages

6 Simplify:
22 60 45 45
a 77
b 72 360
c 60
d
7 How many sweets would be in a bag of 28 sweets after 41 of them had been eaten?
8 One third of a class of 45 students has gone away on a field trip. How many students have
gone on the trip?

Multiplying and Dividing Fractions

The first part of Figure 2.12 shows a strip divided into thirds, with one third shaded.
We can use this figure to work out 21 × 31 , which means 21 of 31.
The second part of Figure 2.12 shows the same strip with the shaded third divided into two
equal parts. Each of these is one half of a third of the strip.
You should see that each of these is equal to one sixth of the whole strip.
So 21 × 31 = 61 , which means 21 of 31 = 61 .

1
3

1
6

Figure 2.12 Multiplying fractions

You will probably find multiplying and dividing fractions easier than adding and
subtracting.
The rules for multiplying fractions are:
• Change any mixed numbers to top heavy (improper) fractions.
• Write any whole numbers over one.
• Multiply the numerators together, and multiply the denominators together.
• Simplify the answer if necessary, and change to a mixed number if necessary.
Applying these rules to our example above:
1× 1 = 1 1 = 1
2 3 2 3 6

Example 2
a Multiply the following fractions, simplifying and writing your answers as mixed numbers
if necessary:
i 3× 3 ii 5 × 2 iii 6 × 2 1 iv 12 × 2 1
4 6 3 7 3 3 5

b Calculate the following:

(5 ) ( 23 )
2 3
i 3 ii
Answer 2
3 3 3 9 21 5 × 2 = 10 = 5
a i 3 4 1 4 4 4
ii 6 3 18 9
6 ×21 6 7 42 2
iii 2 iv 12 × 2 1 5 11 55 11 32
7 3 7 3 21 1 3 5 3 5 15 3 3

() ()
2 3
3 = 3×3= 9 2
b i 5 5 5 25
ii =2×2×2= 8
3 3 3 3 27

25
2 Fractions, Decimals and Percentages

You have probably noticed that in Example 2a parts ii, iii and iv the working could have been
shortened considerably by simplifying earlier. We will look at this now.
In Example 2a ii:
5×2=5 2=5 2÷ 2 = 5
6 3 6 3 6 3÷ 2 9

So we could have simplified before doing the multiplication:

5 ×2 = 5 = 5
6 3 3 3 9 (dividing the top and bottom of the fraction by 2)
In Example 2a iii:
6 ×21 6 7 6 2 (divide top and bottom by 7 first, and then by 3)
7 3 7 3 3
Try Example 2(a) (iv) yourself.
Warning: This only works for multiplication, so do not use it in addition or subtraction!
How can we visualise division? Remember that if you do the division 10 ÷ 2 you are finding
how many twos there are in ten. The answer of course is 5.
Think about 43 ÷ 81 . This means ‘how many eighths are there in three quarters?’
Figure 2.13 shows one strip with 43 shaded, and another divided into eight equal parts and
shaded to show that 6 eighths will go exactly into 43 . So the answer is 6.
i.e. 43 ÷ 81 = 6

1 1 1
4 4 4

1 1 1 1 1 1
8 8 8 8 8 8

Figure 2.13 Dividing fractions

The rules for dividing fractions are:
• Change any mixed numbers to top heavy (improper) fractions.
• Write any whole numbers over one.
• Change the division sign to multiplication.
• Turn the second fraction upside down.
• Proceed as for multiplication.
Using these rules for 43 ÷ 81 , we get:
3 ÷ 1 = 3 × 8 = 24 =6
4 8 4 1 4

Example 3
Do the following divisions:
a 5÷3 b 3÷1 c 12 ÷ 4 3 d 2÷5
6 4 2 5 5 5 8
Answer 3
a 5 ÷3= 5 ÷ 3 = 5 × 1= 5
6 6 1 6 3 18

b 3 ÷ 1 = 3 × 2 = 6 = 3 = 11 (or 3 × 2 = 3 = 11 by dividing top and bottom by 2)

4 2 4 1 4 2 2 4 1 2 2

c 12 ÷ 4 3 = 7 ÷ 23 = 7 × 5 = 7 (by dividing top and bottom by 5)

5 5 5 5 5 23 23
d 2 ÷ 5 = 2 × 8 = 16 (Be careful! You cannot divide top and bottom by 5 here!)
5 8 5 5 25

26
 2 Fractions, Decimals and Percentages

Looking at these examples you should see that you can do the simplifying shortcut only
after the second fraction has been inverted and the sign has changed from division to
multiplication.

Exercise 2.2 NO CALCULATOR IN THIS EXERCISE

Calculate the following, simplifying your answers and changing to mixed numbers as
necessary:
1 a 3 × 51 b 3 × 52 c 3 × 10
4
1× 1 3×1 5×3
2 a b c 8 4
3 6 4 7
5× 1 7×2 4×3
3 a b c 9 8
7 10 8 5
4 a 21 3 1 b 53 21 c 11 × 2 1
2 4 5 8 3 3
5 a 3÷ 2 b 4 ÷3
c 2÷4
5 3 7
1÷ 3 3 1 5÷6
6 a b ÷ c
2 7 7 2 9 7
2÷2 2÷2 5÷3
7 a 9 3
b 3 9
c 8 8
8 a 2 3 11 b 51 ÷ 3 c 3 3 ÷ 12
4 2 2 4 5 3
2÷ 1 3÷5 1
2 ÷ 3
9 a b c 3 7
5 15 5 6

2.5 Working with Decimals

Decimals (or decimal fractions) are usually easier to work with than (common) fractions, so
Key term the rules and a few examples should be sufficient to remind you how to do each operation.
Decimal fractions are We will abbreviate to decimals and fractions because these terms are generally understood to
usually abbreviated to mean decimal fractions and common fractions.
‘decimals’.

Addition and Subtraction of Decimals

As an example, to simplify 3 + 1.205 + 40.016 follow the steps given below:
• Add ‘.0’ to the whole number to remind you where the decimal point belongs.
(3.0 + 1.205 + 40.016)
• Write the numbers in column form, but with the decimal points in a vertical line.

30
1.205 +
40.016 +

• Starting from the right, add (or subtract) using the normal methods of addition (or
subtraction).
• Place the decimal point in the answer vertically under the other decimal points.

30
1.205 +
40.016 +
44.221

27
2 Fractions, Decimals and Percentages

Multiplying Decimals
As an example, to simplify 2.16 × 0.002 follow the steps given below:
• At first, ignore the decimal points.
• Starting from the right multiply using the normal methods.
• Count how many digits (numbers) come after the decimal points.
• Starting from the right count back this number of places and insert the decimal point,
inserting zeroes if necessary.
2 16
0.002 ×
0 .00432

(There are 5 digits after the decimal points, so counting 5 places from the right it is necessary
to insert 2 zeroes.)
• Answer: 2.16 × 0.002 = 0.00432.
Multiplying by 10, 100, 1000 and so on is straightforward with decimals. For example,
NOTE:
0.013 × 100:
Remember that
multiplying by 10, 100 • Count the number of zeroes (2 in this example) in the number you are multiplying by.
and so on will make the • Move the decimal point to the right by the same number of places, inserting zeroes if
answer larger.
necessary (0.013 × 100 = 1.3).
• Answer: 0.013 × 100 = 1.3.

Dividing Decimals
As an example, to divide 63.6 by 0.012 follow the steps given below:
• ( 63.6 )
Write the first number over the second number 0.012 .
• Multiply top and bottom by 10, 100, 1000 or 10 000 until the lower number is a whole
.6 × 1000 = 63600
number (in this case we need to use 1000, i.e. 063
.012 × 1000 12
).
• Divide the new lower number into the top number (63600 ÷ 12 = 5300).
• Answer: 63.6 divided by 0.012 = 5300.
NOTE: Dividing decimals by 10, 100, 1000 and so on is also straightforward. For example, divide 0.234
Remember that dividing by 1000:
by 10, 100, 1000 and so
on will make the number • Count the number of zeroes (three in this case) in the number you are to divide by.
smaller. • Move the decimal point 3 places left, filling in zeroes if necessary (0.234 ÷ 1000 = 0.000234).
• Answer: 0.234 ÷ 1000 = 0.000234.

Example 4
Calculate the following:
a 2.501 + 12.6 b 45.3173 − 1.012 c 3.513 × 100
d 0.012 × 10 e 4.12 × 1000 f 2.1 × 1.1
g 0.16 ÷ 100 h 31.323 ÷ 0.03
Answer 4
a 2.501 + 12.6 = 2.501 b 45.3173 − 1.012 = 45.3173 c 3.513 × 100 = 351.3
12.6 + 1.012 −
15.101 44.3053
d 0.012 × 10 = 0.12 e 4.12 × 1000 = 4120 f 2.1 × 1.1 = 2.1
1.1 ×
2.31
g 0.16 ÷ 100 = 0.0016 h 31.323 ÷ 0.03 = 31.323 × 100 = 3132.3 = 1044.1
0.03 × 100 3

28
 2 Fractions, Decimals and Percentages

Exercise 2.3 NO CALCULATOR IN THIS EXERCISE

Calculate the following.
1 3.5 + 0.16 + 10.2 2 501 + 1.67 + 0.3 3 17.95 − 1.4
4 6.119 − 2.01 5 13.41 × 1000 6 0.0169 × 1000
7 6.017 ÷ 100 8 10.2 × 3.1 9 18.96 ÷ 1.2

2.6 Percentages
It may help you to visualise percentages and compare them with fractions if you imagine a
stack of, say 100 counters, as in Figure 2.14. Imagine that the counters are numbered from 1 to
Key term
100, with 1 at the bottom of the stack.
Percentages are
1
fractions with a Each of the counters is 100 of the whole stack, so each counter is 1% of the stack. The whole
denominator of 100. stack is 100% of the stack or one whole.
Think of the % sign as 1
‘out of 100’. Now you can see that half way up is 50%, one quarter of the way up is 25%, 10 of the way up is
10% and so on.
Copy Figure 2.14 and mark in 3 and its corresponding percentage, 20% and any others that
4
you can think of.

1 Stack 100 100% of Stack

(100 counters) 2.7 Conversion Between Common
Fractions, Decimals and Percentages
Common fraction Divide the numerator by Decimal fraction
1 the denominator
Stack 50% of Stack
2 2 2 divided by 5 0.4
(50 counters)
5

32 3.4
1 5
Stack 25% of Stack
4
(25 counters) Decimal fraction Multiply by 100 Percentage
0.45 0.45 × 100 45%
0.613 0.613 × 100 61.3%
Figure 2.14 Percentages 2.051 2.051 × 100 205.1%
Divide by 100 to change a percentage to decimal fraction.

Decimal fraction Write decimal over 1, Common fraction

then multiply the top and
bottom by 10, or 100, or
1000 until the numerator
is a whole number.
Simplify if necessary.
0.7 0 7 × 10 7
1 10 10

0.45 0 45 × 100 45 45 = 9
=
1 × 100 100 100 20

29
2 Fractions, Decimals and Percentages

Exercise 2.4 NO CALCULATOR IN THIS EXERCISE

Copy and complete Table 2.1 for conversions between common fractions, decimals and
percentages. It is a good idea to learn these as they occur quite frequently and you can save time if
you know them. The last two have been done for you, and it is definitely a good idea to learn these!
The dot above a number means that the number repeats forever. For example, 0 3 means
0.33333333333…; it is called ‘zero point three recurring’.

Fraction Decimal Percentage

1 1
2
2 0.25
3 75%
4 1
10
5 0.3
6 0.2
7 12.5%
8 1 0 3 33 1%
3 3
9 2 0 6 66 2%
3 3

Table 2.1 Converting between fractions, decimals and percentages

Calculating Percentages of an Amount

There are several ways to calculate percentages quickly.
The first is to know the common percentages (50%, 10%, 25% and so on) and their
corresponding fractions (see part a of Example 5).
The second is to find 1% by dividing by 100, and then multiply by whatever percentage is
required (see part b of Example 5).
Lastly, some percentages can be ‘built up’ from smaller percentages that are easy to find (see
part c of Example 5).

Example 5
a Find:
i 50% of 136 ii 10% of 34 iii 75% of 32

b Find:
i 7% of 61 ii 21% of 400 iii 12% of 700

c Find:
i 15% of 96 ii 65% of 140 iii 17.5% of 260
Answer 5
1 1
a i 50% of 136 = 2 of 136 = 68 ii 10% of 34 = 10 of 34 = 3.4
1
iii 75% of 32 = 43 of 32 = 3 × 4 of 32 = 3 × 8 = 24
1
b i 7% of 61 = 7 × 1% of 61 = 7 × 100 of 61 = 7 × 0.61 = 4.27
1
ii 21% of 400 = 21 × 1% of 400 = 21 × 100 of 400 = 21 × 4 = 84

iii 12% of 700 = 12 × 7 = 84

30
 2 Fractions, Decimals and Percentages

c i To find 15% of 96:

find 10% of 96 ( 1 of 96) = 9.6

10
1
find 5% of 96 ( of 10%) = 4.8
2
Add 10% and 5%: 15% of 96 = 9.6 + 4.8 = 14.4

ii 65% of 140:

50% of 140 = 70

10% of 140 = 14 + (one fifth of 50%)

5% of 140 = 7 + (half of 10%)

65% of 140 = 91

Answer: 65% of 140 = 91

iii 17.5% of 260:

10% of 260 = 26

5% of 260 = 13 + (half of 10%)

2.5% of 260 = 6.5 + (half of 5%)

17.5% of 260 = 45.5

Answer: 17.5% of 260 = 45.5

Exercise 2.5 NO CALCULATOR IN THIS EXERCISE

Calculate the following, showing your method:
1 75% of 64 2 30% of 1550 3 9% of 3400
4 55.5% of 680 5 3% of 73

Finding One Number as a Percentage

of Another
We sometimes need to express one number as a percentage of another. For example, you get
6 answers correct out of 20 in a test. What is your percentage mark?
• 6
( )
First make a fraction by writing the first number over the second 20 .
• Change the fraction to a percentage by multiplying by 100 over 1.

( 206 × 1001 = 600

20
= 30 )

There is an alternative method that can sometimes be used, if the denominator of the
fraction is a factor of 100:
• 6
First make the fraction as before 20 . ( )
• Change to the equivalent fraction with the denominator as 100.
( 206 ×55 = 100
30 = 30
)

31
2 Fractions, Decimals and Percentages

Example 6
a Find 25 as a percentage of 40. b Find 15 as a percentage of 25.
Answer 6
15 × 4 60
a 25 × 100 = 250 = 62.5% b = = 60%
40 1 4 25 × 4 100

Exercise 2.6 NO CALCULATOR IN THIS EXERCISE

Calculate the first number as a percentage of the second:
1 35, 140 2 72, 600 3 23, 50
4 40, 125 5 17, 250 6 90, 180
7 12, 6 8 29, 1000

2.8 Ordering Quantities

It is often easiest when comparing fractions, decimals and percentages to change them all
to decimals. Alternatively, compare fractions by finding equivalent fractions with the same
denominator.

Example 7
a Using the symbols >, < or =, insert the correct sign to make the following statements true:
i 22 … 21 ii 0.75 … 43 iii 0.25 … 25 iv 1 … 0.3
3

b Write the following in order of size, starting with the smallest:

2, 3, 3 , 9
i 0.48, 0.408, 0.390, 0.399 ii 5 5 10 20
3 , 1
iii 33%, 0.5, 10 3

c Rafi loves eating naan. Do you think he would rather have two thirds or three quarters of
a naan? Why?

d Find a fraction which is between each of the following pairs:

7
i 10 and 9 ii 1 and 3 iii 68 and 7
10 2 4 8
Answer 7
1
a i 22 > 21 ii 0.75 = 43 iii 0.25 < 25 iv 3 > 0.3
b i 0.390 < 0.399 < 0.408 < 0.48 ii Changing 52 , 53 , 10
3 , 9
20
to twentieths
8 , 12 , 6 , 9
20 20 20 20
and putting in order,
6 , 8 , 9 , 12
20 20 20 20

simplifying again,
3 <2< 9 <3
10 5 20 5

3 , 1
iii Changing 33%, 0.5, 10 3
to decimals,
0.33, 0.5, 0.3, 0.3333…
putting in order,
0.3, 0.33, 0.3333…, 0.5,
and re-writing as before 3 < 33%33 < 1 < 0.5
10 3

32
 2 Fractions, Decimals and Percentages

c 3 = 75% and 2 = 66 2 %, so Rafi would rather have 3 of the naan.

4 3 3 4

d i 8 is between 7 and 9 ; 8 = 4.
10 10 10 10 5
Answer: 4
5

iii 1 and 43 can be changed to their equivalent fractions 4 and 6 , so 5 is between 1 and 3 .
2 8 8 8 2 4
Answer: 5
8

iii 6 and 7 are equivalent to 12 and 14 , so

8 8 16 16
Answer: 13
16

Exercise 2.7 NO CALCULATOR IN THIS EXERCISE

1 Find a fraction that lies between 53 and 54 .
2 Place the following in order of size, starting with the smallest:
451, 4.579, 4.098, 4.105
3 Place these fractions in order of size, starting with the smallest:
4 , 2 , 3 , 17
3 3 4 20

4 Place the following in order of size, starting with the smallest:

33 , 33 1 %, 3 , 3 , 67
100 3 25 50 200

Exercise 2.8 NO CALCULATOR IN THIS EXERCISE

Exam-style questions
1 a Evaluate 3 23 2 4.
5
b Express 48 in its lowest terms.
NOTE: 84

‘Evaluate’ means ‘work (4024 paper 11 Q2 November 2011)

out a numerical answer’.
2 a Add brackets to the equation to make it correct.
4 + 6 × 7 − 5 = 16
b Find the value of 27 × 0.002. (4024 paper 01 Q2 November 2009)

3 a Express 13
20
as a decimal.
b In a test, Rose scored 56 marks out of 70.
Express this score as a percentage. (4024 paper 01 Q1 June 2005)

4 Evaluate
a 2 23 × 71 , b 2÷ 7 . (4024 paper 01 Q2 June 2005)
5 12
5 a Express 0.527 as a percentage.
b Evaluate 5.6 ÷ 0.08. (4024 paper 01 Q1 June 2006)

33
2 Fractions, Decimals and Percentages

6 Evaluate
6 − 1, 2× 4
a 7 3
b 5 9
. (4024 paper 01 Q2 June 2006)

7 In an examination, Alan obtained 32 out of 40 marks. In another examination Ben

obtained 58 of the total marks.
Express the mark of each candidate as a percentage. (4024 paper 01 Q4 June 2006)

8 Evaluate
a 1−3 b 2 23 × 1 43 . (4024 paper 01 Q1 June 2008)
2 7

9 Evaluate
a 25 − 18.3 b 1.7 × 0.03. (4024 paper 01 Q2 June 2008)

10 a Evaluate 0.5 × 0.007. b Evaluate 1 125 as a

decimal. (4024 paper 01 Q5 June 2009)

11 Arrange these values in order of size, starting with the smallest:

9 0.39 46% 2
(4024 paper 01 Q3 November 2009)
20 5

12 a Evaluate 3 + 25 ÷ 2. b Express 17 1 % as a decimal.

2
(4024 paper 01 Q1 June 2007)

13 Evaluate
a 1 + 1, b 178 ÷ 16
3
. (4021 paper 01 Q2 June 2007)
4 7

14 It is given that 2 , 8 and n are equivalent fractions.

3 d 39
Find the value of d and the value of n. (4024 paper 01 Q3 June 2007)

15 a Write 3% as a fraction. b Work out 90 − 16 ÷ 2.

(4024 paper 11 Q3 November 2014)

16 Evaluate
a 10 − 7.56, b 0.105 × 0.2. (4024 paper 01 Q1 November 2005)

17 a Evaluate 3 + 5(3 − 1.4). b Evaluate 0.2 × 0.07.

(4024 paper 11 Q1 November 2011)

18 Evaluate
a 3 + 2(4 − 5) b 131 ÷ 2 21 . (4024 paper 01 Q1 November 2006)

19 a Write the following in order of size, starting with the smallest:

66 0 6 0 67 666
100 1000

b The distance of Saturn from the Sun is 1507 million kilometres.

Express 1507 million in standard form. (4024 paper 01 Q5 June 2007)

34
 Beginning Algebra 3
Learning Objectives Syllabus sections 4, 17, 18, 19

In this chapter you will begin your study of: • directed numbers
• the language of algebra • indices, brackets and common factors in
• addition, subtraction, multiplication algebra.
and division

3.1 Introduction
Algebra is a tool for doing arithmetical calculations when some of the numbers needed are
unknown. The rules of algebra help us either to calculate the values of these numbers, or
to find formulae which can be used to make calculations later when some of the numbers
are known. The formulae may link two or more unknown numbers. If these unknown
numbers can take different values they are called variables.
Learning to use algebra is like learning a language. We need clear rules for the language so
that we can all understand each other. You have met rules like these before, in Chapter 1,
when you learned that the same order of working in arithmetic is needed if we are all to get
the same answer.

3.2 Essential Skills NO CALCULATOR IN THIS EXERCISE

1 Calculate:
a 2×6+3×5
b 3 × (6 − 4)
c 1 + 2 × 3 − 4 ÷ 2 + 5 × (6 − 3)
2 i What is the sum of 5 and 6?
ii What is the product of 5 and 6?
3 i What is the HCF of 20, 45 and 15?
ii Rewrite 20, 45 and 15 as products of this factor and one other in each case

35
3 Beginning Algebra

Key term
Variables are usually
3.3 Using Letters and Numbers
letters which represent
numbers or amounts Letters as Variables
that can change or be Suppose you are going to buy 3 apples and 5 oranges. If you know the price of both fruits,
given different values.
you can work out what the total cost will be. Suppose the apples cost 10 cents each and the
oranges cost 12 cents each, then the total cost, in cents, will be:
3 × 10 + 5 × 12
Using the correct order of working for arithmetic we can finish this:
Total cost = 3 × 10 + 5 × 12
= 30 + 60 = 90 cents
But suppose we do not know the cost of the apples?
We can still do some of the work like this:
Total cost (in cents) = 3 × cost of an apple + 5 × 12
= 3 × cost of an apple + 60
This would take too much time to keep writing out.
If we use a to mean the number of cents that an apple costs, then the sum becomes
Total cost (in cents) = 3 × a + 5 × 12
= 3 × a + 60
We can make this look neater by using one of the rules of algebra, that 3 × a can be
shortened to 3a.
Our final statement is:
Total cost (in cents) = 3a + 60
which can also be written
Total cost = (3a + 60) cents
where a represents the number of cents you have to pay for an apple.
Later, when we know the cost of an apple we can finish the sum.
The number of cents is a variable. It could be 10 cents today and 12 cents tomorrow.
The total number of cents, or cost, is also a variable, but depends on a.
It is very important that you understand that the letter a stands for a number, not an apple or
a number of apples. The statement should really be written:
Total cost (in cents) = 3 × a cents + 60 cents
but it is usually sufficient to use the word cents once only, or to explain that the whole
calculation is in cents.

Algebraic Shorthand
To get started with algebra we must start to learn a few rules. We will often use x and y as our
unknown quantities, but remember that we can use any letter. When two or more letters are
different, we know that they are being used for different numbers.

36
 3 Beginning Algebra

We start with some shorthand.

REMEMBER:
• x+x+x+x+x+x+ Had you noticed that multiplication is a shorter form of addition?
x + x + x = 9 × x and There are two ways to work out 7 + 7 + 7 + 7 + 7 + 7 + 7 + 7 + 7.
y + y + y = 3 × y.
• 9 × x can be You can either go through and add sevens as you go along, or you can see that there are 9
shortened to 9x, sevens, and quickly get the answer:
so 9 × x = 9x and
9 × 7 = 63
3 × y = 3y.
You can do this with any number, not just 7, so we could call the number x.
REMEMBER ALSO:
• x × x = x2 and 9 × x can be shortened to 9x without any confusion, but 9 × 7 cannot be shortened to 97,
y × y × y = y3. which is completely different.
• 1x can be written as
just x, so 1x = x and
1y = y. How Algebra is Similar to Arithmetic
These also agree with our
work with numbers:
(and How it is Different)
When we are using letters and numbers, simplify is an instruction to write an answer in its
2 × 2 × 2 = 23 and
simplest form. The answer will usually still contain letters.
1×2=2
Solve usually means to find a numerical answer to an equation.
When we are using numbers only, calculate is an instruction to find the solution to a
numerical problem. The answer will be a number, or numbers.
Key terms
We can simplify y × y × y to y 3, but 2 × 2 × 2 = 23 (= 8) can be calculated to give the numerical
Simplify means write in
its simplest form. answer 8.
Solve usually means Much of your algebra will involve simplifying or, later, writing things in another form.
find a numerical
solution to a problem or Work through the next example, paying particular attention to the numerical questions which
equation. show the similarities between algebra and arithmetic, and the difference between simplifying
Calculate means find a and calculating.
numerical answer.

Example 1
Simplify the following: Calculate the following:
a x+x+x+x+x b 2+2+2+2+2
c y×y d 8×8
e 4x + 2x f 4×7+2×7
g 3x + x h 3×5+5
i 3y − y j 3 × 12 − 12
k x+x+y+y+y l 115 + 115 + 108 + 108 + 108
m 9x − 8x n 9 × 157 − 8 × 157
Answer 1
a x + x + x + x + x = 5x b 2 + 2 + 2 + 2 + 2 = 5 × 2 = 10
c y × y = y2 d 8 × 8 = 82 = 64
e 4x + 2x = 6x f 4 × 7 + 2 × 7 = 6 × 7 = 42
g 3x + x = 4x h 3 × 5 + 5 = 4 × 5 = 20
i 3y − y = 2y j 3 × 12 − 12 = 2 × 12 = 24

37
3 Beginning Algebra

k x + x + y + y + y = 2x + 3y l 115 + 115 + 108 + 108 + 108

= 2 × 115 + 3 × 108
= 230 + 324
= 554
m 9x − 8x = 1x = x n 9 × 157 − 8 × 157 = 1 × 157 = 157

If you feel tempted to go further with Example 1 part k and attempt some sort of addition of
REMEMBER: the xs and ys, try it with the numbers as well and see if it works.
• Simplify means to
write in the simplest For example, if you think that 2x + 3y could be shortened to 5xy (which of course you should
form. not!), use numbers to check it.
• Solve usually means
2x + 3y: 2 × 115 + 3 × 108
to find a numerical
= 230 + 324
answer to an
equation. = 554
• Calculate means but 5xy: 5 × 115 × 108
to find a numerical = 62100
answer.
which is clearly not the same as 554!
We can only arrive at a final answer when we know what numbers will replace x and y. Until
then the question has to ask you to simplify, rather than solve.

Exercise 3.1 NO CALCULATOR IN THIS EXERCISE

Copy and complete Table 3.1 by using algebraic shorthand to simplify, and the rules of
arithmetic (BoDMAS) to calculate.

Simplify Answer Calculate Answer

a i x+x+x ii 30 + 30 + 30
b i 5y − 4y ii 5 × 154 − 4 × 154
c i z×z×z ii 3×3×3
d i x+x+x−y ii 6 + 6 + 6 − 10
e i x+x+y+y ii 7+7+4+4
f i y−y ii 2−2
g i x×x+y×y ii 3×3+4×4
h i 5x + 3x − 2y ii 5 × 50 + 3 × 50 − 2 × 4
Table 3.1

3.4 The Language of Algebra

Expressions, equations and terms
There are some other words that have a special meaning in algebra, and you must
understand them as well. First of all, try to understand the difference between an expression
and an equation. Have a look at this piece of algebra:
3x + 5y − 10z + 6

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 3 Beginning Algebra

This is an algebraic expression. It is not an equation since it stands alone without an equals
Key terms sign. It is made up of terms which are to be added or subtracted. The terms are 3x, 5y, 10z
In algebra, terms are and 6.
numbers and letters that
are added or subtracted.
3x is a ‘term in x’, 5y is a ‘term in y’, 10z is a ‘term in z’, and 6 is a constant or a number term.
For example, in 3x + 5y, The 6 is a constant term because it is always 6, but 3x is not constant because it depends on
3x and 5y are terms. 3x what x stands for.
is a term in x and 5y is a
term in y. Each number in front of a term is the coefficient of that term.
Expressions are groups Now look at the following expression:
of terms to be added
or subtracted. They do 2x + 7y − 3y + 4x
not have an equals sign.
They cannot be solved, This is an expression that can be simplified. It has like terms. It has two terms in x and two
but may be simplified. terms in y. We can write:
The coefficient of a 2x + 7y − 3y + 4x
term is the number in = 2x + 4x + 7y − 3y
front of it, for example
= 6x + 4y
the coefficient of 3x is 3.
Like terms have the This is called collecting like terms.
same letters, for example
Each of the two equals signs shows that the next line is equivalent to the one before, but has
4z and 10z.
been written in another way. They do not convert the expression into an equation.
An equation has an
equals sign and can But if we are given a bit more information, for example, that our expression is actually equal
often be solved. to something else, we have an equation.
For example, 6x + 4y = 34 is an equation.
An expression is like a phrase in English, and an equation is more like a sentence. For
example, ‘hot and stormy weather’ is a phrase in English. It means more when it becomes a
sentence such as: ‘Today we are having hot and stormy weather’ and we have the extra bit of
information that it is today that we are talking about.
An equation may be solved by finding replacements for the variables which make it a true
statement. For example, we can solve 10z − 3 = 17.
This is an equation which becomes true when z is replaced by 2.
10 × 2 − 3 = 17

NOTE: So the solution to the equation is z = 2, and in this case it is the only solution. The equation
NEVER try to turn an 6x + 4y = 34 becomes true when we replace the x by 3 and the y by 4, because
expression into an
6 × 3 + 4 × 4 = 18 + 16 = 34
equation, for example
by making it equal to So x = 3 and y = 4 is a solution to this equation.
zero, unless the question
asks you to. This is a In this case this is not the only possible solution.
common mistake made
For example, x = 2.5 and y = 4.75 is also a solution. Check it for yourself!
by students.
Remember that you So far we have mainly used letters to represent unknowns or numbers. But remember the
may be able to simplify example of buying apples and oranges?
an expression, but not
solve it. You may be able We wrote: Total cost (in cents) = 3a + 60.
to simplify and solve an Here a represents the variable cost of one apple, in cents.
equation.
Variables can be represented by words, letters or symbols.

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3 Beginning Algebra

For example,
3 × what = 21
3x = 21
3 × ? = 21
3 × = 21
In each case the unknown can be replaced by 7 to make the equation true. For simplicity it is
usual to use letters.

Example 2
a 3x + 4y + y = 3x + 5y 7x + 10y = 37 3a − 4b
From the above, select:
i a term in x ii a pair of like terms
iii an equation iv an expression which is then simplified
v another expression vi a constant term
vii the coeff icient of the term in b.

b Can you find replacements for x and y that would make 7x + 10y = 37 true?

c I give a shopkeeper 10 cents. He gives me 4 mangoes and 4 cents change.

Write an equation to show this and so find the price of one mango.

d i Use the letters given to write an equation to represent the following statement:
‘I buy 2 bags of crisps and 3 chocolate bars. I spend 12 cents altogether.’
Use x = the cost, in cents, of a bag of crisps, and y = the cost, in cents, of a chocolate bar.
ii Find one pair of possible replacements for x and y which would make your equation true.
Answer 2
a i 3x or 7x are both terms in x.
ii 4y and y are like terms.
iii 7x + 10y = 37 is an equation.
iv 3x + 4y + y is an expression which is simplified
to 3x + 5y. NOTE:
v 3a − 4b is another expression. Remember that 3x + 4y
vi 37 is a constant term. + y = 3x + 5y is not an
vii 4 is the coeff icient of the term in b. equation.
b 7x + 10y = 37
By trying a few numbers we find that x = 1 and y = 3 would make this equation true.
7 × 1 + 10 × 3 = 7 + 30 = 37
If you use rational numbers there are an infinite number of solutions.
For example, x = 2 and y = 2.3. Can you find some more?
c If m = the cost of one mango, in cents,
10 = 4m + 4 (10 cents = 4 × m cents + 4 cents change)
so 4m = 6
so m = 1.5
NOTE: Hence, mangoes cost 1.5 cents each.
We can only use counting d i 2x + 3y = 12
numbers here. Why? ii x = 3 and y = 2 is one possible pair of values that would make this true.

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 3 Beginning Algebra

Formulae and Substitution

Formulae are equations that are used fairly frequently to calculate quantities and are
Key term arranged so that the required quantity is the subject of the formula. This makes them
A formula (plural convenient to use. For example, in our original small problem of the cost of apples and
formulae) is used to oranges, we ended up with the formula
calculate quantities, for
example Total cost (in cents) = 3a + 60
distance . where a represents the cost of each apple in cents.
speed =
time
This can be called a formula because it is arranged so that the quantity we want to find (total
cost) is on its own on the left and so is the subject of the statement.
When we know the cost of an apple we will be able to substitute this in to replace a, and
calculate the total cost. Suppose b is the cost of one orange, in cents, and T is the total cost, in
cents; then our formula could become more useful:
T = 3a + 5b
T, a and b are the unknowns or variables because the prices may vary from day to day.
When we know the cost of an apple and an orange on the day we can substitute these
numbers for a and b and work out the total cost on the day.
Substitution is replacing unknowns or variables by numbers, usually in formulae, so that
Key term answers may be calculated. Calculating the answer when variables in an expression are
Substitution is substituted by numbers is often called evaluating the expression.
replacing an unknown
variable by a number
so that a formula or
expression may be Example 3
evaluated. a I think of a number (n), multiply it by 4, add 6, then take away the number I first
thought of.
Write a formula for the answer (A) in terms of n.

b Use the formula to find A when:

i n=3 ii n = 100 iii n = 11
Answer 3
a A=n×4+6−n
A = 4n + 6 − n
A = 3n + 6

b i when n = 3 ii when n = 100 iii when n = 11

A=3×3+6=9+6 A = 3 × 100 + 6 A = 3 × 11 + 6
A = 15 A = 306 A = 39

Exercise 3.2 NO CALCULATOR IN THIS EXERCISE

1 Maria is m years old. Her father, Bakari, is n years older than Maria.
Write an expression for the sum of their ages.
2 A piece of wood is 6.5 metres long. Brian saws off and uses m metres.
Write an expression for the length of wood which is left.

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3 Beginning Algebra

3 Amir starts his journey to school by walking for 10 minutes, and then takes a bus.
The time (t minutes) the bus takes to get to the school depends on the traffic.
a Write a formula for the total journey time (T minutes) in terms of t.
b Find T when t = 15.
4 Substitute y = 3 and z = 5 into each of the formulae below to find x.
a x = 2y + 3z b x = yz + 2 c x = 4yz − 3z + 2y
5 Figure 3.1 shows a triangle with two sides of length a cm,
and one side of length 3 cm.
a Write a formula for the total length (L cm) round the
outside of the triangle. a cm a cm
b Use the formula to find L when a = 10.
c Why can a not be
i 1.5? ii 1?
3 cm
6 A recipe requires 5 eggs, 0.5 kilograms of butter and 0.5
Figure 3.1
kilograms of tomatoes.
Eggs cost e cents per 10, butter costs b cents per half kilogram
and tomatoes cost t cents per kilogram.
a Write a formula for the total cost (C cents) of the recipe.
b Calculate C when e = Rs. 22, b = Rs. 58 and t = Rs. 12.
7 Evaluate the following expressions when x = 2 and y = 3.
a xy b y−x
c y −x
2 2
d 3x + 9y

3.5 Addition and Subtraction

of Terms in Algebra
As we have already seen, addition and subtraction of terms in algebra is also called collecting
like terms.
We could illustrate the process by thinking of a zoo which keeps antelopes and bears.
Antelopes and bears themselves are not variables or unknown quantities, so we will not
replace them with letters. This example is just to help you understand how terms can be
moved within an expression as long as the sign in front of the term stays with that term.
Think: ‘the sign belongs to the term that follows it’.
The zoo starts with 10 antelopes and 5 bears, and then they trade 4 of their antelopes for 2
bears with another zoo. Later on they give away 2 more antelopes. How many antelopes and
bears do they now have? The situation could be written like this:
REMEMBER:
• The sign belongs to 10 antelopes + 5 bears − 4 antelopes + 2 bears − 2 antelopes
the term that follows it.
which can be rearranged to:
• Terms can be written
in any order in the 10 antelopes − 4 antelopes − 2 antelopes + 5 bears + 2 bears
expression as long as
they keep their signs. This gives us:
• Only like terms 4 antelopes + 7 bears
can be added or
subtracted. So you can see that we can rearrange the sum as long as we keep the sign with the animal
that follows it.

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