EDEXCEL HIGHERS

ENGINEERING THERMODYNAMICS H2
NQF LEVEL 4

OUTCOME 2
INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE PERFORMANCE

TUTORIAL No. 3 – HEAT ENGINE THEORY

Internal combustion engine performance

Second law of thermodynamics: statement of law; schematic representation of a heat engine to

show heat and work flow

Heat engine cycles: Carnot cycle; Otto cycle; Diesel cycle; dual combustion cycle; Joule
cycle; property diagrams; Carnot efficiency; air-standard efficiency

Performance characteristics: engine trials; indicated and brake mean effective pressure;
indicated and brake power; indicated and brake thermal efficiency; mechanical efficiency;
relative efficiency; specific fuel consumption; heat balance

Improvements: turbocharging; turbocharging and intercooling; cooling system and exhaust gas
heat recovery systems

When you have completed this tutorial, you should be able to do the
following.

‰ Explain the basic idea behind the Second Law of Thermodynamics.

‰ Define the property called Entropy

‰ Define an Isentropic process.

‰ Solve basic problems involving isentropic expansions.

‰ Explain the Carnot Principle.

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1. THE SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

The Second Law of Thermodynamics is not something that can be written as a simple
statement or formulae. It is a set of observations concerning the way that things flow
or run as time progresses forward. It encompasses many observations such as “water
normally flows from high levels to low levels” and “heat normally flows from hot to
cold”. In this module, you must concern yourself only with how the second law
relates to heat engines and the efficiency of a heat engine.

In the context of heat engines, the second law may be summed as :

“No heat engine can be 100% efficient”.

This should become apparent in the following sections.

1.1 HEAT ENGINES

Nearly all motive power is derived from heat using some form of heat engine. Here
are some examples.

‰ Steam Power Plant.

‰ Gas Turbines.

‰ Jet Engines.

‰ Internal Combustion Engines.

A heat engine requires a

source of hot energy. We
get this by burning fossil
fuel or by nuclear
fission. The main
sources of natural heat
are solar and
geothermal. In order to
understand the basic
theory, it might help to
draw an analogy with a
hydraulic motor and an
electric motor. All
motors require a high
level source of energy
and must exhaust at a
low level of energy.
Figure 1

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1.1.1 HYDRAULIC MOTOR

Fluid power is transported by the flow Q m3/s. The energy contained in a volume Q
m3 of liquid at a pressure p is the flow energy given by the expression pQ. The
hydraulic motor requires a source of liquid at a high pressure p1 and exhausts at a
lower pressure p2.The energy supplied is p1Q and some of this is converted into work.
The energy in the low pressure liquid is p2Q. For a perfect motor with no losses due to
friction, the law of energy conservation gives the work output and efficiency as
follows.

Wout = p1Q - p 2 Q = Q(p1 - p 2 )

Wout W Q(p1 - p 2 ) (p1 - p 2 ) p
η= = out = = =1- 2
Energy input p1Q p1Q p1 p1

1.1.2 ELECTRIC MOTOR

Electric power is transported by the current. Electrical energy is the product of the
charge Q Coulombs and the electric potential V Volts. The energy input at a high
voltage is V1Q and the energy exhausted at low voltage is V2Q. For a perfect motor
with no losses due to friction, the work output and efficiency are found from the law
of energy conservation as follows.
Wout = V1Q - V2 Q = Q(V1 - V2 )
Wout W Q(V1 - V2 ) (V1 - V2 ) V
η= = out = = =1- 2
Energy input V1Q V1Q V1 V1

1.1.3 HEAT MOTOR

Temperature is by analogy the equivalent of pressure and electric potential. In order to

complete the analogy, we need something that is equivalent to volume and electric
charge that transports the energy. It is not difficult to visualise a volume of liquid
flowing through a hydraulic motor. It is not impossible to visualise a flow of electrons
bearing electric charge through an electric motor. It is impossible to visualise
something flowing through our ideal heat engine that transports pure heat but the
analogy tells us there must be something so let us suppose a new property called
ENTROPY and give it a symbol S. Entropy must have units of energy per degree of
temperature or Joules per Kelvin. Entropy is dealt with more fully later on.

The energy supplied at temperature T1 is T1S and the energy exhausted is T2S. For a
perfect motor with no losses due to friction, the law of energy conservation gives the
work output and efficiency as follows.

Wout = T1S - T2 S = S(T1 - T2 )

Wout W S(T1 - T2 ) (T1 - T2 ) T
η= = out = = =1- 2
Energy input T1S T1S T1 T1

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1.1.4 EFFICIENCY

In our perfect motors, the energy conversion process is 100% efficient but we may not
have converted all the energy supplied into work and energy may be wasted in the
exhaust. In the case of the electric motor, the lowest value for V2 (so far as we know)
is ground voltage zero, so theoretically we can obtain 100% efficiency by exhausting
the electric charge with no residual energy.

In the case of the hydraulic motor, the lowest pressure we can exhaust to is
atmospheric so we always waste some
energy in the exhausted liquid.

In the case of the heat motor, the lowest

temperature to which we can exhaust is
ambient conditions, typically 300K, so
there is a lot of residual energy in the
exhaust. Only by exhausting to absolute
zero, can we extract all the energy.

A model heat engine is usually represented

by the following diagram. (Note that the
word engine is usually preferred to motor).

Fig. 2

The energy transfer from the hot source is Qin Joules.

The energy transfer rate from the hot source is Φin Watts.

The energy transfer to the cold sink is Qout Joules.

The energy transfer rate to the cold sink is Φout Watts.
The work output us W Joules.
The power output is P Watts.
By considering the total conservation of energy, it follows that the energy converted
into work must be W = Qin - Qout Joules or
P = Φin - Φout Watts
The efficiency of any machine is the ratio Output/Input so the thermal efficiency of a
heat engine may be developed as follows.
W Q − Qout Q
η th = W = Qin − Qout η th = in = 1 − out
Qin Qin Qint
In terms of energy transfer rates in Watts this is written as
Φ
η th = 1 − out
Φ in

T2
It follows from our analogy that Qin = ST1 and Qout =ST2 and confirms η = 1 −
T1

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 SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE No. 1

1. A heat engine is supplied with 60 MW of energy and produces 20 MW of power.

What is the thermal efficiency and the heat lost?
(Answers 33.3% and 40 MW)

2. A heat engine is supplied with 40 kJ of energy that it converts into work with
25% efficiency. What is the work output and the heat lost?
(Answers 10 kJ and 30 kJ)

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1.3. PRACTICAL HEAT ENGINE CONSIDERATIONS

Let us consider how we might design a practical heat engine with a piston, connecting
rod and crank shaft mechanism. Figure 3 shows how heat may be passed to a gas
inside a cylinder causing it to expand. This pushes a piston and makes it do some
work. This at first looks like a good way of converting heat into work but the problem
is that it works only once and cannot convert heat into work continuously.

Figure 3

No practical heat engine has ever been invented that continuously converts heat
directly into work as supposed in our ideal model. Practical heat engines use a
working fluid such as gas or steam. A cycle of thermodynamic processes is conducted
on the fluid with the end result being a conversion of heat into work.

First energy is given to the working fluid by use of a heat transfer at a hot
temperature. Next we must convert as much of this energy as possible into work by
allowing the fluid to expand. Our studies of polytropic expansions tell us that the
pressure, volume and temperature all change as the gas or vapour gives up its energy
as work. The pressure is vitally important to produce a motivating force on the piston.

Having extracted as much energy as possible from the working fluid, we must return
it back to the starting condition in order to repeat the process. To do this, we must
raise the pressure of the fluid back to the high level with some form of compression.

A simple reversal of the expansion process would return the fluid back to the original
pressure and temperature. However, this would require us to give back all the work
we got out so nothing is gained.

The only way we can return the fluid back to a high pressure with less work involves
cooling it first. In fact, if it is to be heat engine, we must have a cooling process as
indicated in our model.

We have deduced that a practical heat engine must meet the following criteria.

‰ It must produce work continuously.

‰ It must return the working fluid back to the same pressure and temperature at
the beginning of every cycle.

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A model of a practical engine is shown in Fig. 4. This indicates that we need four
processes, heating, expansion, cooling and compression. This may be achieved
practically using either closed system processes (as in a mechanism with a piston,
connecting rod and crank shaft) or open system processes such as with a steam boiler,
turbine, cooler and pump).

Figure 4

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1.4 ENTROPY

We have just discovered that entropy is a property that governs the quantity of energy
conveyed at a given temperature such that in our ideal heat engine, the energy is given
by the expression Q = ST.

Entropy is a property that is closely associated with the second law of

thermodynamics.

In thermodynamics there are two forms of energy transfer, work (W) and heat (Q).
You should already be familiar with the theory of work laws in closed systems and
know that the area under a pressure - volume diagram gives work transfer. By analogy
there should be a property that can be plotted against temperature such that the area
under the graph gives the heat transfer. This property is entropy and it is given the
symbol S. This idea implies that entropy is a property that can be transported by a
fluid. Consider a p-V and T-s graph for a reversible expansion (Fig. 5).

Fig.5

From the p-V graph we have W = ∫ pdV

From the T-S graph we have Q = ∫ Tds

This is the way entropy was developed for thermodynamics and from the above we
get the following definition dS = dQ/T

The units of entropy are hence J/K. Specific entropy has a symbol s and the units are
J/kg K

It should be pointed out that there are other definitions of entropy but this one is the
most meaningful for thermodynamics. A suitable integration will enable you to solve
the entropy change for a fluid process. For those wishing to do studies in greater
depth, these are shown in appendix A.

Entropy values for steam may be found in your thermodynamic tables in the columns
headed sf, sfg and sg.

sf is the specific entropy of saturated liquid.

sfg is the change in specific entropy during the latent stage.
sg is the specific entropy of dry saturated vapour.

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1.4.1 ISENTROPIC PROCESSES

The word ISENTROPIC means constant entropy and this is a very important
thermodynamic process. It occurs in particular when a process is reversible and
adiabatic. This means that there is no heat transfer to or from the fluid and no internal
heat generation due to friction. In such a process it follows that if dQ is zero then dS
must be zero. Since there is no area under the T-S graph, the graph must be a vertical
line as shown.

Fig. 6

There are other cases where the entropy is constant. For example, if there is friction in
the process generating heat but this is lost through cooling, then the net result is zero
heat transfer and constant entropy. You do not need to be concerned about this at this
stage.

1.4.2 TEMPERATURE - ENTROPY (T-s) DIAGRAM FOR VAPOURS.

If you plot the specific entropy for saturated liquid (sf) and for dry saturated vapour
(sg) against temperature, you would obtain the saturation curve. Lines of constant
dryness fraction and constant pressure may be shown (Figure 7).

Fig. 7

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1.4.3 SPECIFIC ENTHALPY-SPECIFIC ENTROPY (h-s) DIAGRAM.

This diagram is especially useful for steady flow processes (figure 8). The diagram is
obtained by plotting hg against sg and hf against sf to obtain the characteristic
saturation curve. The two curves meet at the critical point C. Lines of constant
pressure, temperature and dryness are superimposed on the diagram. This is an
extremely useful chart and it is available commercially. If any two coordinates are
known, a point can be obtained on the chart and all other relevant values may be read
off it. h –s charts are especially useful for solving isentropic processes because the
process is a vertical line on this graph.

Fig. 8

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Entropy values can be used to determine the dryness fraction following a steam
expansion into the wet region when the process is isentropic. This is a very important
point and you must master how to do this in order to solve steam expansion problems,
especially in the following tutorials where steam cycles and refrigeration cycles are
covered. The following examples show how this is done.

WORKED EXAMPLE No.1

Steam at 2 bar and 150oC is expanded reversibly and adiabatically to 1 bar.

Calculate the final dryness fraction and the enthalpy change.

SOLUTION

Let suffix (1) refer to the conditions before the expansion and (2) to the conditions
after.

h1 at 2 bar and 150oC = 2770 kJ/kg

s1 at 2 bar and 150oC is 7.280 kJ/kg K.

Because the process is adiabatic and reversible, the entropy remains the same.

s2 at 1 bar and assumed wet is sf + xsfg = s1

7.280 = 1.303 + x(6.056)

x= 0.987

h2 at 1 bar and 0.987 dry = hf + x hfg

h2 = 417 + 0.987(2258) = 2645.6 kJ/kg

∆h = 2645.6 – 2770 = -124.4 kJ/kg

Being ale to solve the changes in enthalpy enable us to apply the first law of
thermodynamics to solve problems with steam turbines. The next example shows you
how to do this.

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 WORKED EXAMPLE No.2

A steam turbine expands 60 kg/s from 40 bar and 300oC to 4 bar reversibly and
adiabatically (isentropic). Calculate the theoretical power output.

SOLUTION

Φ + P = ∆E per second (SFEE)

The process is adiabatic. Φ = 0 and the only energy term to use is enthalpy.

P =∆H per second.

h1 at 40 bar and 300oC = 2963 kJ/kg

s1 at 40 bar and 300oC is 6.364 kJ/kg K.

s2 at 4 bar and assumed wet is sf + xsfg = s1

6.364= 1.776 + x(5.121)

x= 0.896

h2 at 4 bar and 0.896 dry = hf + x hfg

h2 = 605 + 0.896(2134) = 2517 kJ/kg

P =∆H per second = 60(2517-2963) = -26756 kW (out of system)

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 SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE No.2

1. A turbine expands 40 kg/s of steam from 20 bar and 250oC reversibly and
adiabatically to 0.5 bar. Calculate the theoretical power output.
(Answer 25.2 MW)

2. A turbine expands 4 kg/s of steam from 50 bar and 300oC reversibly and
adiabatically to 0.1 bar. Calculate the theoretical power output.
(Answer 3.8 MW)

3. A turbine expands 20 kg/s of steam from 800 bar and 400oC reversibly and
adiabatically to 0.2 bar. Calculate the theoretical power output.
(Answer 11.2 MW)

4. A turbine expands 1 kg/s of steam reversibly and adiabatically. The inlet conditions
are 10 bar and dry saturated. The outlet pressure is 3 bar. Calculate the theoretical
power output.
(Answer 218.5 MW)

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2. THE CARNOT PRINCIPLE

A man called Sadi Carnot deduced that if the heat transfers from the hot reservoir and
to the cold sump were done at constant temperature (isothermal processes), then the
efficiency of the engine would be the maximum possible.

The reasoning behind this is as follows.

Consider heat being transferred from a
hot body A to a slightly cooler body B.
The temperature of body A falls and the
temperature of body B rises until they are
at the same temperature.

If body B is now raised in temperature by

heat transfer from the surroundings, it
becomes the hotter body and the heat
flow is reversed from B to A. If body A
returns to its original temperature then the
net heat transfers between A and B is
zero. However body B is now hotter than
its original temperature so there has been
a net heat transfer from the surroundings.
The heat transfer process is hence not
reversible as external help was needed to
reverse the process.
Figure 9

If it were possible to transfer heat with no temperature difference from A to B then it

could be reversed with no external help. Such a process is an ISOTHERMAL process.
Isothermal heat transfer is possible, for example evaporation of water in a boiler is
isothermal.

Carnot devised a thermodynamic cycle using isothermal heat transfers only so by

definition, the efficiency of this cycle is the most efficient any engine could be
operating between two temperatures. Engine cycles are covered in the next tutorial but
the following shows how the Carnot cycle might be conducted. In practice, it is not
possible to make this cycle work.

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2.1.1 CLOSED SYSTEM CARNOT CYCLE.

The cycle could be conducted on gas or vapour in a closed or open cycle. The cycle
described here is for gas in a cylinder fitted with a piston. It consists of four closed
system processes as follows.

1 to 2. The fluid is compressed isentropically. Work is put in and no heat transfer

occurs.

Fig. 10

2 to 3. The fluid is heated isothermally. This could only occur if it is heated as it

expands so there is work taken out and heat put in.

Fig. 11

3 to 4. The fluid continues to expand isentropically with no heat transfer. Work

output is obtained.

Fig.12

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4 to 1 The fluid is cooled isothermally. This can only occur if it cooled as it is
compressed, so work is put in and heat is taken out. At the end of this process
every thing is returned to the initial condition.

Fig.13

The total work taken out is Wout and the total work put in is Win.

To be an engine, Wout must be larger than Win and a net amount of work is obtained
from the cycle. It also follows that since the area under a p-V graph represents the
work done, then the area enclosed by the p-V diagram represents the net work
transfer. It also follows that since the area under the T-s graph is represents the heat
transfer, and then the area enclosed on the T-s diagram represents the net heat
transfer. This is true for all cycles and also for real engines.

Fig.14

Applying the first law, it follows Qnett = Wnett

For isothermal heat transfers Q = ∫ T ds = T∆S since T is constant.

Qout T ∆s
The efficiency would then be given by η th = 1 − = 1 − cold cold
Qin Thot ∆s hot
It is apparent from the T-s diagram that the change in entropy ∆s is the same at the hot
T
and cold temperatures. It follows that η th = 1 - cold
Thot
This expression, which is the same as that used for the ideal model, gives the
CARNOT EFFICIENCY and it is used as a target figure that cannot be surpassed (in
fact not even attained).

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 WORKED EXAMPLE No.3

A heat engine draws heat from a combustion chamber at 300oC and exhausts to
atmosphere at 10oC. What is the maximum possible thermal efficiency that could
be achieved?

SOLUTION

The maximum efficiency possible is the Carnot efficiency. Remember to use

absolute temperatures.
T 273 + 10 283
η th = 1 − cold = 1 − = 1− = 0.505 or 50.6%
Thot 273 + 300 573

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE No.3

1. A heat engine works between temperatures of 1100o C and 120oC. It is claimed

that it has a thermal efficiency of 75%. Is this possible?
(Answer the maximum efficiency cannot exceed 71%)

2. Calculate the efficiency of a Carnot Engine working between temperatures of

1200oC and 200o C.
(Answer 67.9%)

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