SUBJECT CODE : EE8703

Strictly as per Revised Syllabus of

Anna University
Choice Based Credit System (CBCS)
Semester - VII (EEE)

Renewable Energy Systems

Dr. A. Shunmugalatha
Ph.D. (Electrical), M.E.(PSE), B.E.(EEE), Professor & Head / EEE,
Velammal College of Engineering & Technology,
Viraganoor, Madurai.

M. Devaki
M.E.(PSE), B.E.(EEE), Assistant Professor / EEE,
Velammal College of Engineering & Technology,
Viraganoor, Madurai.

R. Saranya
M.E.(C&I), B.E.(EIE), Assistant Professor / EEE,
Velammal College of Engineering & Technology,
Viraganoor, Madurai.

® ®
TECHNICAL
PUBLICATIONS
SINCE 1993 An Up-Thrust for Knowledge

(i)
Renewable Energy Systems
Subject Code : EE8703

Semester - VII (EEE)

ã Copyright with Authors

All publishing rights (printed and ebook version) reserved with Technical Publications. No part of this book
should be reproduced in any form, Electronic, Mechanical, Photocopy or any information storage and
retrieval system without prior permission in writing, from Technical Publications, Pune.

Published by :
® ®
Amit Residency, Office No.1, 412, Shaniwar Peth,
TECHNICAL Pune - 411030, M.S. INDIA, Ph.: +91-020-24495496/97
PUBLICATIONS
SINCE 1993 An Up-Thrust for Knowledge Email : sales@technicalpublications.org Website : www.technicalpublications.org

Printer :
Yogiraj Printers & Binders
Sr.No. 10/1A,
Ghule Industrial Estate, Nanded Village Road,
Tal. - Haveli, Dist. - Pune - 411041.

ISBN 978-93-90041-83-1

9 789390 041831 AU 17

9789390041831 [1] (ii)

preface
The importance of Renewable Energy Systems is well known in various engineering
fields. Overwhelming response to our books on various subjects inspired us to write this
book. The book is structured to cover the key aspects of the subject Renewable Energy
Systems.
The book uses plain, lucid language to explain fundamentals of this subject. The book
provides logical method of explaining various complicated concepts and stepwise methods
to explain the important topics. Each chapter is well supported with necessary illustrations,
practical examples and solved problems. All the chapters in the book are arranged in a
proper sequence that permits each topic to build upon earlier studies. All care has been
taken to make students comfortable in understanding the basic concepts of the subject.
Representative questions have been added at the end of each chapter to help the
students in picking important points from that chapter.
The book not only covers the entire scope of the subject but explains the philosophy of
the subject. This makes the understanding of this subject more clear and makes it more
interesting. The book will be very useful not only to the students but also to the subject
teachers. The students have to omit nothing and possibly have to cover nothing more.
We wish to express our profound thanks to all those who helped in making this book a
reality. Much needed moral support and encouragement is provided on numerous
occasions by our whole family. We wish to thank the Publisher and the entire team of
Technical Publications who have taken immense pain to get this book in time with quality
printing.
Any suggestion for the improvement of the book will be acknowledged and well
appreciated.

Authors
Dr. A. Shunmugalatha
M.Devaki
R. Saranya

Dedicated to God

(iii)
Syllabus
Renewable Energy Systems - EE8703
UNIT I - Renewable Energy (RE) Sources

Environmental consequences of fossil fuel use, Importance of renewable sources of

energy, Sustainable Design and development, Types of RE sources, Limitations of RE
sources, Present Indian and international energy scenario of conventional and RE sources.

UNIT II - Wind Energy

Power in the Wind - Types of Wind Power Plants(WPPs) - Components of WPPs - Working
of WPPs - Siting of WPPs-Grid integration issues of WPPs.

UNIT III - Solar PV and Thermal Systems

Solar Radiation, Radiation Measurement, Solar Thermal Power Plant, Central Receiver
Power Plants, Solar Ponds - Thermal Energy storage system with PCM- Solar Photovoltaic
systems : Basic Principle of SPV conversion - Types of PV Systems - Types of Solar Cells,
Photovoltaic cell concepts : Cell, module, array, PV Module I-V Characteristics, Efficiency
& Quality of the Cell, series and parallel connections, maximum power point tracking,
Applications.

UNIT IV - Biomass Energy

Introduction-Bio mass resources - Energy from Bio mass : conversion processes - Biomass
Cogeneration - Environmental Benefits. Geothermal Energy : Basics, Direct Use,
Geothermal Electricity. Mini/micro hydro power : Classification of hydropower schemes,
Classification of water turbine, Turbine theory, Essential components of hydroelectric
system.

UNIT V - Other Energy Sources

Tidal Energy : Energy from the tides, Barrage and Non Barrage Tidal power systems. Wave
Energy : Energy from waves, wave power devices. Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion
(OTEC)- Hydrogen Production and Storage - Fuel cell : Principle of working - various types
- construction and applications. Energy Storage System- Hybrid Energy Systems.

(iv)
Table of Contents
Unit - I Renewable Energy (RE) Sources (1 - 1) to (1 - 28)
1.1 Introduction....................................................................................................... 1 - 2
1.1.1 Primary and Secondary Energy ........................................................................... 1 - 2
1.1.2 Commercial Energy and Non Commercial Energy............................................... 1 - 2
1.1.3 Renewable and Non Renewable Energy ............................................................. 1 - 3
1.1.4 Conventional and Non Conventional Energy ...................................................... 1 - 4

1.2 Environmental Consequences of Fossil Fuel ..................................................... 1 - 4

1.3 Importance of Renewable Sources of Energy ................................................... 1 - 5
1.3.1 Combatting Climate Change................................................................................ 1 - 6

1.4 Sustainable Design and Development............................................................... 1 - 6

1.5 Types of Re Sources........................................................................................... 1 - 7
1.6 Limitations of Renewable Energy Sources ...................................................... 1 - 13
1.7 Present Scenario of Conventional and Renewable Energy in India ................ 1 - 14
1.7.1 Types of Conventional Sources of Energy ......................................................... 1 - 15
1.7.2 Performance of Conventional Generation ........................................................ 1 - 17

Two Marks Questions with Answers [Part A] .................................................. 1 - 19

Solved Questions [Part B] .............................................................................. 1 - 27

Unit - II Wind Energy (2 - 1) to (2 - 32)

2.1 Introduction....................................................................................................... 2 - 2
2.2 Speed and Power Relations............................................................................... 2 - 2
2.3 Power in the Wind............................................................................................. 2 - 3
2.4 Types of Wind Power Plants.............................................................................. 2 - 4
2.4.1 Wind Resource .................................................................................................... 2 - 4

(v)
 2.4.2 Wind Turbine ....................................................................................................... 2 - 5
2.4.3 Working of Wind Turbine .................................................................................... 2 - 6
2.4.4 Types of Wind Turbines ....................................................................................... 2 - 8

2.5 Components of Wind Power Plant .................................................................. 2 - 14

2.6 Siting of WPPs ................................................................................................. 2 - 17
2.7 Grid Integration Issues of WPPs ...................................................................... 2 - 20
Two Marks Questions with Answers [Part A] .................................................. 2 - 23
Solved Questions [Part B] .............................................................................. 2 - 31

Unit - III Solar PV and Thermal Systems (3 - 1) to (3 - 48)

3.1 Solar Radiation .................................................................................................. 3 - 2
3.2 Radiation Measurement.................................................................................... 3 - 3
3.3 Solar Thermal Power Plant ................................................................................ 3 - 4
3.3.1 Flat Plate Solar Collector ..................................................................................... 3 - 5
3.3.1.1 Liquid Heating Collector ........................................................................................ 3 - 5
3.3.1.2 Solar Air Heater ..................................................................................................... 3 - 6

3.3.1.3 Evacuated Tubular Collector ................................................................................. 3 - 7

3.3.2 Solar Concentrating Collector (Focusing Type) ................................................... 3 - 8

3.3.2.1 Parabolic Trough Collector .................................................................................... 3 - 8
3.3.2.2 Mirror Strip Reflector ............................................................................................ 3 - 9

3.3.2.3 Fresnel Lens Collector.......................................................................................... 3 - 10

3.3.2.4 Compound Parabolic Concentrator ..................................................................... 3 - 10

3.4 Central Receiver Power Plant .......................................................................... 3 - 11

3.4.1 Components of Central Receiver System .......................................................... 3 - 11
3.4.2 Working of Central Receiver System ................................................................. 3 - 12

3.5 Solar Ponds ...................................................................................................... 3 - 13

3.6 Thermal Energy Storage System with PCM ..................................................... 3 - 15
3.7 Solar Photovoltaic (PV) Power Systems .......................................................... 3 - 17

(vi)
 3.7.1 Photovoltaic Effect ............................................................................................ 3 - 17
3.7.2 Working of Solar PV........................................................................................... 3 - 17

3.8 Solar PV Power Generation ............................................................................. 3 - 19

3.8.1 Types of Solar PV Power Generation ................................................................ 3 - 20
3.8.1.1 Standalone Power System ................................................................................... 3 - 20

3.8.1.2 Grid Connected System ....................................................................................... 3 - 21

3.8.1.3 Hybrid System ..................................................................................................... 3 - 22

3.9 Types of Solar Cell ........................................................................................... 3 - 23

3.10 Photovoltaic Cell Concepts ............................................................................ 3 - 24
3.10.1 Solar Cell .......................................................................................................... 3 - 24
3.10.2 Solar Module ................................................................................................... 3 - 24
3.10.3 Solar Panel ....................................................................................................... 3 - 25
3.10.4 PV Module I-V Characteristics ......................................................................... 3 - 25
3.10.5 Short Circuit Current of Solar Cell ................................................................... 3 - 27
3.10.6 Open Circuit Voltage of Solar Cell ................................................................... 3 - 27
3.10.7 Maximum Power Point of Solar Cell................................................................ 3 - 27
3.10.8 Current and Voltage at Maximum Power Point .............................................. 3 - 28
3.10.9 Fill Factor of Solar Cell ..................................................................................... 3 - 28

3.11 Efficiency and Quality of the Cell .................................................................. 3 - 28

3.12 Series and Parallel Connections of a Solar Cell ............................................. 3 - 30
3.13 Maximum Power Point Tracking ................................................................... 3 - 32
3.14 Applications ................................................................................................... 3 - 38
Two Marks Questions with Answers [Part A] .................................................. 3 - 40
Solved Questions [Part B] .............................................................................. 3 - 48

Unit - IV Biomass Energy (4 - 1) to (4 - 46)

4.1 Introduction....................................................................................................... 4 - 2
4.2 Biomass Resources ............................................................................................ 4 - 3

(vii)
4.3 Energy from Biomass......................................................................................... 4 - 5
4.3.1 Fixed Dome Plant ................................................................................................ 4 - 5
4.3.2 Floating Gas Holder Type .................................................................................... 4 - 7

4.4 Conversion Process ........................................................................................... 4 - 8

4.4.1 Thermo-chemical Conversion.............................................................................. 4 - 8
4.4.1.1 Combustion Process .............................................................................................. 4 - 9

4.4.1.2 Pyrolysis Process.................................................................................................... 4 - 9

4.4.1.3 Gasification Process............................................................................................. 4 - 10

4.4.1.4 Liquification Process ............................................................................................ 4 - 11

4.4.2 Bio-chemical Conversion ................................................................................... 4 - 12

4.4.2.1 Anaerobic Digestion Process ............................................................................... 4 - 12
4.4.2.2 Fermentation Process.......................................................................................... 4 - 13

4.5 Biomass Cogeneration..................................................................................... 4 - 14

4.5.1 Cogeneration Technology ................................................................................. 4 - 14
4.5.1.1 Steam Turbine Cogeneration Systems................................................................. 4 - 15
4.5.1.2 Gasturbine Cogeneration Systems ...................................................................... 4 - 15

4.5.1.3 Reciprocating Engine Cogeneration Systems ...................................................... 4 - 16

4.6 Environmental Benefits ................................................................................... 4 - 17

4.7 Geothermal Energy ......................................................................................... 4 - 18
4.7.1 Geothermal Resources ...................................................................................... 4 - 19
4.7.2 Direct use of Geothermal Energy ...................................................................... 4 - 19
4.7.3 Working Principle of Direct Usage..................................................................... 4 - 19

4.8 Power Generation from Geothermal Energy .................................................. 4 - 20

4.8.1 Dry Steam Geothermal Power Plant ................................................................. 4 - 20
4.8.2 Liquid-Dominated Geothermal Power Plant ..................................................... 4 - 21
4.8.2.1 Flash-steam System ............................................................................................. 4 - 21

4.8.2.2 Binary Cycle System ............................................................................................. 4 - 22

4.9 Classifications of Water Turbine ..................................................................... 4 - 24

(viii)
 4.9.1 Impulse Turbine................................................................................................. 4 - 24
4.9.2 Reaction Turbine ............................................................................................... 4 - 26
4.9.2.1 Francis Turbine .................................................................................................... 4 - 26

4.9.2.2 Kaplan Turbine .................................................................................................... 4 - 27

4.10 Essential Components of Hydroelectric Systems .......................................... 4 - 28

4.11 Classification of Hydropower Schemes ......................................................... 4 - 34
Two Marks Questions with Answers [Part A] .................................................. 4 - 38
Solved Questions [Part B] .............................................................................. 4 - 45

Unit - V Other Energy Sources (5 - 1) to (5 - 44)

5.1 Tidal Energy ....................................................................................................... 5 - 2
5.2 Working of Different Tidal Power Plants........................................................... 5 - 6
5.3 Wave Energy...................................................................................................... 5 - 9
5.4 Energy From Waves......................................................................................... 5 - 10
5.5 Wave Power Devices ....................................................................................... 5 - 12
5.6 Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion ................................................................. 5 - 15
5.6.1 Types of Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion Systems....................................... 5 - 16
5.6.1.1 Closed Cycle OTEC System ................................................................................... 5 - 16
5.6.1.2 Open System OTEC System ................................................................................. 5 - 18

5.7 Hydrogen Production and Storage .................................................................. 5 - 20

5.7.1 Hydrogen Production ........................................................................................ 5 - 20
5.7.2 Hydrogen Storage.............................................................................................. 5 - 21
5.7.3 Hydrogen Re-Electrification .............................................................................. 5 - 21

5.8 Fuel Cell ........................................................................................................... 5 - 21

5.9 Principle of Working ........................................................................................ 5 - 22
5.10 Types of Fuel Cells ......................................................................................... 5 - 23
5.10.1 Polymer Electrolyte Membrane (PEM) Fuel Cell ............................................. 5 - 23
5.10.2 Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cell ................................................................................ 5 - 24

(ix)
 5.10.3 Solid Acid Fuel Cell .......................................................................................... 5 - 24
5.10.4 Alkaline Fuel Cell ............................................................................................. 5 - 24
5.10.5 Solid Oxide Fuel Cell ........................................................................................ 5 - 25
5.10.6 Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell............................................................................. 5 - 26

5.11 Energy Storage System .................................................................................. 5 - 28

5.12 Hybrid Energy System ................................................................................... 5 - 30
5.12.1 Wind/PV Hybrid System .................................................................................. 5 - 32
5.12.2 PV/ Hydro Hybrid System ................................................................................ 5 - 33

Two Marks Questions with Answers [Part A] .................................................. 5 - 34

Solved Questions [Part B] .............................................................................. 5 - 43

Solved Model Question Paper (M - 1) to (M - 2)

(x)
 Renewable Energy (RE)
Unit - I
Sources
Syllabus
Environmental consequences of fossil fuel use, Importance of renewable sources of energy,
Sustainable Design and development, Types of RE sources, Limitations of RE sources, Present
Indian and international energy scenario of conventional and RE sources.

Contents
1.1 Introduction

1.2 Environmental Consequences of Fossil Fuel

1.3 Importance of Renewable Sources of Energy

1.4 Sustainable Design and Development

1.5 Types of Re Sources

1.6 Limitations of Renewable Energy Sources

1.7 Present Scenario of Conventional and Renewable Energy in India

1.8 Types of Conventional Sources of Energy

Two Marks Questions with Answers [Part A]

Solved Questions [Part B]

(1 - 1)
Renewable Energy Systems 1-2 Renewable Energy (RE) Sources

1.1 Introduction
Any physical activity in this world, whether carried out by human beings or by nature,
is caused due to flow of energy in one form or the other. The word ‘energy’ itself is
derived from the Greek word ‘en-ergon’, which means ‘in-work’ or ‘work content’. The
work output depends on the energy input. Energy is one of the major inputs for the
economic development of any country. In the case of the developing countries, the energy
sector assumes a critical importance in view of the ever increasing energy needs requiring
huge investments to meet them.
Energy can be classified into several types based on the following criteria :
 Primary and secondary energy
 Commercial and non commercial energy
 Renewable and non-renewable energy
 Conventional and non-conventional energy

1.1.1 Primary and Secondary Energy

Primary energy sources are those that are either found or stored in nature. Common
primary energy sources are coal, oil, natural gas, and biomass (such as wood).Major
sources available include nuclear energy from radioactive substances, thermal energy
stored in earth's interior, and potential energy due to earth's gravity.
Primary energy sources are costly converted in industrial utilities into secondary
energy sources; for example coal, oil or gas converted into steam and electricity. Primary
energy can also be used directly. Some energy sources have non energy uses, for example
coal or natural gas can be used as a feedstock in fertilizer plants.
Secondary energy includes resources that have been converted or stored. secondary
energy cannot be harnessed directly from nature; rather, secondary energy has already
been converted.

1.1.2 Commercial Energy and Non Commercial Energy

Commercial Energy
The energy sources that are available in the market for a definite price are known as
commercial energy. By far the most important forms of commercial energy are electricity,
coal and refined petroleum products. Commercial energy forms the basis of industrial,
agricultural, transport and commercial development in the modern world. In the
industrialized countries, commercialized fuels are predominant source not only for

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledge

Renewable Energy Systems 1-3 Renewable Energy (RE) Sources

economic production, but also for many household tasks of general population.
Examples: Electricity, lignite, coal, oil, natural gas etc.

Non-Commercial Energy
The energy sources that are not available in the commercial market for a price are
classified as non-commercial energy. Non-commercial energy sources include fuels such
as firewood, cattle dung and agricultural wastes, which are traditionally gathered, and
not bought at a price used especially in rural households. These are also called traditional
fuels. Non-commercial energy is often ignored in energy accounting.
Example : Firewood, agro waste in rural areas; solar energy for water heating,
electricity generation, for drying grain, fish and fruits; animal power for transport,
threshing, lifting water for irrigation, crushing sugarcane; wind energy for lifting water
and electricity generation.

1.1.3 Renewable and Non Renewable Energy

Renewable Energy :
Renewable energy is energy that is collected from renewable resources, which are
naturally replenished on a human timescales, such as sunlight, wind, rain, tides, waves
and geothermal heat. Renewable energy often provides energy in four important areas :
Electricity generation, air and water heating/cooling, transportation and rural energy
services.

Fig. 1.1.1 : Renewable and non renewable energy

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledge

Renewable Energy Systems 1-4 Renewable Energy (RE) Sources

Non Renewable Energy

Non renewable energy is the conventional fossil fuel such as coal, oil and gas which
are likely to deplete with time.

1.1.4 Conventional and Non Conventional Energy

Conventional Energy
Conventional energy resources which are being traditionally used for many decades
and were in common use around oil crisis of 1973 are called conventional energy
resources, e.g., fossil fuel, nuclear and hydro resources.

Non-conventional Energy
Non-conventional energy resources which are considered for large-scale use after oil
crisis of 1973, are called non-conventional energy sources, e.g., Solar, wind, biomass etc.

1.2 Environmental Consequences of Fossil Fuel

In our country, most of the environmental problems arise due to fossil fuel
dependence. The problems include global warming, air quality deterioration, oil spills
and acid rain. Among the gases emitted when fossil fuels are burnt, one of the most
significant is carbon dioxide, a gas that traps heat in the earth’s atmosphere. Fossil fuels
result in increased levels of atmosphere methane and nitrous oxide, although they are not
the major source of these gases. Several important pollutants are produced by fossil fuel
combustion : Carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, sulphur oxides and hydrocarbons. In
addition, total suspended particulates contribute to air pollution, and nitrogen oxides and
hydrocarbons can combine in the atmosphere to form tropospheric zone, the major
constituent of smog. Carbon monoxide is a gas formed as a by-product during the
incomplete combustion of all fossil fuels. Production, transportation and use of oil can
cause water pollution. Oil spills, for example, leave waterways and their surrounding
shores uninhabitable for some time. Such spills often result in the loss of plant and animal
life. Coal mining also contributes to water pollution. Coal contains pyrite, a sulphur
compound, as water washes through mines, which is then washed into nearby rivers and
streams. During the electricity-generation process, burning fossil fuels produce heat
energy, some of which is used to generate electricity. Because the process is inefficient,
much of the heat is released to the atmosphere or to water that is used as a coolant.
Heated water, once returned to rivers or lakes, can upset the aquatic ecosystem.

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledge

Renewable Energy Systems 1-5 Renewable Energy (RE) Sources

Following steps can be suggested to minimize the pollution caused by various sources
of energy.
 Avoid misuse of energy that will reduce energy consumption.
 Alternative sources of energy like solar energy, wind energy, hydro energy and
energy of sea should replace non renewable sources of energy.
 Use of smokeless appliances, refined technology, judicious use of energy etc.

1.3 Importance of Renewable Sources of Energy

 The most significant feature of renewable energy is its availability is plenty in
nature. It is infinite. Renewable energy sources are hygienic sources of energy that
have a much lesser negative environmental impact than conventional fossil fuel
energy technologies.
 Most renewable energy investments are spent on materials and personnel to build
and maintain the facilities, rather than on costly energy imports. With technological
advancements in digital communication, people have now become aware of the
demerits of burning fossil fuels.
 Renewable energy is the need of the hour. Its clean and sustainable nature has
compelled the human beings to think seriously about it. Scientists and engineers,
around the world, are continuously working and doing research in this domain.
They are finding new ways to use these sources of energy effectively and efficiently.
 Global warming is a huge hazard which is being caused by burning of coal, oil and
natural gas. It is very harmful for the planet and the living beings on it. Moreover,
fossil fuels cause many unfortunate mishaps in the past. To put an end to this
apocalypse; we must resort to renewable sources. This is because they are cleaner
and do not produce poisonous harmful gases.
 Renewable energy is key in achieving these international goals. Using renewables
(as oppose to fossil fuels) brings other advantages and opportunities, ranging from
environmental to socio-economic and political.
 Energy and sustainability had become an important aspect and current issue
around the global. Energy is an important and essential commodity in contributing
towards the economic growth of the country.
 Natural resources are one of the resources that human consume to generate the
energy. But the most important issue is how technology can contribute to
generating the solution maintaining sustainability. Energy production, primary and
end-use of energy and quality of energy are the important aspect while discussing

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledge

Renewable Energy Systems 1-6 Renewable Energy (RE) Sources

the energy resources and use. The main energy production mostly comes from
fossil fuels, by converting them into a suitable final form of energy supply and used
by the people. Other than that other energy sources such as thermal sources and
hydroelectric sources and nuclear sources are being consumed by the nation.
 The quality of the energy and strategies of use of energy is required inorder for the
energy in the planet to be sustainable. Furthermore the most important is the
renewable energy sources must be developed and improved. On the other hand, the
side effect of the consumption of the energy such as resource depletion, waste
management, and the destruction of the environment must be taken into
consideration.

1.3.1 Combatting Climate Change

The burning of fossil fuels for energy results in a significant amount of greenhouse
gas emissions that contribute to global warming. Most sources of renewable energy result
in no emissions, even when considering the full life cycle of the technologies.

1.4 Sustainable Design and Development

Sustainable energy is the practice of using energy in a way that "meets the needs of the
present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.
The concept of sustainable development was described by the World Commission on
Environment and Development in the year 1987.
The commission described four key elements of sustainability with respect to energy :
 The ability to increase the supply of energy to meet growing human needs.
 Energy efficiency and conservation.
 Public health and safety.
 Protection of the biosphere and prevention of more localized forms of pollution.
Various definitions of sustainable energy have been offered since then which are also
based on the three pillars of sustainable development, namely environment, economy,
and society.
 Environmental criteria include greenhouse gas emissions, impact on biodiversity,
and the production of hazardous waste and toxic emissions.
 Economic criteria include the cost of energy, whether energy is delivered to users
with high reliability, and effects on jobs associated with energy production.
 Socio-cultural criteria include the prevention of wars over the energy supply
(energy security) and long-term availability of energy.

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledge

Renewable Energy Systems 1-7 Renewable Energy (RE) Sources

Once technology developed in renewable energy field, it helps in national sustainable

economic growth.

1.5 Types of Re Sources

Alternative or renewable energy comes from natural processes that can reliably
produce cheap energy with minimal impact to the environment.

Fig. 1.5.1 : Renewable energy sources

Most popular renewable energy sources are,

1. Solar energy 2. Wind energy
3. Hydro energy 4. Tidal energy
5. Geothermal energy 6. Biomass energy

1. Solar Energy
Solar energy is derived by capturing radiant energy from sunlight and converting it
into heat, electricity, or hot water. Photovoltaic (PV) systems can convert direct sunlight
into electricity through the use of solar cells. Modern residential solar power systems use
photovoltaic (PV) to collect the sun’s energy. “Photo” means “produced by light,” and
“voltaic” is “electricity produced by a chemical reaction.” PV cells use solar energy to
generate a chemical reaction that produces electricity. Each cell contains a semiconductor;
most commonly silicon in one of several forms (single-crystalline, multi-crystalline, or
thin-layer), with impurities (either boron or phosphorus) diffused throughout, and is
covered with a silk screen. Cells are joined together by a circuit and frame into a module.
Semiconductors allow the electrons freed from impurities by the sun’s rays to move
rapidly and into the circuit, generating electricity. Commercial residential PV modules
range in power output from 10 watts to 300 watts, in a direct current. A PV module must
have an inverter to change the DC electricity into alternating current energy in order to be
usable by electrical devices and compatible with the electric grid. PV modules can also be
used in masses to create large-scale power plants.

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledge

Renewable Energy Systems 1-8 Renewable Energy (RE) Sources

Fig. 1.5.2 : Solar energy

Benefits
One of the benefits of solar energy is that sunlight is functionally endless. With the
technology to harvest it, there is a limitless supply of solar energy, meaning it could
render fossil fuels obsolete. Relying on solar energy rather than fossil fuels also helps us
improve public health and environmental conditions. In the long term, solar energy could
also eliminate energy costs, and in the short term, reduce your energy bills. Many federal
local, state, and federal governments also provide incentives over the investment in solar
energy.

2. Wind Energy
Wind farms capture the energy of wind flow by using turbines and converting it into
electricity. There are several forms of systems used to convert wind energy and each vary.
Commercial grade wind-powered generating systems can power many different
organizations, while single-wind turbines are used to help supplement pre-existing
energy organizations. Another form is utility-scale wind farms, which are purchased by
contract or wholesale. Technically, wind energy is a form of solar energy. The
phenomenon we call “wind” is caused by the differences in temperature in the
atmosphere combined with the rotation of Earth and the geography of the planet.
Wind energy is one of the most promising alternative energy technologies of the
future. Throughout recent years, the amount of energy produced by wind-driven turbines
has increased exponentially due to significant breakthroughs in turbine technologies,
making wind power economically compatible with conventional sources of energy. Wind
energy is a clean and renewable source of power.

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledge

Renewable Energy Systems 1-9 Renewable Energy (RE) Sources

Fig. 1.5.3 : Wind energy

Benefits
Wind energy is a clean energy source, which means that it doesn’t pollute the air like
other forms of energy. Wind energy doesn’t produce carbon dioxide, or release any
harmful products that can cause environmental degradation or negatively affect human
health like smog, acid rain, or other heat-trapping gases. Investment in wind energy
technology can also open up new avenues for jobs and job training, as the turbines on
farms need to be serviced and maintained to keep running.

3. Hydro Energy
Hydro energy is a form of renewable energy that uses the power of moving water to
generate electricity. Water flows through the dam’s turbines to produce electricity, known
as pumped-storage hydropower. Run-of-river hydropower uses a channel to funnel water
through rather than powering it through a dam. Harvesting energy from water is possible
due to the gravitational potential energy stored in water. As water flows from a high
potential energy (high ground) to lower potential energy (lower ground), the potential
energy difference thereby created can be partially converted into kinetic, and in this case
electric, energy through the use of a generator. There are essentially two major designs in
use that utilize water to produce electricity : The hydroelectric dam, and the pumped-
storage plant. The waterwheel and the dam work on the same general principle.
The principle is “the force of the water being released from the reservoir through the
penstock of the dam spins the blades of a turbine. The turbine is connected to the
generator that produces electricity”.

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledge

Renewable Energy Systems 1 - 10 Renewable Energy (RE) Sources

Fig. 1.5.4 : Hydro energy

Benefits
Hydroelectric power is very versatile and can be generated using both large scale
projects, like the Hoover dam, and small scale projects like underwater turbines and
lower dams on small rivers and streams. Hydroelectric power does not generate
pollution, and therefore is a much more environmentally-friendly energy option for our
environment.

4. Ocean, Wave and Tidal Energy

The ocean can produce two types of energy : Thermal and mechanical. Ocean thermal
energy relies on warm water surface temperatures to generate energy through a variety of
different systems. Ocean mechanical energy uses the ebbs and flows of the tides to
generate energy, which is created by the earth’s rotation and gravity from the moon. Tidal
power or tidal energy is a form of hydropower that converts the energy obtained from
tides into useful forms of power, mainly electricity.
 Wave energy, also known as ocean energy is defined as energy harnessed from
oceanic waves. As the wind blows across the surface of the ocean, it creates waves
and thus they can also be referred to as energy moving across the surface of the
water.
 Tides are defined as the rise and fall of sea level caused by the gravitational pull of
the moon and the sun on the Earth. They are not only limited to the oceans, but can
also occur in other systems whenever a gravitational field exists.
 Ocean thermal energy (OTE)is the temperature differences (thermal gradients)
between ocean surface waters and that of ocean depths. Energy from the sun heats
the surface water of the ocean. In tropical regions, surface water can be much
warmer than deep water. This temperature difference can be used to produce
electricity and to desalinate ocean water.

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledge

Renewable Energy Systems 1 - 11 Renewable Energy (RE) Sources

Fig. 1.5.6 : Tidal energy

Benefits
Unlike other forms of renewable energy, wave energy is predictable and it’s easy to
estimate the amount of energy that will be produced. Instead of relying on varying
factors, such as sun and wind, wave energy is much more consistent. This type of
renewable energy is also abundant, the most populated cities tend to be near oceans and
harbors, making it easier to harness this energy for the local population. The potential of
wave energy is an astounding (surprising, amazing) as yet untapped energy resource
with an estimated ability to produce 2640 TWh/yr. Just 1 TWh/yr of energy can power
around 93,850 average U.S. homes with power annually, or about twice than the number
of homes that currently exist in the U.S. at present.

5. Geothermal Energy
Geothermal heat is heat that is trapped beneath the earth’s crust from the formation of
the Earth 4.5 billion years ago and from radioactive decay. Sometimes large amounts of
this heat escapes naturally, but all at once, resulting in familiar occurrences, such as
volcanic eruptions and geysers. This heat can be captured and used to produce
geothermal energy by using steam that comes from the heated water pumping below the
surface, which then rises to the top and can be used to operate a turbine. Geothermal
energy is one of the only renewable energy sources not dependent on the Sun. Instead, it
relies on heat produced under the surface of the Earth. Geothermal power plants take on
several types of forms, depending on the type of geothermal area from which they extract
energy. In any case, the plants depend on steam to power turbines and generate
electricity, though the methods of producing steam varies depending on the type of
geothermal reservoir.

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledge

Renewable Energy Systems 1 - 12 Renewable Energy (RE) Sources

Fig. 1.5.7 : Geothermal energy

Benefits
Geothermal energy is not as common as other types of renewable energy sources, but
it has a significant potential for energy supply. Since it can be built underground, it leaves
very little footprint on land. Geothermal energy is naturally replenished and therefore
does not run a risk of depleting (on a human timescale).

6. Biomass Energy
Bioenergy is a renewable energy derived from biomass. Biomass is organic matter that
comes from recently living plants and organisms. Using wood in your fireplace is an
example of biomass that most people are familiar with.

Fig. 1.5.8 Biomass energy

There are various methods used to generate energy through the use of biomass. This
can be done by burning biomass, or harnessing methane gas which is produced by the
natural decomposition of organic materials in ponds or even landfills.
Digestion is the naturally occurring process of bacteria feeding on decaying matter and
making it decompose. It is that which releases gases like methane, hydrogen, carbon

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledge

Renewable Energy Systems 1 - 13 Renewable Energy (RE) Sources

monoxide, etc. In many landfills, owners are experimenting with set-ups to best collect
the gases produced by such bacteria. The standard system includes pipelines running
through the waste to collect the gases. Animal feed lots and other facilities are also
exploring tapping such resources. A zoo in upstate New York is using their elephant
manure to do the same thing. Benefits of this process include the relative lack of
impurities in the gases produced and the fact that the synthesis gases (carbon monoxide
and hydrogen) can be converted to any kind of hydrocarbon fuel.

Benefits
The use of biomass in energy production creates carbon dioxide that is put into the air,
but the regeneration of plants consumes the same amount of carbon dioxide, which is
said to create a balanced atmosphere. Biomass can be used in a number of different ways
in our daily lives, not only for personal use, but businesses as well. In 2017, energy from
biomass made up about 5 % of the total energy used in the U.S. This energy came from
wood, biofuels like ethanol, and energy generated from methane captured from landfills
or by burning municipal waste.

1.6 Limitations of Renewable Energy Sources

 Solar energy will save you money in the long run, it tends to be a significant upfront
cost and is an unrealistic expense for most households. For personal homes,
homeowners also need to have the ample sunlight and space to arrange their solar
panels, which limits who can realistically adopt this technology at the individual
level.
 Wind farms tend to be built in rural or remote areas, they are usually far from
bustling cities where the electricity is needed most. Wind energy must be
transported via transmission lines, leading to higher costs. Although wind turbines
produce very little pollution, some cities oppose them since they dominate skylines
and generate noise. Wind turbines also threaten local wildlife like birds, which are
sometimes killed by striking the arms of the turbine while flying.
 Most U.S. hydroelectricity facilities use more energy than they are able to produce
for consumption. The storage systems may need to use fossil fuel to pump water.
Although hydroelectric power does not pollute the air, it disrupts waterways and
negatively affects the animals that live in them, changing water levels, currents, and
migration paths for many fish and other freshwater ecosystems.

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledge

Renewable Energy Systems 1 - 14 Renewable Energy (RE) Sources

 Cost plays a major factor when it comes to disadvantages of geothermal energy. It is

costly to build the infrastructure. Another major concern is its vulnerability to
earthquakes in certain regions of the world.
 Ocean energy is that it can disturb the ocean’s many delicate ecosystems. Although
it is a very clean source of energy, large machinery needs to be built nearby to help
capture this form energy, which can cause disruptions to the ocean floor and the sea
life that habitats it. Another factor to consider is weather, when rough weather
occurs it changes the consistency of the waves, thus producing lower energy output
when compared to normal waves without stormy weather.
 New biomass plants need carbon dioxide to grow, plants take time to grow. We also
don’t yet have widespread technology that can use biomass in lieu of fossil fuels.

1.7 Present Scenario of Conventional and Renewable Energy in India

When we cannot reuse a source of energy after using it once we call them
“conventional sources of energy” or “non-renewable energy resources”. They are the
most important conventional sources of energy. These include coal, petroleum, natural
gas and nuclear energy. Oil is the most widely used source of energy. Coal, petroleum
and natural gas account for about 90 % of world’s production of commercial energy and
hydroelectric and nuclear power account for about 10 %.
India ranks sixth in the world in total energy consumption. India has increased
installed power capacity from 1,362 MW to over 1,62,366 MW since Independence. The
government of India has an ambitious mission of “POWER FOR ALL” by 2012. This
mission would require that the installed generation capacity should more than
2,00,000 MW by 2012 from the present level of 1.62,366 MW. The power in India shown
Fig. 1.7.1.

Fig : 1.7.1 Power in India

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledge

Renewable Energy Systems 1 - 15 Renewable Energy (RE) Sources

1.7.1 Types of Conventional Sources of Energy

The conventional energy sources are
1. Coal
2. Oil
3. Petroleum and Natural Gas
4. Thermal Power Plant
5. Nuclear Power Plant

1. Coal
India has huge coal reserves, atleast 84,396 million tones of proven recoverable
reserves. These amounts to almost 8.6 % of the world reserves and it may last for about
230 years at the current Reserve to Production (R/P) ratio. In contrast, the world's proven
coal reserves are expected to last only for 192 years at the current R/P ratio.
Reserves/Production (R/P) ratio - If the reserves remaining at the end of the year are
divided by the production in that year, the result is the length of time that the remaining
reserves would last if production were to continue at that level.
India is the fourth largest producer of coal and lignite in the world. Coal production is
concentrated in these states (Andhra Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh,
Maharashtra, Orissa, Jharkhand, and West Bengal).Coal is the most abundant
conventional source of energy which could last for atleast 200 years. It is a black-brown
sedimentary rock. Formation of coal occurs when the remains of plants convert into
lignite and then into anthracite. This involves a long process that takes place over a long
period of time. Coal helps for various proposes such as heating of the house, as fuel for
boilers and steam engines and for generation of electricity by thermal plants. It constitutes
about 70 % of total commercial energy consumption in the country.

Fig. 1.7.2

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledge

Renewable Energy Systems 1 - 16 Renewable Energy (RE) Sources

2. Oil
Out of all the conventional sources of energy, oil is used abundantly all over.
Considering, oil is one of the most important conventional sources of energy in India, the
resources for same are even smaller. The extraction of oil from deposits is known as oil
resources.
In nature oil is a liquid that fills in empty spaces, crevices and caverns in rocks,
forming deposits in anticlines, folds at plate boundaries and foothills. Oil can also be
found in pores or on grains of rocks. Such oil can form oil-saturated sandstone and
limestone rocks, or plastic and hard layers of crust, most often called natural asphalt or
oil shale.

3. Petroleum and Natural Gas

Petroleum is the mixture of hydrocarbons like alkanes and cycloalkanes. In crude form
black liquid is known as petroleum and the formation of a natural gas occurs when the
gas comes in contact with petroleum layer. Natural gas is a mixture of 50-90 % of
Methane, Ethane, Propane, Butane, and Hydrogen sulphide. After refining and purifying
crude petroleum, it is available as petrol, diesel, lubricating oil, plastic etc. Natural gas is
also making a significant contribution to the household sector. It causes less air pollution
as compared to other fossil fuel.

4. Thermal Power Plant

Fig. 1.7.3

Power stations burn a large amount of fossil fuels to heat up water, to produce steam,
which further runs the turbine to generate electricity. Transmission of electricity is more
efficient than, transporting coal or petroleum over the same distance. It is called as the
thermal plant because fuel is burnt to produce heat energy which is converted into
electrical energy.

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledge

Renewable Energy Systems 1 - 17 Renewable Energy (RE) Sources

5. Nuclear Energy
Nuclear Power contributes to about 2.4 percent of electricity generated in India. India
has ten nuclear power reactors at five nuclear power stations producing electricity. More
nuclear reactors have also been approved for construction. A small amount of radioactive
substance can produce a lot of energy through the nuclear substances all over the world.
Inorder to obtain nuclear energy, nuclear reactions are essential and there are about 300
nuclear reactions. Nuclear energy is one of the most environmentally friendly
conventional sources of energy as it produces fewer greenhouse gas emissions during the
production of electricity in comparison to sources like coal power plants. The nuclear
energy releases huge amount of radioactive waste in the environment and is hazardous.
Total energy generated in India shown table 1.7.1.

Fuel MW % of Total

Total Thermal 2,30,600 62.8 %

Coal 1,98,525 54.2 %

Lignite 6,610 1.7 %

Gas 24,937 6.9 %

Diesel 510 0.1 %

Hydro (Renewable) 45,699 12.4 %

Nuclear 6,780 1.9 %

RES* (MNRE) 87,028 23.5 %

Total 370,106

Table : 1.7.1 Total energy generated

1.7.2 Performance of Conventional Generation

The electricity generation target of conventional sources for the year 2019-20 has been
fixed as 1330 Billion Unit (BU). i.e. growth of around 6.46 % over actual conventional
generation of 1249.337 BU for the previous year (2018-19). The conventional generation
during 2018-19 was 1249.337 BU as compared to 1206.306 BU generated during 2017-18,
representing a growth of about 3.57 %.

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledge

Renewable Energy Systems 1 - 18 Renewable Energy (RE) Sources

Generation and growth in conventional generation in the country during 2009-10 to 2019-20 :

Year Energy generation from % of growth

conventional sources

2009-10 771.551 6.6

2010-11 811.143 5.56

2011-12 876.887 8.11

2012-13 912.056 4.01

2013-14 967.150 6.04

2014-15 1048.673 8.43

2015-16 1107.822 5.64

2016-17 1160.141 4.72

2017-18 1206.306 3.98

2018-19 1249.337 3.57

2019-20* 1252.611 0.26

Table : 1.7.2

Renewable energy target and achievements in India

India is one of the countries with large production of energy from renewable sources.
As of 31 March 2020, 35.86 % of India's installed electricity generation capacity is from
renewable sources, generating. 21.22 % of total utility electricity in the country.

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledge

Renewable Energy Systems 1 - 19 Renewable Energy (RE) Sources

The renewable power capacity shown in Table 1.7.3.

Renewable power capacity as of 31 March 2020

2022 target
Source Total Installed Capacity (MW)
(MW)

Wind power 37,693.75 60,000

Solar power 34,627.82 100,000

Biomass power
(Biomass and Gasification and 9,875.31
Bagasse Cogeneration) *10,000

Waste-to-Power 147.64

Small hydropower 4,683.16 5,000

TOTAL 87,027.68 175,000

Table : 1.7.3

1.8 Two Marks Questions with Answers

Part - A

Q.1 Name the energy sources available.

Ans. : The energy sources available can be divided into three categories. They are,
 Primary Energy Sources
 Secondary Energy Sources
 Supplementary Energy Sources
Q.2 What is meant by Primary and Secondary Energy source ? Give example.
Ans. : Primary energy source : Primary energy source can be defined as source which
provides a net supply of energy. The energy that are either found or stored in nature.
E.g. coal, oil, natural gas and biomass.
Secondary energy source : The form of energy which is finally supplied to, a
consumer for utilization is known as secondary or usable energy. E.g. Electrical energy,
thermal energy (in the form of steam or hot water),chemical energy (in the form of
hydrogen or fossil fuels),etc.,

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledge

Renewable Energy Systems 1 - 20 Renewable Energy (RE) Sources

Q.3 What are the advantages of renewable energy source ?

Ans. :
 Renewable energy sources are available in nature free of cost.
 They produce no or little pollution. Thus by and large, they are environment
friendly.
 They are inexhaustible.
 They have a low gestation period.
Q.4 What is meant by renewable energy sources ?
Ans. : Renewable energy is energy that is collected from renewable resources, which
are naturally replenished on a human timescales, such as sunlight, wind, rain, tides,
waves and geothermal heat. Renewable energy often provides energy in four important
areas : electricity generation, air and water heating/cooling, transportation and rural
energy services.
Q.5 What are the limitations of renewable energy source ?

Ans. :
 The energy available in dilute form from the renewable energy sources.
 Though available freely in nature, the cost of harnessing energy from a non
conventional source is generally high.
 Availability is uncertain; the energy flow depends on various natural phenomena
beyond human control.
 Difficulty in transporting such forms of energy.
Q.6 What is meant by commercial energy ?
Ans. : The energy sources that are available in the market for a definite price are known
as commercial energy. The secondary usable energy forms such as electricity, petrol,
diesel, gas etc., are essential for commercial activities and are categorized as commercial
energy resources. The economy of the country depends on its ability to convert natural
raw energy into commercial energy.
Q.7 What is meant by non-commercial energy ?
Ans. : The energy derived from nature and used directly without passing through a
commercial outlet is called a non-commercial sources. E.g., wood, animal dung cake, crop
residue, etc.,
Q.8 What is meant by non-renewable energy source ?
Ans. : Non-renewable energy resource which are finite and do not get replenished after
their consumption are called non-renewable. E.g., fossil fuels, uranium, coal, etc.

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledge

Renewable Energy Systems 1 - 21 Renewable Energy (RE) Sources

Q.9 What is meant by supplementary sources ?

Ans. : Supplementary sources are defined as those whose net energy yield is zero and
those requiring highest investment in terms of energy insulation(thermal) is an example
for this source.
Q.10 How the energy resources are classified ?
Ans. :

1. Based on usability of energy

 Primary resources
 Intermediate resources
 Secondary resources

2. Based on traditional use

 Conventional energy
 Non-conventional energy

3. Based on long term availability

 Non-renewable
 Renewable

4. Based on commercial application

 Commercial energy source
 Non-commercial energy source

5. Based on origin
 Fossil fuels energy
 Nuclear energy
 Hydro energy
 Solar energy
 Wind energy
 Biomass energy
 Geothermal energy
 Tidal energy
 Ocean thermal energy
 Ocean wave energy

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledge

Renewable Energy Systems 1 - 22 Renewable Energy (RE) Sources

Q.11 What are the factors causing winds ?

Ans. : Winds are caused from two main factors :
 Heating and cooling of the atmosphere which generates convection currents. Heating
is caused by the absorption of solar energy on the earth’s surface and in the
atmosphere.
 The rotation of the earth with respect to atmosphere, and its motion around the sun.
Q.12 What are the features of wind energy ?
Ans. : The characteristics of wind energy are :
 It is renewable source of energy
 Like all forms of solar energy, wind power systems are non-polluting, so it has no
adverse influence on the environment.
 Wind energy systems avoid fuel provision and transport.
 On a small scale, up to a few kilowatt system, is less costly.
Q.13 What are the problems associated with wind energy ?
Ans. : The problems associated with wind energy are :
 Wind energy available is dilute and fluctuating in nature. Because of the dilute form,
conversion machines have to be necessarily large.
 Wind energy need storage means because of its irregularity.
 Wind energy systems are noisy in operation; a large unit can be heard many
kilometers away.
 Large areas are needed to install wind farms for electrical power generation.
Q.14 Name the three categories of biomass resources.
Ans. : Biomass resources fall into three categories :
 The first category is to burn the biomass directly and get the energy.
 The second category, the biomass is converted into ethanol and methanol to be used
as liquid fuels in engines.
 The third category is to ferment the biomass an aerobically to obtain a gaseous fuel
called biogas..
Q.15 Define heliostats.
Ans. : In solar tower concentration system (tower power concept)the incoming solar
radiation is focused to a central receiver or a boiler mounted on a tall tower using
thousands of plane reflectors which are steerable about two axes are called heliostats.

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledge

Renewable Energy Systems 1 - 23 Renewable Energy (RE) Sources

Q.16 Define energy yield ratio.

Ans. : The energy yields ratio of an energy extraction process is defined as follows :
Energy yield ratio = (Energy received from raw energy source) / (Energy spent to
obtain raw energy source).
Q.17 State the importance of non-conventional energy source.
Ans. :
 The demand of energy is increasing by leaps and bounds due to rapid
industrialization and population growth, and hence the conventional sources of
energy will not be sufficient to meet the growing demand.
 Conventional sources (except hydro) are non-renewable and are bound to finish up
one day.
 Conventional sources (fossil fuels, nuclear) also cause pollution; thereby their use
degrades the environment.
 Large hydro resources affect wildlife, cause deforestation and pose various social
problems.
 In addition to supplying energy, fossil fuels are also used extensively as feed stock
materials for the manufacture of organic chemicals. As reserve deplete, the need for
using fossil fuels exclusively for such purpose may become greater.
Q.18 What is meant by energy conservation ?
Ans. : Energy conservation means reduction in energy consumption but without
making any sacrifice in the quality or quantity of production. In other words, it means
increasing the production from a given amount of energy input by reducing
losses/wastage and maximizing the efficiency.
Q.19 State three incentives in energy conservation.
Ans. : The three major incentives in energy conservation are:
 Decreasing the energy requirement
 Conserving the limited conventional assets of energy
 Saving the environment.
Q.20 List the general principles of energy conservation.
Ans. : The general principles of energy conservation are :
 Recycling of waste
 Modernization of technology
 Waste heat utilization

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledge

Renewable Energy Systems 1 - 24 Renewable Energy (RE) Sources

 Proper house keeping

 Judicial use of proper types of energy
 Judicial use of proper type of fuel
 Training of manpower
 Adopting daylight saving time
 Proper operation and maintenance
 Cogeneration.
Q.21 List the necessity of energy storage.
Ans. :
 The effective utilization of intermittent and variable energy source such as sunlight,
wind, etc., often requires energy storage
 Storing the energy and transporting it economically to a load centre.
 The vehicle must carry its energy supply, the storage system must be readily
transportable
 Energy storage is also required for load leveling in an electric utility to reduce the
overall cost of generating electrical power.
Q.22 Define energy utility factor.
Ans. : The relation between useful thermal energy and the available chemical energy in
the fuel is expressed by means of the energy utility factor.
Energy utility factor = Useful thermal energy/ Available energy in fuel
Q.23 Comparison of conventional and non-conventional sources.
Ans. :
Feature Conventional(nonrenewable) Non conventional(renewable)

Technologies Established Under development

Plant size Large(mW range) Small (kW range)

Main power plants Suitable Not sufficient

Energy density of High Low

source

Pollution problems More Less

Energy conserves Limited will get exhausted soon Will continue to renew

Cost of generation Low High

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledge

Renewable Energy Systems 1 - 25 Renewable Energy (RE) Sources

Q.24 What are the needs of energy conservation ?

Ans. :
 Energy conservation is necessary to reduce the wastage of energy.
 It helps to keep the domestic charge payment constant even when the production
cost of electricity increase.
 It helps to maintain the profit in industries uniform even if the electricity charge
increases.
Q.25 What are the different types of renewable energy sources ?
Ans. : Solar energy, wind energy, hydro power, geo thermal, biomass, tidal and wave
energy.
Q.26 What are the applications of solar energy ?
Ans. :
 Heating and cooling residential building
 Solar water heating
 Solar distillation
 Solar engines for water pumping
 Food refrigeration.
Q.27 What are the types of wind mills ?
Ans. :
 Multi blade type
 Sail blade type
 Propeller type
 Savonius type and
 Darrieus type.
Q.28 Write the characteristics of wind energy.
Ans. :
 It is a renewable source of energy
 Non polluting
 Wind energy systems avoid fuel
 Wind energy systems avoid fuel provision and transport
 On a small scale up to a few kW system is less costly

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledge

Renewable Energy Systems 1 - 26 Renewable Energy (RE) Sources

Q.29 State the causes of problems in wind mill.

Ans. :
 Wind energy available is dilute and fluctuating in nature. Because of the dilute form,
conversion machines have to be necessarily large.
 Wind energy systems are noisy in operation a large unit can be heard many
kilometers away.
 Large areas are needed to install wind forms for electrical power generation
Q.30 What is energy plantation ?
Ans. : Selected species of trees would be planted and harvested over regular time
period near the power plant. Eg: Eucalyptus, casuarinas and babool.
Q.31 What are the draw backs on bio gas ?
Ans. :
 Biomass combustion produces air pollution
 Large scale production of biomass and its harvesting accelerate soil erosion and
nutrient.
 Domestic use of biomass in rural areas creates air pollution.
Q.32 What are the applications of bio mass ?
Ans. :
 Cooking
 Lightning
 Mechanical power
 Generation of small electricity
Q.33 What are the environmental concerns of geo thermal energy ?
Ans. :
 Gases containing H2S are oxidized to SO2 and H2SO4 and drops down as acid rain.
 Chemicals like sulphates, chlorides and carbonates of lead, boron and arsenic pollute
soil and water.
 Discharge of waste hot water infects rivers and affect drinking water, farming and
fisheries.
 Noise pollution caused by exhausts is a health hazard and is controlled by using
silencers.

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledge

Renewable Energy Systems 1 - 27 Renewable Energy (RE) Sources

Q.34 What are the adverse effects produced by geo thermal energy source ?
Ans. :
 Ammonia is used as working fluid in closed cycle OTEC system. Its leakage may
cause great damage to the ocean eco system.
 An OTEC plant displaces 4 cumec water/ MW generation. Massive flow disturbs
thermal balance, changes salinity gradient and turbidity. It creates adverse impact on
marine environment.
 Mining of warm and cold water near the surface develops convection of sinking cold
water. It triggers thermal effects, i.e., variation in temperature by 4 °C forcing
mortality among coral and fines.
 Ammonia is used as working fluid in closed cycle OTEC system; its leakage may
cause great damage to the ocean ecosystem.
Solved Questions

Part - B
Q.1 What are the prospects of non-conventional energy sources in India ? Explain.
(Refer sections 1.3 and 1.3.1)
Q.2 Compare the energy consumption pattern in various sections in India. Discuss the growth rate
of energy requirements and power generation in India. (Refer section 1.7)
Q.3 a) Name and explain briefly the various sources of Non-conventional Energy.

b) Briefly describe about energy conservation act 2003. (Refer section 1.5)
Q.4 What are the unconventional sources of energy ? How would you use them for energy supply
options ? Why we need to develop them ? (Refer section 1.3 )
Q.5 Analyze the availability and efficiency of conversion of non-conventional energy sources in
India. State the important features of availability and efficiency as found from this analysis.
(Refer sections 1.3 and 1.4)
Q.6 Briefly discuss about the primary and commercial energy resources. Also discuss about the
energy consumption pattern and growth rate in India. (Refer sections 1.1 and 1.7)
Q.7 Discuss briefly renewable energy sources. Explain their availability, economics and efficiency
with reference to Indian context. (Refer sections 1.4 and 1.5)
Q.8 Describe the various non-conventional energy resources available in India and its potential to
supplement the conventional energy sources. (Refer section 1.5)
Q.9 What are the conventional and non-conventional energy resources ? Describe them.
(Refer sections 1.1 and 1.5)
Q.10 Write briefly on energy consumption pattern and growth rate of energy consumption in India.
What do you conclude from this ? (Refer section 1.7)
Q.11 Explain environmental aspects of energy utilization. (Refer section 1.2)



TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledge

Renewable Energy Systems 1 - 28 Renewable Energy (RE) Sources

Notes

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledge

Unit - II Wind Energy
Syllabus
Power in the Wind - Types of Wind Power Plants(WPPs)-Components of WPPs-Working of
WPPs- Siting of WPPs-Grid integration issues of WPPs.

Contents
2.1 Introduction

2.2 Speed and Power Relations

2.3 Power in the Wind

2.4 Types of Wind Power Plants

2.5 Components of Wind Power Plant

2.6 Siting of WPPs

2.7 Grid Integration Issues of WPPs

Two Marks Questions with Answers [Part A]
Solved Questions [Part B]

(2 - 1)
Renewable Energy Systems 2-2 Wind Energy

2.1 Introduction
The wind turbine captures the kinetic energy of wind in a rotor consisting of two or
more blades mechanically coupled to an electrical generator. The turbine is mounted on a
tall tower to enhance the energy capture. Numerous wind turbines are installed at one
site to build a wind farm of the desired power generation capacity. Obviously, sites with
steady high wind produce more energy over the year.
Two distinctly different configurations are available for turbine design, the horizontal
axis configuration and the vertical-axis configuration. The horizontal-axis machine has
been the standard in Denmark from the beginning of the wind power industry. Therefore,
it is often called the Danish wind turbine. The vertical-axis machine has the shape of an
egg beater and is often called the Darrieus rotor after its inventor. It has been used in the
past because of its specific structural advantage. However, most modern wind turbines
use a horizontal axis design. Except for the rotor, most other components are the same in
both designs, with some differences in their placements.

2.2 Speed and Power Relations

The kinetic energy in air of mass m moving with speed v is given by the following in
joules :
Kinetic energy = 1/2 mv2 (2.2.1)
The power in moving air is the flow rate of kinetic energy per second in watts :
1
Power = (Mass flow per second) v2 (2.2.2)
2
If
P = Mechanical power in the moving air (watts)
 = Air density (kg/m3),
A = Area swept by the rotor blades (m2), and
V = Velocity of the air (m/sec),
then the volumetric flow rate is Av, the mass flow rate of the air in kilograms per
second is Av, and the mechanical power coming in the upstream wind is given by the
following in watts :
1 1
P = (Av) v2 = Av3 (2.2.3)
2 2
Two potential wind sites are compared in terms of the specific wind power expressed
in watts per square meter of area swept by the rotating blades. It is also referred to as the

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledge

Renewable Energy Systems 2-3 Wind Energy

power density of the site, and is given by the following expression in watts per square
meter of the rotor-swept area :
1
Specific power of the site = Av3 (2.2.4)
2
This is the power in the upstream wind. It varies linearly with the density of the air
sweeping the blades and with the cube of the wind speed. The blades cannot extract all of
the upstream wind power, as some power is left in the downstream air that continues to
move with reduced speed.

2.3 Power in the Wind

The actual power extracted by the rotor blades is the difference between the upstream
and downstream wind powers.
1
P0 = (Mass flow per second) {v2 – v20 } (2.2.5)
2
where
p0 = Mechanical power extracted by the rotor, i.e., the turbine
output power,
V = Upstream wind velocity at the entrance of the rotor blades, and
v0 = Downstream wind velocity at the exit of the rotor blades.
The air velocity is discontinuous from v to v0 at the “plane” of the rotor blades, with an
1
"average” of (v + v0). Multiplying the air density by the average velocity, therefore,
2
gives the mass flow rate of air through the rotating blades, which is as follows :
v + v0
Mass flow rate = A (2.2.6)
2
The mechanical power extracted by the rotor, which drives the electrical generator, is
therefore :
1  v + v0
P0 = A  (v2 – v20 ) (2.2.7)
2  2 
The preceding expression is algebraically rearranged in the following form :
 v0  v0 
2

1 +  1 –   
1  v  v 
P0 = Av 3
(2.2.8)
2 2
The power extracted by the blades is customarily expressed as a fraction of the
upstream wind power in watts as follows :

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledge

Renewable Energy Systems 2-4 Wind Energy

1
P0 = Av3 Cp (2.2.9)
2
Where
 v0  v0 
2

1 +  1 –   
 v  v 
Cp = (2.2.10)
2
Comparing equation (2.2.3) and equation (2.2.9), we can say that Cp is the fraction of
the upstream wind power that is extracted by the rotor blades and fed to the electrical
generator. The remaining power is dissipated in the downstream wind. The factor Cp is
called the power coefficient of the rotor or the rotor efficiency.

2.4 Types of Wind Power Plants

Winds can be classified either by their scale, the kinds of forces which cause them
(according to the atmospheric equations of motion), or the geographic regions in which
they exist.
 Prevailing winds - the general circulation of the atmosphere.
 Seasonal winds - winds that only exist during specific seasons.
 Synoptic-scale winds; winds associated with large-scale events such as warm and
cold fronts and are part of what makes up everyday weather.
 Mesoscale winds; winds that frequently advances ahead of more intense
thunderstorms and may be sufficiently energetic to generate local weather of its
own.
 Microscale winds; winds that take place over very short durations of time - seconds
to minutes - and spatially over only tens to hundreds of meters. Winds that
produces convective events such as dust devils and are essentially unpredictable.

2.4.1 Wind Resource

 Surface features have a major impact on local wind, and can increase or decrease in
wind power and speed and cause turbulence.
 Flat terrain with obstacles causes turbulence and decrease in wind power and speed
for a significant distance from object
 Surface roughness friction between the earth and the wind cause the wind speed to
be lower closer to the surface.

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledge

Renewable Energy Systems 2-5 Wind Energy

Fig. 2.4.1 : Wind resources

2.4.2 Wind Turbine

Need for Wind Turbine :

 Wind energy is abundant, renewable, widely distributed, clean and mitigates the
greenhouse effect if used to replace fossil-fuel-derived electricity.
 Conversion of wind power/energy into more useful forms is done by wind turbines.
 Wind turbines are usually used to generate power but in certain applications are
used as prime movers to pump water (wind mills).
 Wind power is used in large scale wind farms for national electrical grids as well as
in small individual turbines for providing electricity to rural residences or grid-
isolated locations. In 2005, worldwide capacity of wind-powered generators was
58,982 megawatts; although it currently produces less than 1 % of world-wide
electricity use, it accounts for 23 % of electricity use in Denmark, 4.3 % in Germany
and approximately 8 % in Spain. Globally, wind power generation more than 14
quadrupled between 1999 and 2005.
 A wind turbine is a machine for converting the kinetic energy in wind into
mechanical energy. If the mechanical energy is then converted to electricity, the
machine is called a wind generator. Wind turbines are mounted on a tower to
capture the most energy.

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledge

Renewable Energy Systems 2-6 Wind Energy

Fig. 2.4.2 : Wind energy

2.4.3 Working of Wind Turbine

When the wind strikes the rotor blades, blades start rotating. The turbine rotor is
connected to a high-speed gearbox. Gearbox transforms the rotor rotation from low speed
to high speed. The high-speed shaft from the gearbox is coupled with the rotor of the
generator and hence the electrical generator runs at a higher speed. An exciter is needed
to give the required excitation to the magnetic coil of the generator field system so that it
can generate the required electricity. The generated voltage at output terminals of the
alternator is proportional to both the speed and field flux of the alternator. The speed is
governed by wind power which is out of control. Hence to maintain uniformity of the
output power from the alternator, excitation must be controlled according to the
availability of natural wind power. The exciter current is controlled by a turbine
controller which senses the wind speed. Then output voltage of electrical generator
(alternator) is given to a rectifier where the alternator output gets rectified to DC. Then
this rectified DC output is given to line converter unit to convert it into stabilized AC
output which is ultimately fed to either electrical transmission network or transmission
grid with the help of step up transformer. An extra unit is used to give the power to
internal auxiliaries of wind turbine (like motor, battery etc.), this is called Internal Supply
Unit (ISU).
There are other two control mechanisms attached to a modern big wind turbine,
 Controlling the orientation of the turbine blade.
 Controlling the orientation of the turbine face.

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledge

Renewable Energy Systems 2-7 Wind Energy

The orientation of turbine blades is governed from the base hub of the blades. The
blades are attached to the central hub with the help of a rotating arrangement through
gears and small electric motor or hydraulic rotary system. The system can be electrically
or mechanically controlled depending on its design. The blades are swiveled depending
upon the speed of the wind. The technique is called pitch control. It provides the best
possible orientation of the turbine blades along the direction of the wind to obtain
optimized wind power.
The orientation of the nacelle or the entire body of the turbine can follow the direction
of changing wind direction to maximize mechanical energy harvesting from the wind.
The direction of the wind along with its speed is sensed by an anemometer (automatic
speed measuring devices) with wind vanes attached to the back top of the nacelle. The
signal is fed back to an electronic microprocessor-based controlling system which governs
the yaw motor which rotates the entire nacelle with gearing arrangement to face the air
turbine along the direction of the wind.
An internal Block diagram of a wind turbine.

Fig. 2.4.3 : Block diagram of wind turbine

ISU - Internal Supply Unit

RU - Rectifier Unit
LCU - Local Control Unit

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledge

Renewable Energy Systems 2-8 Wind Energy

2.4.4 Types of Wind Turbines

Wind turbines can be separated into two basic types determined by which way the
turbine spins. Wind turbines that rotate around a horizontal axis are more common (like a
wind mill), while vertical axis wind turbines are less frequently used (Savonius and
Darrieus are the most common in the group).

1. Horizontal Axis Wind Turbines (HAWT)

Horizontal axis wind turbines, also shortened to HAWT, are the common style that
most of us think of a wind turbine. A HAWT has a similar design to a windmill, it has
blades that look like a propeller that spin on the horizontal axis as shown in Fig. 2.4.4.

Fig. 2.4.4 : Schematic diagram of horizontal axis wind turbine

Horizontal axis wind turbines have the main rotor shaft and electrical generator at the
top of a tower, and they must be pointed towards the wind. Small turbine are pointed by
a simple wind vane placed square with the rotor (blades), while large turbines generally
use a wind sensor coupled with a servo motor to turn the turbine towards the wind. Most
large wind turbines have a gearbox, which turns the slow rotation of the rotor into a
faster rotation that is more suitable to drive an electrical generator.
Since a tower produces turbulence behind it, the turbine is usually pointed upwind of
the tower. Wind turbine blades are made stiff to prevent the blades from being pushed

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledge

Renewable Energy Systems 2-9 Wind Energy

into the tower by high winds. Additionally, the blades are placed a considerable distance
in front of the tower and are sometimes tilted up a small amount.
Downwind machines have been built, despite the problem of turbulence, because they
don’t need an additional mechanism for keeping them in line with the wind.
Additionally, in high winds the blades can be allowed to bend which reduces their swept
area and thus their wind resistance. Since turbulence leads to fatigue failures, and
reliability is so important, most HAWTs are upwind machines.
Important points regarding HAWT :
(1) Lift is the main force
(2) Much lower cyclic stress
(3) 95 % of the existing turbines are HAWTs
(4) Nacelle is placed at the top of the tower
(5) Yaw mechanism is required.

Advantages of HAWT
1. The tall tower base allows access to stronger wind in sites with wind shear. In
some wind shear sites, every ten meters up the wind speed can increase by 20 %
and the power output by 34 %.
2. High efficiency, since the blades always move perpendicular to the wind,
receiving power through the whole rotation.
In contrast, all vertical axis wind turbines, and most proposed airborne wind turbine
designs, involve various types of reciprocating actions, requiring airfoil surfaces to the
wind leads to inherently lower efficiency.

Disadvantages of HAWT
1. Massive tower construction is required to support the heavy blades, gearbox,
and generator.
2. Components of horizontal axis wind turbine (gearbox, rotor shaft and brake
assembly) being lifted into position.
3. Their height makes them obtrusively visible across large areas, disrupting the
appearance of the landscape and sometimes creating local opposition.
4. Download variants suffer from fatigue and structural failure caused by
turbulence when a blade passes through the tower’s wind shadow (for this
reason, the majority of HAWTs use an upwind design, with the rotor facing the
wind in front of the tower).

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledge

Renewable Energy Systems 2 - 10 Wind Energy

5. HAWTs require an additional yaw control mechanism to turn the blades toward
the wind.
6. HAWTs generally require a braking or yawing device in high winds to stop the
turbine from spinning and destroying or damaging itself.
2. Vertical Axis Wind Turbines(VAWT)
Vertical Axis wind turbines, as shortened to VAWTs, have the main rotor shaft
arranged vertically as shown in Fig. 2.4.5. The main advantage of this arrangement is that
the wind turbine does not need to be pointed towards the wind. This is an advantage on
site where the wind direction is highly variable or has turbulent winds.
With a vertical axis, the generator and other primary components can be placed near
the ground, so the tower does not need to support it, also makes maintenance easier. The
main drawback of a VAWT generally create drag when rotating into the wind.
It is difficult to mount vertical-axis turbines on towers, meaning they are often
installed nearer to the base on which they rest, such as the ground or a building rooftop.
The wind speed is slower at a lower altitude, so less wind energy is available for a given
size turbine. Air flow near the ground and other objects can create turbulent flow, which
can introduce issues of vibration, including noise and bearing wear which may increase
the maintenance or shorten its service life.
However, when a turbine is mounted on a rooftop, the building generally redirects
wind over the roof and this can double the wind speed at the turbine. If the height of the
rooftop mounted turbine tower is approximately 50 % of the building height, this is near
the optimum for maximum wind energy and minimum wind turbulence.

Fig. 2.4.5 : Schematic diagram of vertical axis wind turbine

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledge

Renewable Energy Systems 2 - 11 Wind Energy

Important points regarding VAWT :

1) Nacelle is placed at the bottom.
2) Drag is the main force.
3) Yaw mechanism is not required.
4) Lower starting torque.
5) Difficulty in mounting the turbine.
6) Unwanted fluctuations in the power output.

Advantages of VAWT
1. No yaw mechanisms is needed
2. A VAWT can be located nearer the ground, making it easier to maintain the moving
parts.
3. VAWTs have lower wind startup speeds than the typical the HAWTs.
4. VAWTs may be built at locations where taller structures are prohibited.
5. VAWTs situated close to the ground can take advantage of locations where
rooftops, means hilltops, ridgelines, and passes funnel the wind and increase wind
velocity.

Disadvantages of VAWT
1. Most VAWTs have a average decreased efficiency from a common HAWT,
mainly because of the additional drag that they have as their blades rotate into
the wind. Versions that reduce drag produce more energy, especially those that
funnel wind into the collector area.
2. Having rotors located close to the ground where wind speeds are lower and do
not take advantage of higher wind speeds above.
3. Because VAWTs are not commonly deployed mainly due to the serious
disadvantage mentioned above, they appear novel to those not familiar with the
wind industry. This has often made them the subject of wild claims and
investment scams over the last 50 years.

3. VAMT Subtypes

Darrieus Wind Turbine

Darrieus turbine has long, thin blades in the shape of loops connected to the top and
bottom of the axle; it is often called an “eggbeater windmill.” It is named after the French
engineer Georges Darrieus who patented the design in 1931. (It was manufactured by the

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledge

Renewable Energy Systems 2 - 12 Wind Energy

US company FLoWind which went bankrupt in 1997). The Darrieus turbine is

characterized by its C-shaped rotor blades which give its eggbeater appearance. It is
normally built with two or three blades.
Darrieus wind turbines are commonly called “Eggbeater” turbines, because they look
like a giant eggbeater. They have good efficiency, but produce large torque ripple and
cyclic stress on the tower, which contributes to poor reliability. Also, they generally
require some external power source, or an additional savonius rotor, to start turning,
because the starting torque is very low. The torque ripple is reduced by using three or
more blades which results in a higher solidity for the rotor. Solidity is measured by blade
area over the rotor area. Newer Darrieus type turbines are not guided by guy-wires but
have an external superstructure connected to the top bearing.
One type of VAWT is the Darrieus wind turbine that uses the lift forces of the wind to
rotate the aerofoils of the machine. The Tip Speed Ratio (TSR) indicates the rotating
velocity of the turbines to the velocity of the wind. In this case, the TSR has a value higher
than 1, meaning that the velocity rotation here is greater than the velocity of wind and
generates less torque. This makes Darrieus turbines excellent electricity generators. The
turbine blades have to be reinforced inorder to sustain the centrifugal forces generated
during rotation, but the generator itself accepts a lower amount of force than the Savorius
type. A drawback to the Darrieus wind turbines is the fact that they cannot start rotation
on their own. A small motor, or another Savonius turbine, maybe needed to initiate
rotation.

Advantages
1) The rotor shaft is vertical. Therefore it is possible to place the load, like a
generator or a centrifugal pump at ground level. As the generator housing is not
rotating, the cable to the load is not twisted and no brushes are required for large
twisting angles.
2) The rotor can take wind from every direction.
3) The visual acceptation for placing of the windmill on a building might be larger
than for an horizontal axis windmill.
4) Easily integrates into buildings.

Disadvantages
1) Difficult start unlike the Savonius wind turbine.
2) Low efficiency.

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledge

Renewable Energy Systems 2 - 13 Wind Energy

Savonius wind turbine

The Savonius wind turbine is a type of vertical-axis wind turbine invented by the
finnish marine engineer sigurd Savonius in the 1920’s. It is one of the simplest wind
turbine designs. It consists of two to three “scoops” that employ a drag action to convert
wind energy into torque to drive a turbine. When looked at from above in cross-section, a
two scoop Savonius turbine looks like an S-shape. Due to the curvature of the scoops, the
turbine encounters less drag when moving against the wind than with it, and this causes
the spin in any wind regardless of facing.
Drag type wind turbines such as the Savonius turbine are less efficient using the
wind’s energy than lift-type wind turbines, which are the ones commonly used in wind
farms.
A Savonius is a drag type turbine, they are commonly used in cases of high reliability
in many things such as ventilation and anemometers. Because they are a drag type
turbine they are less efficient than the common HAWT. Savonius are excellent in areas of
turbulent wind and self starting. The schematic diagram of savonius wind turbine as
shown in Fig. 2.4.6.

Fig. 2.4.6 : Vertical axis savonius wind turbine

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledge

Renewable Energy Systems 2 - 14 Wind Energy

Advantages
1) Having a vertical axis, the Savonius turbine continues to work effectively even if
the wind changes direction.
2) Because the Savonius design works well even at low wind speeds, there’s no
need for a tower or other expensive structure to hold it in place, greatly reducing
the initial setup cost.
3) The device is quiet, easy to build, and relatively small.
4) Because the turbine is close to the ground, maintenance is easy.

Disadvantages
The scoop system used to capture the wind’s energy is half as efficient as a
conventional turbine, resulting in less power generation.

2.5 Components of Wind Power Plant

The wind power plant comprises one or more wind turbine units operating electrically
in parallel. Each turbine is made of the following basic components :
1. Blades 2. Rotor 3. Pitch
4. Brake 5. Low speed shaft 6. Gear box
7. Generator 8. Controller 9. Anemometer
10. Wind Vane 11. Nacelle 12. High speed shaft
13. Yaw drive 14. Yaw motor 15. Tower

Turbine Blades
The blade is the most distinctive and visible component of a wind turbine. It is also
responsible for carrying out one of the most essential tasks of the energy conversion
process : Transforming the wind kinetic energy into rotational mechanical energy.
Blades have greatly evolved in aerodynamic design and materials from the early
windmill blades made of wood and cloth.
Modern blades are commonly made of aluminum, fiberglass, or carbon-fiber
composites that provide the necessary strength-to-weight ratio, fatigue life, and stiffness
while minimizing the weight.
The turbine rotors are aerodynamically unbalanced, which can cause mechanical
vibrations. Moreover, higher rotational speed imposes more mechanical stress on the
blade, turbine structure, and other components, such as bearings and gearbox, leading to
more design challenges and lower life span.

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledge

Renewable Energy Systems 2 - 15 Wind Energy

Operating at lower rotational speeds requires a higher gear ratio. The lagging wind
turbulence of one blade can affect the other blades since they are closer to each other.
Hence, the three-blade rotor presents the best trade-off between mechanical stress,
acoustic noise, cost, and rotational speed for large wind turbines.
The wind power captured by the blade and converted into mechanical power can be
calculated as
1
P0 = Av3 Cp
2
where Cp is the power coefficient of the blade. This coefficient has a theoretical
maximum value of 0.59 according to the Betz limit. With today's technology, the power
coefficient of a modern turbine usually ranges from 0.2 to 0.5, which is a function of
rotational speed and number of blades.

Rotor :
The blades and the hub together are called the rotor.

Pitch :
Blades are turned, or pitched, out of the wind to control the rotor speed and keep the
rotor from turning in winds that are too high or too low produce electricity.

Brake :
A disc brake, which can be applied mechanically, electrically, or hydraulically to stop
the rotor in emergencies.

Low-speed shaft :
The rotor turns the low-speed shaft at about 30 to 60 rotations per minute.

Gear box :
Gears connect the low-speed shaft to the high-speed shaft and increase the rotational
speeds from about 30 to 60 rotations per minute (rpm) to about 1000 to 1800 rpm, the
rotational speed required by most generators to produce electricity.

Wind vane :
Measures wind direction and communicates with the yaw drive to orient the turbine
properly with respect to the wind.

Generator :
Usually an induction generator that produces 50-cycle AC electricity.

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledge

Renewable Energy Systems 2 - 16 Wind Energy

High-speed shaft :
High speed shaft drives the generator.

Hub :
The central solid portion of the rotor wheel is known as hub. All blades are attached to
the hub. Mechanism for pitch angle control is also provided inside the hub.

Nacelle :
The rotor is attached to the nacelle, mounted at the top of a tower. It contains the gear
box, low- and high-speed shafts, generator, controller, and brake. Some nacelles are large
enough for a helicopter to land on. Brakes are used to stop the rotor when power
generation is not desired.

Gear box :
The gear box is a costly (and heavy) part of the wind turbine and engineers are
exploring "direct-drive" generators that operate at lower rotational speeds and don't need
gear boxes.

Controller :
The controller starts up the machine at wind speeds of about 8 to 16 miles per hour
(mph) and shuts off the machine at about 55 mph. Turbines do not operate at wind
speeds above about 55 mph because they might be damaged by the high winds.

Anemometer :
It measures the wind speed and transmits wind speed data to the controller.

Yaw drive :
Upwind turbines face into the wind; the yaw drive is used to keep the rotor facing into
the wind as the wind direction changes. Downwind turbines don't require a yaw drive,
the wind blows the rotor downwind.

Yaw motor :
Yaw motor in the turbine powers the yaw drive.

Tower :
Towers are made from tubular steel , concrete, or steel lattice. Because wind speed
increases with height, taller towers enable turbines to capture more energy and generate
more electricity.

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledge

Renewable Energy Systems 2 - 17 Wind Energy

Fig. 2.5.1 : Components of wind power plant

2.6 Siting of WPPs

The power available in the wind increases rapidly with the speed, hence wind energy
conversion machines should be located preferable in areas where the winds are strong
and persistent. Although daily winds at a given site may be highly variable, the monthly
and especially annual average are remarkably constant from year to year.
The major contribution to the wind power available at a given site is actually made by
winds with speeds above the average. Nevertheless, the most suitable sites for wind
turbines would be found in areas where the annual average wind speeds are known to be
moderately high.
The site choice for a single or a spatial array of WECS is an important matter when
wind electrics is looked at from the systems point of view of aeroturbine generators
feeding power into a conventional electric grid.
If the WECS sites are wrongly or poorly chosen the net wind electrics generated
energy per year may be sub optimal with resulting high capital cost for the WECS
apparatus, high costs for wind generated electric energy, and low returns on investment.
Even if the WECS is to be a small generator not tied to the electric grid, the siting must be
carefully chosen if inordinately long break even times are to be avoided. Technical,
Economic, Environmental, Social and other factors are examined before a decision is
made to erect a generating plant on a specific site.

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledge

Renewable Energy Systems 2 - 18 Wind Energy

Some of the main site selection consideration are given below :

1. High annual average wind speed
2. Availability of anemometry data
3. Availability of wind v(t) curve at the proposed site
4. Wind structure at the proposed site
5. Altitude of the proposed site
6. Terrain and its aerodynamic
7. Local ecology
8. Distance to road or railways
9. Nearness of site to local centre/users
10. Nature of ground
11. Favourable land cost.

High annual average wind speed :

The speed generated by the wind mill depends on cubic values of velocity of wind, the
small increases in velocity markedly affect the power in the wind. For example, Doubling
the velocity, increases power by a factor of 8. It is obviously desirable to select a site for
WECS with high wind velocity. Thus a high average wind velocity is the principle
fundamental parameter of concern in initially appraising WECS site. For more detailed
estimate value, one would like to have the average of cube of the velocity.

Availability of anemometry data :

It is another improvement siting factor. The aenometry data should be available over
some time period at the precise spot where any proposed WECS is to be built and that
this should be accomplished before a siting decision is made.

Availability of wind v(t) curve at the proposed site :

This important curve determines the maximum energy in the wind and hence is the
principal initially controlling factor in predicting the electrical output and hence revenue
return to the WECS machines.
It is desirable to have average wind speed ‘v’ such that v>=12-16 km/hr
(3.5 – 4.5 m/sec) which is about the lower limit at which present large scale WECS
generators ‘cut in’ i.e., start turning. The v(t) curve also determines the reliability of the
delivered WECS generator power, for if the v(t) curve goes to zero thereby no generated
power during that time.

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledge

Renewable Energy Systems 2 - 19 Wind Energy

If there are long periods of calm the WECS reliability will be lower than if the calm
periods are short. In making such realiability estimates it is desirable to have measured
v(t) curve over about a 5 year period for the highest confidence level in the reliability
estimate.

Wind structure at the proposed site :

The ideal case for the WECS would be a site such that the v(t) curve was flat, i.e., a
smooth steady wind that blows all the time; but a typical site is always less than ideal.
Wind specially near the ground is turbulent and gusty, and changes rapidly in direction
and in velocity. This departure from homogeneous flow is collectively referred to as “the
structure of the wind”.

Altitude of the proposed site :

It affects the air density and thus the power in the wind and hence the useful WECS
electric power output. Also, as is well known, the wind tend to have higher velocities at
higher altitudes. One must carefully distinguish altitude from height above ground. They
are not the same except for a sea level WECS site.

Terrain and its aerodynamic :

One should know about terrain of the site to be chosen. If the WECS is to be placed
near the top but not on the top of a not too blunt hill facing the prevailing wind, then it
may be possible to obtain a ‘speed-up’ of the wind velocity over what it would otherwise
be. Also the wind here may not flow horizontal making it necessary to tip the axis of the
rotor so that the aeroturbine is always perpendicular to the actual wind flow.
It may be possible to make use of hills or mountains which channel the prevailing
wind into a pass region, thereby obtaining higher wind power.

Local ecology
If the surface is base rock it may mean lower hub height hence lower structure cost. If
trees or grass or vegetation are present, all of which tend to destructure the wind, the
higher hub heights will be needed resulting in large system costs than the bare ground
case.

Distance to road or railways :

This is another factor the system engineer must consider for heavy machinery,
structure, materials, blades and other apparatus will have to be moved into any choosen
WECS site.

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledge

Renewable Energy Systems 2 - 20 Wind Energy

Nearness of site to local centre/users :

This obvious criterion minimizes transmission line length and hence losses and cost.
After applying all the previous siting criteria, hopefully as one narrows the proposed
WECS sites to one or two they would be relatively near to the user of the generated
electric energy.

Nature of ground :
Ground condition should be such that the foundation for a WECS are secured. Ground
surface should be stable. Erosion problem should not be there, as it could possibly later
wash out the foundation of a WECS, destroying the whole system.

Favourable land cost :

Land cost should be favourable as this along with other siting costs, enters into the
total WECS system cost.
Other conditions such as icing problem, salt spray or blowing dust should not present
at the site, as they may affect aeroturbine blades or environment is generally adverse to
machinery and electrical apparatus.

2.7 Grid Integration Issues of WPPs

Wind is a highly intermittent energy source for causing overall fluctuation in wind
power generation. Electricity generated from wind turbines strongly depends on the local
weather and geographic conditions that can fluctuate a great deal more than with some
renewable energy sources such as hydropower.
With the increasing share of wind energy in the global power market, a large amount
of wind power is integrated into existing grids. Thus, the expected growth in wind power
could soon exceed the current capability of grids with today’s technology. To prepare this
situation in advance, the influence of intermittent wind power on the grid stability and
system security must be properly addressed.
The impacts of wind power to a power grid depend on the level of wind power
penetration, grid size and generation mix of electricity in the grid. Undoubtedly, there is
no problem for low wind power penetration in a large power grid. However, integrating
large utility-scale wind power presents unique challenges.
Grid integration is the practice of developing efficient ways to deliver variable
Renewable Energy (RE) to the grid. Robust integration methods maximize the cost-
effectiveness of incorporating variable RE into the power system while maintaining or
increasing system stability and reliability.

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledge

Renewable Energy Systems 2 - 21 Wind Energy

Grid integration spans a variety of issues, including :

1. New RE generation
2. New transmission
3. Increased system flexibility
4. Planning for a high RE future.

1. New Renewable Energy Generation

Power system planners can secure and sustain investment in new variable RE
generation by aligning targets and incentives with grid integration considerations. Long-
term, aspirational renewable energy targets establish a vision that can drive innovation in
the policies and system operations that support clean energy. Also critical are “grid-
aware” incentives (e.g., rewarding wind and solar generators that incorporate
technologies that contribute to grid stability), which both motivate investment in
renewable energy and mitigate negative impacts of integrating these resources to the
grid.
As planners consider scaling up variable RE generation, the inherent variability of
wind and solar resources complicates evaluations of whether a system with significant
variable RE has adequate supply to meet long-term electricity demand. A variety of
approaches exist for estimating the capacity value of variable RE, as well as techniques
that enable utilities and power system operators to use wind and solar to reliably meet
electricity demand.
Integrating distributed photovoltaic (PV) solar power results in unique benefits and
challenges compared to the integration of utility-scale wind and solar power. Significant
localized growth in PV can raise concerns such as voltage violations and reverse power
flow in low-voltage distribution systems. However, various studies have shown that
positive impacts (e.g., reduced line losses and avoided generation costs) can also result
from distributed PV. Updating interconnection standards, procedures, and distribution
planning methodologies to better reflect the characteristics of distributed PV can help
realize these benefits and delay or even prevent the need for grid reinforcement.

2. New Transmission
Scaling up variable RE generation requires grid expansion and upgrades so that power
systems can access high-quality solar and wind resources, which are often remote from
existing transmission networks. A well-crafted combination of policies, rules, and
procedures (designed, for example, through an "RE Zones" approach) encourages

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledge

Renewable Energy Systems 2 - 22 Wind Energy

investment in large-scale transmission expansion. These measures not only improve the
utilization of variable RE, but also potentially defer the need for network refurbishment.

3. Increased System Flexibility

Accessing sources of operational flexibility becomes increasingly important in systems
with significant grid-connected solar and wind energy. System operating procedures and
market practices-especially the implementation of forecasting, faster scheduling, ancillary
services, and grid codes and power purchase agreements-are often among the least-cost
options for unlocking significant flexibility without significant investments in new
physical infrastructure. Another important institutional flexibility option is operational
coordination between balancing authority areas, which enables sharing of resources
through reserve sharing, coordinated scheduling, and/or consolidated operation.
Other sources of flexibility include flexible conventional generation and transmission
networks. Additionally, demand response and storage are emerging as tools for
increasing flexibility at very high penetrations of variable RE.
Options for procuring flexibility vary based on the regulatory context. For vertically
integrated utilities, contractual or policy mechanisms provide the primary basis for
encouraging the uptake of flexibility measures. In contrast, partially-or
wholly-restructured power markets motivate flexibility through incentives and market
design mechanisms, such as sub-hourly dispatch, ancillary services markets, and
price-responsive demand.

4. Planning for a High RE Future

In any power system, planning activities include assessing long-range demand and
evaluating options for expanding capacity and transmission. With the introduction of
significant variable RE generation, power systems planning increasingly focuses on
evaluating options for increasing flexibility across the power system.
Grid integration studies help establish the flexibility requirements and build
confidence among investors and operators that the power system can be operated reliably
at increased variable RE levels. A grid integration study simulates the operation of the
power system under various scenarios, identifies potential constraints to reliability, and
evaluates the cost of actions to alleviate those constraints. Robust grid integration studies
are based on significant stakeholder input, along with a broad set of foundational data.
Although grid integration studies usually include production cost simulations to
model unit commitment and economic dispatch, determining the system-wide costs of
integrating solar and wind power is much more challenging. The fuel costs and value of

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledge

Renewable Energy Systems 2 - 23 Wind Energy

variable RE assets to the power system depend on dynamic and complex interactions
among these generators and a system’s loads, reserves, thermal generators, and
transmission networks.
Grid integration studies illuminate the obstacles and opportunities that wind and solar
integration could pose to a power system, helping to dispel grid integration myths and
misperceptions that inhibit large-scale deployment. These studies also lay the foundation
for prioritizing and sequencing grid integration investments.

2.8 Two Marks Questions with Answers

Part - A

Q.1 List out the factors led to accelerated development of wind power.

Ans. :
 Availability of high strength fibre composites for constructing large low cost rotor
blades.
 Declining prices of power electronics.
 Variable speed operation of electrical generators to capture maximum energy.
 Improved plant operation, pushing the availability up to 95 %.Economy of scale, as
the turbines and plants are getting larger in size.
 Accumulated field experience improving the capacity factor.
 Short energy payback period of about one year
Q.2 What are the features necessary for the wind turbine site ?

Ans. :
 No tall obstructions for some distance in the upwind direction and also as low
roughness as possible in the same direction
 A wide and open view i.e., open plains, open shore line or offshore locations.
 Top of smooth well-rounded hill with gentle slopes on a flat plain.
 An island in a lake or the sea.
 A narrow mountain gap through which wind is channeled.
 Site reasonably close to power grid.
 Soil conditions must be such that building of foundations of the turbines and
transport of road- construction materials loaded in heavy trucks is feasible.
 Production results of existing wind turbines in the area to act as a guide to local wind
conditions.

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledge

Renewable Energy Systems 2 - 24 Wind Energy

Q.3 What are the merits and demerits of three blade rotor over two blade rotors ?

Ans. : Merits
 Compared to the two blade design, the three blade machine has smoother power
output and balanced gyroscopic force.
 There is no need to teeter the rotor, allowing the use of a simple rigid hub.
 The blades may be cross-linked for greater rigidity.
 The two blade rotor is also simpler to erect, since it can be assembled on the ground
and lifted to the shaft without complicated maneuvers during the lift.

Demerits
 Adding a third blade increases the power output by about 5 %only, while the weight
and cost of a rotor increases by 50 %,thus giving a diminished rate of return for
additional 50 %weight and cost.
Q.4 Draw the power Vs wind speed characteristics.

Ans. :

Fig. 2.1

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledge

Renewable Energy Systems 2 - 25 Wind Energy

Q.5 Draw the block diagram of wind power plant.

Ans. :

Fig. 2.2

Q.6 What are the types of generator drive for the operation of wind energy conversion
system ?
Ans. : The types of generator suitable for the wind generations are :

 DC generator
 Synchronous generator
 Induction generator
Q.7 Define gusts.
Ans. : Rapid fluctuations in the wind velocity over a wide range of frequencies and
amplitudes, due to turbulence caused by mechanical mixing of lower layers of
atmosphere by surface roughness, are commonly known as gusts.
Q.8 What are the features of vertical axis wind turbine ?
Ans. : The features of vertical axis wind turbine :
 It can accept wind from any direction, eliminating the need of yaw control.
 The gearbox, generator, etc., are located at the ground, thus eliminating the heavy
nacelle at the top of the tower, thus simplifying the design and installation of the
whole structure, including the tower.
 The inspection and maintenance also gets easier
 It also reduces the overall cost.
Q.9 Define power coefficient.
Ans. : The fraction of the free flow wind power that can be extracted by a rotor is called
the power-coefficient.
Power coefficient = Power of wind turbine/Power available in the wind

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledge

Renewable Energy Systems 2 - 26 Wind Energy

Q.10 List out the merits of wind energy conversion system.

Ans. :
 It is a renewable source of energy.
 Wind power systems are non-polluting, so it has no adverse influence on the
environment.
 Wind energy systems avoid fuel provision and transport.
 On a small scale up to a few kilowatt system is less costly.
 On a large- scale costs can be competitive with conventional electricity and lower
costs could be achieved by mass production.
Q.11 List out the demerits of wind energy conversion system.
Ans. :
 Wind energy available in dilute and fluctuating in nature.
 Wind energy needs storage capacity because of its irregularity.
 Wind energy systems are noisy in operation; a large unit can be heard many
kilometers away.
 Large areas are needed, typically, propellers 1 to 3 m in diameter, deliver power in
the 30 to 300 W range.
Q.12 What are the components of wind turbine generator units ?
Ans. : A wind turbine unit consists of the following major assemblies :
 A wind turbine with vertical axis or horizontal axis.
 Gear chain.
 An electrical generator(synchronous or asynchronous(induction))Associated civil
works, electrical and mechanical auxiliaries, control panels etc.,
Q.13 Classify the schemes available for electric generation.
Ans. : The schemes available for electric generation are of three categories.
 Constant-speed constant frequency systems(CSCF)
 Variable speed constant frequency systems(VSCF)
 Variable speed variable frequency systems(VSVF)
Q.14 Define wind turbine.
Ans. : A wind turbine which converts wind power into rotary mechanical power. A
wind turbine has aerofoil blades mounted on the rotor. The wind drives the rotor and
produces rotary mechanical energy.

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledge

Renewable Energy Systems 2 - 27 Wind Energy

Q.15 What is cut in speed and cutout wind speeds for turbine ?
Ans. : Cut in speed
Wind speed at which wind turbine starts delivering shaft power.

Cut in speed :
 While operating - 7 m/s
 While stopping - 5 m/s

Cut out speed

At high velocities during storms, it is necessary to cut out the power conversion of
wind turbine by furling the wind turbine blades. The speed at which power conversion
is cut out is called cut out wind speed or furling wind speed.

Cut out speed :

 While operating - 20 m/s
 While stopping - 17 m/s
 Rated speed - 14 m/s
Q.16 Name the two natural phenomena in the atmosphere of different origins.
Ans. : Winds are natural phenomena in the atmosphere and have two different origins.
Planetary winds are caused by daily rotation of earth around its polar axis and
unequal temperatures between polar regions and equatorial region.
Local winds are caused by unequal heating and cooling of ground surfaces and
ocean/lake surfaces during day and night.
Q.17 Name the characteristics in which the speed of a wind turbine rotor depends.
Ans. : The speed of a wind turbine rotor depends principally on,
 Wind speed
 Pitch of the turbine blades
 Mechanical and electrical load i.e., shaft load, friction, breaking force etc.,
 Orientation of yaw with reference to the wind.
Q.18 Mention the advantages of vertical axis wind turbine over horizontal axis.
Ans. : Vertical axis wind turbine will react to wind from any direction and therefore do
not need yawing equipment to turn the rotor into the wind. They can require less
structural support because heavy components can be located at ground level. This
configuration also eases installation and maintenance. Since the blades do not turn end
over end, the rotor is not subjected to continue cyclic gravity loads.

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledge

Renewable Energy Systems 2 - 28 Wind Energy

Q.19 What are the factors considered for the electrical generators and control method ?
Ans. : The choice of an electrical generator and control method can be considered by
following three methods :
 The basis of operation i.e., either constant tip speed or constant tip speed ratio.
 The wind power rating of the turbine.
 The type of load demand e.g. battery connection.
Q.20 What are the main environmental aspects due to wind turbines ?
Ans. : The main environmental aspects are :
 Indirect energy use and emissions
 Bird life
 Noise
 Visual impact
 Telecommunication interference
 Safety effects on ecosystem.
Q.21 What are the types of rotors for horizontal axis wind turbine ?
Ans. : The different types of rotor for horizontal axis wind turbine are :
 Single blade rotor
 Two blade rotor
 Three blade rotor
 Sailing rotor
 Chalk multi blade rotor
 American multi blade rotor.
 Dutch type rotor.
Q.22 What are the types of rotors for vertical axis wind turbine ?
Ans. : The different types of rotor for vertical axis wind turbine are :
 Cup type rotor
 Savonious rotor
 Darrieus rotor
 Musgrove rotor
 Evans rotor.

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledge

Renewable Energy Systems 2 - 29 Wind Energy

Q.23 What are the characteristics of good wind power site ?

Ans. :
 A site should have a high annual wind speed.
 There should not be any obstructions for a radius of 3 Km.
 An open plain or an open line may be a good location.
Q.24 List the components of wind energy systems.
Ans. : Blades, rotor, pitch, brake, low speed shaft, gear box, generator, controller,
anemometer, wind vane, nacelle, high speed shaft, yaw drive, yaw motor and tower.
Q.25 Explain the principles of wind energy conversion.
Ans. : There are two primary physical principles by which energy can be extracted
from the wind; these are through the creation of either lift or drag force (or combination
of two)
Q.26 What are the features of lift and drag ?
Ans. :
 Drag in the direction of air flow
 Lift perpendicular to the direction of air flow
 Generation of lift always causes certain amount of drag to be developed
 Lift devices are more efficient than drag devices.
Q.27 List wind speed types.
Ans. :
 Start up wind speed
 Cut in wind speed
 Rated wind speed
 Furling wind speed
 Maximum design wind speed
Q.28 What are basic designs of wind turbines ?
Ans. :
 Vertical axis or egg beater style
 Horizontal axis (propeller style)

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledge

Renewable Energy Systems 2 - 30 Wind Energy

Q.29 What are the types of wind power plants ?

Ans. :
 Remote
 Hybrid
 Grid connected system.
Q.30 What are the advantages of wind energy systems ?
Ans. :
 Inexhaustible fuel source
 No pollution
 Often an excellent supplement to other renewable sources
 Reduces fossil fuel consumption
 Wind power plant create many jobs
 Increases local tax revenues
 Least reliance on foreign oil
 It’s free.
Q.31 What are the disadvantages of wind energy systems ?
Ans. :
 Large areas are needed
 Suitable for wind power generation
 Relatively expensive to maintain
 Large numbers of wind generators are required to produce useful amount of heat or
electricity.
Q.32 What are the safety systems in wind energy system ?
Ans. :
 The computer
 Emergency stop
 Revolution counters
 Lightning arresters.
Q.33 What are the environmental impacts of wind energy systems ?
Ans. :
 Electromagnetic interference
 Noise
 Visual effect.

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledge

Renewable Energy Systems 2 - 31 Wind Energy

Q.34 List the classification of wind mills according to size.

Ans. :
 Small scale (up to 2kW)
 Medium size machines.
Q.35 What are the types of horizontal axis machines ?
Ans. :
 Single bladed
 Multi bladed
 By cycle multi blade type.
Q.36 What are the vertical axis machines ?
Ans. :
 Savonius or S type rotor mill
 Davieus type rotor mill.

Solved Questions

Part - B

Q.1 Is wind energy a better alternative source of energy for Indian demand ? Explain in detail how
wind energy is produced. (Refer sections 2.1, 2.2 and 2.3)
Q.2 Explain in detail about the performance and efficiency of different types of wind mills.

(Refer section 2.4)

Q.3 Describe with a neat sketch the working of a wind energy system with its main components.

(Refer section 2.4)

Q.4 What is the origin of wind and what are the various factors which governs wind energy and
direction ? (Refer section 2.1)
Q.5 Determine the overall power coefficient for a wind turbine with a rated power of 3 MW, speed
18 m/s and blade diameter 40 metre. (Refer section 2.3)
Q.6 Explain the preliminary design of wind electric system. (Refer sections 2.2 and 2.3)

Q.7 Explain the working of a horizontal axis wind turbine driven generator with a diagram. Show
the mechanism for the automatic reorientation of the turbine axis along the wind direction.
(Refer section 2.4.4)
Q.8 Explain the principle of electric power generation from wind mill. (Refer section 2.4.3)

Q.9 Discuss its types and components. Also indicate the best site for locating them.

(Refer sections 2.5 and 2.6)

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledge

Renewable Energy Systems 2 - 32 Wind Energy

Q.10 Explain the principle of operation of any two types of wind mill with neat diagram and discuss
its characteristics and constraints if any. (Refer section 2.4)
Q.11 Discuss briefly about wind power generation in India. (Refer section 2.4.1)
Q.12 Describe the saronious type of rotor in wind turbine. (Refer section 2.4.4)
Q.13 Compare the performance of horizontal and vertical axis wind turbine. (Refer section 2.4.4)
Q.14 Describe in detail the site selection procedure of a wind power plants. (Refer section 2.6)
Q.15 Explain in detail about the grid connection issues in wind power plants. (Refer section 2.7)



TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledge

 Unit - III Solar PV and Thermal
Systems
Syllabus
Solar Radiation, Radiation Measurement, Solar Thermal Power Plant, Central Receiver Power
Plants, Solar Ponds - Thermal Energy storage system with PCM- Solar Photovoltaic systems :
Basic Principle of SPV conversion - Types of PV Systems - Types of Solar Cells, Photovoltaic
cell concepts: Cell, module, array, PV Module I-V Characteristics, Efficiency & Quality of the
Cell, series and parallel connections, maximum power point tracking, Applications.

Contents
3.1 Solar Radiation
3.2 Radiation Measurement
3.3 Solar Thermal Power Plant
3.4 Central Receiver Power Plant
3.5 Solar Ponds
3.6 Thermal Energy Storage System with PCM
3.7 Solar Photovoltaic (PV) Power Systems
3.8 Solar PV Power Generation
3.9 Types of Solar Cell
3.10 Photovoltaic Cell Concepts
3.11 Efficiency and Quality of A Cell
3.12 Series and Parallel Connections of a Solar Cell
3.13 Maximum Power Point Tracking
3.14 Applications
Two Marks Questions with Answers [Part A]
Solved Questions [Part B]

(3 - 1)
Renewable Energy Systems 3-2 Solar PV and Thermal Systems

3.1 Solar Radiation

Solar Radiation is radiant energy emitted by the sun, particularly electromagnetic
energy. About half of the radiation is in the visible short-wave part of the electromagnetic
spectrum. The other half is mostly in the near-infrared part, with some in the ultraviolet
part of the spectrum. The amount of radiation reaching the earth is less than what entered
the top of the atmosphere we classify it in atmosphere. It has two categories :
1) Direct Radiation : Solar radiation that reaches the surface of earth without being
diffused is called direct beam radiation.
2) Diffuse Radiation : As sunlight passes through the atmosphere, some of it is
absorbed, scattered and reflected by air molecules, water vapour, cloud, dust, and
pollutants from power plants, forest fires, and volcanoes. This is called diffused
radiation.
Solar radiation is the most important weather variable that determines whether a
place experiences high temperatures or is predominantly cold. The instruments used for
measuring of solar radiation are the pyranometer and the pyrheliometer. The duration of
sunshine is measured using a sunshine recorder.
The energy radiated from the sun is electromagnetic waves reaching the planet earth
in three spectral regions;
i) ltraviolet 6.4 % ( ≤ 0.38 μm),
ii) Visible 48.0 % (0.38 μm < < 0.78 μm), and
iii) Infrared 45.6 % ( ≥ 0.78 μm) of total energy.
Due to the large distance between the sun and the earth (1.495 × 108 km) the beam
radiation received from the sun on the earth is almost parallel.

Fig. 3.1.1 : Principle of solar radiation

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledge

Renewable Energy Systems 3-3 Solar PV and Thermal Systems

3.2 Radiation Measurement

The atmosphere is made up of ions and other particles including clouds. when the
incident radiation passes through the atmosphere, some radiation penetrates and falls
directly on to the panel, some radiation diffuses in atmosphere and travels to the panel
and some radiation gets reflected from the surroundings of the panel and reaches the
panel, the effect being called albedo effect. It becomes extremely important to know the
amount of energy that has reached the panel through all the paths. There are several
factors on which this energy is dependent. They are as follows :
 Latitude and longitude of the geographical location.
 Climatic conditions such as presence of clouds, water vapor etc.
 Time of the day.
 Time of the year.
 Angle of tilt.
 Collector design.
Now, let us see how we make use of this information in calculating the solar energy
available at the panel. The steps are as follows :
Find the sun position with respect to the location. This is a function of latitude (),
hour angle () and declination angle ().
Sun Position = f(, , ) ... (3.2.1)
Find the available solar energy or irradiance with no atmosphere, HO. This is a
function of sun position.
HO = f(Sun Position) ... (3.2.2)
Find the solar energy available on horizontal surface with atmospheric effects, HOA.
This is a function of HO and clearness index KT
HOA = KT HO ... (3.2.3)
Find the actual solar energy available at the panel, Ht. this is a function of HOA and the
tilt factor RD.
Ht = RD HOA ... (3.2.4)
All the above mentioned steps can be written as an algorithm so that the moment
available data is fed, the actual solar energy available at the panel can be calculated
instantly. The algorithm would involve the following equations :
Enter , 
N = 1  365

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledge

Renewable Energy Systems 3-4 Solar PV and Thermal Systems

2π(N – 80)
 = 23.45* sin   ... (3.2.5)
 365 
st st
Degrees, N = 1on jan1 , N = 365 on Dec. 31
 = cos– 1 (– tan .tan ) ... (3.2.6)
 360 N
IO = ISC 1 + 0. 033 cos   kW/m2 ... (3.2.7)
  365 
24IO
 (cos( – ) cos  cos sr + sr sin ( – ) sin ) kWh/m /day (3.2.8)
2
Hot =

On a titled surface with no atmospheric effects.

24IO
HO =
 (cos  cos  cos sr + sr sin  sin δ) kWh/m2/day ... (3.2.9)

and the clearance index, KT = (Curve*Fitting*Data) ... (3.2.10)

1 + cos  1 – cos 
Tilt factor RD = KR(1 – KD) + KD  + ... (3.2.11)
 2   2 
and the reflection factor which ranges between 0.2 to 0.7,
Ht = KT*RD*HO kWh/m2/day ... (3.2.12)

This algorithm can be translated into any of the programming languages like C, C++ or
MATLAB. Entering the known parameters, it becomes convenient to find out the solar
energy available at any geographical location.

3.3 Solar Thermal Power Plant

A solar thermal collector collects heat by absorbing sunlight. The collector receive the
heat from solar rays and give it to the heat transport fluid. Solar collector surface is
designed for high absorption and low emission. So, the utilization of solar energy
requires solar collectors. These collectors are classified into two types. They are follows,
 Non-concentrating or flat plate solar collector
 Concentrating type solar collector.
In non-concentrating collectors, the aperture area (i.e., the area that receives the solar
radiation) is roughly the same as the absorber area (i.e., the area absorbing the radiation).
Concentrating collectors have a much bigger aperture than absorber area (additional
mirrors focus sunlight on the absorber) and only harvest the direct component of
sunlight.

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledge

Renewable Energy Systems 3-5 Solar PV and Thermal Systems

3.3.1 Flat Plate Solar Collector

Flat plate solar collector (Non- concentrating) are convenient particularly for space and
service water heating where temperature below about 90 °C are adequate. Flat plate can
collect and absorb both direct and diffuse solar radiation. They are consequently partially
effective even on cloudy days when there is no radiation.
Flat plate collectors are mainly divided into
 Liquid heating collector
 Air heating
 Evacuated tubular collector.

3.3.1.1 Liquid Heating Collector

The majority of the flat plate collectors have five components :
 Transparent cover of glass, Teflon, marlex.
 Black end absorber plate usually of copper, aluminium or steel.
 Tubes, channels or passages in thermal contact with the absorber plate. They are
soldered, brazed or clamped to the bottom of the absorber plate.
 Thermal insulation usually of foam, expanded polystyrene or glass wool typically
5-10 cm thickness.
 Tight container is to enclose above components.

Working

Fig. 3.3.1 Liquid heating collector

As the solar radiation strikes a specially treated absorber plate, it is absorbed and
raises its temperature. This rised heat is transferred to fluid which is circulated in the tube
with the absorber. thermal insulator prevents the heat loss from the rear surface of the

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledge

Renewable Energy Systems 3-6 Solar PV and Thermal Systems

collector. The upper glass cover permits the entry of solar radiation as it is transparent for
incoming short wavelength but it is largely opaque to longer infrared radiation reflected
from the absorber. The glass cover also prevents the heat loss due to convection by
keeping the air stagnant. The glass cover may reflect around 15 % of incoming solar
radiation which can be reduced by applying anti-reflective coating on the outer surface of
the glass.

3.3.1.2 Solar Air Heater

When an air steam is heated by back side of the collector plate, fins attached to the
plate increase the contact surface. The backside of the collector is heavily insulated with
mineral wool or some other material. Basically, air heaters are classified into following
two types
 Solar air heater with non-porous absorber
 Solar air heater with porous absorber

Fig. 3.3.2 Solar air heater

In a non porous type, the air stream does not flow through the absorber plate.
In a porous type, the absorber include slit and expanded meyal, transpired honey
comb and over-lapped glass plate absorber. The performance of air heaters is improved
by the following ways,
 Roughing the rear of the plate to promote turbulence and improve the convective
heat transfer coefficient, (or)
 Increasing the heat transfer surface by adding fins.

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledge

Renewable Energy Systems 3-7 Solar PV and Thermal Systems

3.3.1.3 Evacuated Tubular Collector

Evacuated tube collectors are the most common solar thermal technology in China and
in the World. They make use of a glass tube to surround the absorber with high vacuum
and effectively resist atmospheric pressure. The vacuum that surrounds the absorber
greatly reduces convection and conduction heat loss, therefore achieving greater energy
conversion efficiency. The absorber can be either metallic as in the case of flat plate
collectors or being a second concentric glass tube ("Sydney Tube"). Heat transfer fluid can
flow in and out each tube or being in contact with a heat pipe reaching inside the tube.
For the later, heat pipes transfer heat to the fluid in a heat exchanger called a "manifold"
placed transverse in respect to the tubes. The manifold is wrapped in insulation (glass
wool) and covered by a protective metal or plastic case also used for fixing to supports.

Fig. 3.3.3 Evacuated tube collector

Glass-metal evacuated tubes are made with flat or curved metal absorber sheets same
as those of flat plates. These sheets are joined to pipes or heat pipes to make "fins" and
placed inside a single borosilicate glass tube. An anti-reflective coating can be deposited
on the inner and outer surfaces of such tube to improve transparency. Both selective and
anti-reflective coating (inner tube surface) will not degrade until the vacuum is lost. A
high vacuum tight glass-metal seal is however required at one or both sides of each
evacuated tube. This seal is cycled between ambient and fluid temperature each day of
collector operation and might lead to failures in time.
Glass-glass evacuated tubes are made with two borosilicate glass tubes fused together
at one or both ends (similar a vacuum bottle or dewar flask). The absorber fin is placed

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledge

Renewable Energy Systems 3-8 Solar PV and Thermal Systems

inside the inner tube at atmospheric pressure. Glass-glass tubes have a very reliable seal,
but the two layers of glass reduce the amount of sunlight that reaches the absorber. The
selective coating can be deposited on the inner borosilicate tube (high vacuum side) to
avoid this, but heat has then to flow through the poorly conducting glass thickness of the
inner tube in this case. Moreover, moisture may enter the non-evacuated area inside the
inner tube and cause absorber corrosion in particular when made from dissimilar
materials (galvanic corrosion).

Advantages
 It does not require orientation towards the sun
 It requires a little maintenance
 Flat plate collectors are simpler than concentrating reflectors.

Disadvantages
 The temperature attained by the working fluid is low
 The construction is heavy in weight
 Conduction heat loss is more as the area is large
 Initial installation cost of the collector is more.

3.3.2 Solar Concentrating Collector (Focusing Type)

It is a device to collect solar energy with high intensity of solar radiation on the energy
absorbing surface. It is a special collector modified by introducing a reflecting surface
between solar radiation and absorber.
It may classified as,
 Parabolic trough collector
 Minor strip reflector
 Fresnel lens collector
 Compound parabolic concentrator.

3.3.2.1 Parabolic Trough Collector

In this type of collector, the solar radiations falling on the area of the parabolic reflector
are concentrated at the focus of the parabola.

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledge

Renewable Energy Systems 3-9 Solar PV and Thermal Systems

Fig. 3.3.4 Parabolic trough collector

When the reflector is manufactured in the form of a trough with the parabolic cross-
section, the solar radiations gets focused along a line. An absorber pipe is placed along
this line and a working fluid water flows through it. When the focused solar radiations
fall on the absorber pipe, it heats the fluid to a high temperature. Then the heat absorbed
by the working fluid is transferred to water for producing steam.
The focus of solar radiations changes with the change in sun’s elevation. In order to
focus the solar radiations on the absorber pipe, either the trough or the collector pipe is
rotated continuously about the axis of the absorber pipe.

3.3.2.2 Mirror Strip Reflector

In this collector, a number of plane or slightly curved mirror strips are mounted on a
flat base. The angle of the individual mirrors is arranged in such a way that they reflect
solar radiation from a specific direction on to the same focal line. The angle of the mirrors
must be adjusted to allow the change in the sun’s elevation while the focal line remains in
a fixed position.

Fig. 3.3.5 Mirror strip reflector

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledge

Renewable Energy Systems 3 - 10 Solar PV and Thermal Systems

3.3.2.3 Fresnel Lens Collector

In this collector, a Fresnel lens which consists of fine, linear grooves on the surface of
refracting material of optical quality on one side and flat on the other side is used. The
angle of each groove is so designed that the optical behavior of the fresnel lens is similar
to that of a common lens. The solar radiations which fall normally to the lens are refracted
by the lens and are focused on a line where the absorber tube (receiver) is placed to
absorb solar radiations.

Fig. 3.3.6 Fresnel lens

3.3.2.4 Compound Parabolic Concentrator

It is a non-focusing type but the radiation from many directions is reflected towards
the bottom of the trough. Due to this the large proportion of the solar radiation including
diffuse radiation entering the trough opening is collected on a small area. An advantage
of this collector is that it provides moderately good concentration although less than a
focusing collector is an east-west direction without adjustment for sun tracking.

Fig. 3.3.7 Compound parabolic concentrator

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledge

Renewable Energy Systems 3 - 11 Solar PV and Thermal Systems

3.4 Central Receiver Power Plant

A large solar thermal power plant in the range of 50 MW to 200 MW comes under
central receiver schemes. Such systems are economical in MW range for network
connected plants. The high capacity is possible due to high temperature steam in the
central receiver results high efficiency of plants.

3.4.1 Components of Central Receiver System

This system can be subdivided into the following subsystems. They are,
 Central receiver
 Heat conversion sub system
 Heat storage device
 Field of orientation mirrors.

Central receiver
The central receiver at the top of the tower has a heat absorbing surface by which the
heat-transport fluid is heated. There are two basic receiver,
 Cavity receiver type
 External receiver type.
In the cavity receiver type, the solar radiation reflected by heliostats enters through an
aperture at the bottom of the cavity whereas the absorber surfaces are on the exterior of a
roughly cylindrical structure in the external receiver type.

Heat conversion subsystem

Liquid water under pressure enters the receiver. Then the heat energy is absorbed by
the water and it leaves as superheated steam. Typical steam conditions might be a
temperature of 500 ºC and pressure of 100 atm. The steam is piped to a ground level
where it drives a conventional turbine generator system.

Heat storage device

Short term storage of heat can be provided by fire bricks, ceramic oxides, fused salts
and Sulphur. The choice of a conventional storage material is determined by its energy
density, thermal conductivity, corrosion characteristics, cost and convenience of use as
well as by the operating temperature of working fluid.

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledge

Renewable Energy Systems 3 - 12 Solar PV and Thermal Systems

Mirrors
The flat mirror surface can be manufactured by metallization of float glass or flexible
plastic sheets. The mirror must be steerable. The glass mirrors would not be capable of
withstanding the wind load which often occurs in arid lands without any supporting
structure.

3.4.2 Working of Central Receiver System

The incoming solar radiation is focused to a central receiver or a boiler mounted on a
tilt tower using thousands of plane reflectors which are steerable about two axes called
heliostats. Electric power generation using a gas turbine or gas turbine power plant
working on brayton cycle. The mirrors installed on the ground are oriented so as to reflect
the direct radiation into an absorber or receiver which is mounted at the top of a tower
located near the center in the field of mirrors to produce high temperature.
Beam radiation incident in the boiler is absorbed by black pipes in which the working
fluid is circulated and heated. The working fluid is allowed to drive a turbine thereby
producing mechanical energy. The turbine which is coupled to an alternator produces
electrical energy. Suitable heat storage is also provided to supply the heat energy during
the period of cloudiness.

Advantages
1. Very high temperature is obtained. High temperature is suitable for density
generation using conventional methods such as a steam turbine.
2. It provides good efficiency. By concentrating the sunlight, this system can get
better efficiency than simple solar cells.
3. A large area can be covered by using relatively inexpensive mirrors rather than
using expensive solar cells.
4. Concentrated light can be redirected to a suitable location via, optical fiber cable.

Disadvantages
1. Concentrated collector systems required dual axis sun tracking to maintain the
sunlight focus at the collector.
2. Inability to provide power in diffused light condition. Solar cells are able to
provide some output even if the sky becomes a little bit cloudy but power output
from concentrating systems drop drastically in cloudy conditions as the diffused
light cannot be concentrated passively.

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledge

Renewable Energy Systems 3 - 13 Solar PV and Thermal Systems

3.5 Solar Ponds

A solar pond is a body of water that collects and stores solar energy. Water warmed by
the sun expands and rises as it becomes less dense. Once it reaches the surface, the water
loses its heat to the air through convection, or evaporates, taking heat with it. The colder
water, which is heavier, moves down to replace the warm water, creating a natural
convective circulation that mixes the water and dissipates the heat. The design of solar
ponds reduces either convection or evaporation in order to store the heat collected by the
pond. A solar pond can store heat much more efficiently than the body of water of same
size because the salinity prevent convectional current.

Working Principle
 The solar pond works on a very simple principle. It is well-known that water or air
is heated they become lighter and rise upward. Similarly, in an ordinary pond, the
sun’s rays heat the water and the heated water from within the pond rises and
reaches the top but loses the heat into the atmosphere. The net result is that the
pond water remains at the atmospheric temperature. The solar pond restricts this
tendency by dissolving salt in the bottom layer of the pond making it too heavy to
rise.
 A solar pond is an artificially constructed water pond in which significant
temperature rises are caused in the lower regions by preventing the occurrence of
convection currents. The more specific terms salt-gradient solar pond or non-
convecting solar pond are also used. The solar pond, which is actually a large area
solar collector is a simple technology that uses a pond between one to four metres
deep as a working material.
 The solar pond possesses a thermal storage capacity spanning the seasons. The
surface area of the pond affects the amount of solar energy it can collect. The dark
surface at the bottom of the pond increases the absorption of solar radiation. Salts
like magnesium chloride, sodium chloride or sodium nitrate are dissolved in the
water, the concentration being densest at the bottom (20 % to 30 %) and gradually
decreasing to almost zero at the top.
Typically, a salt gradient solar pond consists of three zones.
 An upper convective zone of clear fresh water that acts as solar collector/receiver
and which is relatively the most shallow in depth and is generally close to ambient
temperature.

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledge

Renewable Energy Systems 3 - 14 Solar PV and Thermal Systems

 A gradient which serves as the non-convective zone which is much thicker and
occupies more than half the depth of the pond. Salt concentration and temperature
increase with depth.
 A lower convective zone with the densest salt concentration, serving as the heat
storage zone. Almost as thick as the middle non-convective zone, salt concentration
and temperatures are nearly constant in this zone.
 When solar radiation strikes the pond, most of it is absorbed by the surface at the
bottom of the pond. The temperature of the dense salt layer therefore increases. But
the salt density difference keeps the ‘layers’ of the solar pond separate. The denser
salt water at the bottom prevents the heat being transferred to the top layer of fresh
water by natural convection, due to which the temperature of the lower layer may
rise to as much as 95 °C.

Fig. 3.5.1 : Different types of a solar pond

Types of solar ponds

Convecting solar ponds

A well-researched example of a convecting pond is the shallow solar pond. This pond
consists of pure water enclosed in a large bag that allows convection but hinders
evaporation. The bag has a blackened bottom, has foam insulation below, and two types
of glazing (sheets of plastic or glass) on top. The sun heats the water in the bag during the
day. At night the hot water is pumped into a large heat storage tank to minimize heat
loss. Excessive heat loss when pumping the hot water to the storage tank has limited the
development of shallow solar ponds.

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledge

Renewable Energy Systems 3 - 15 Solar PV and Thermal Systems

Non-convecting solar ponds

The main types of non-convecting ponds is salt gradient ponds. A salt gradient pond
has three distinct layers of brine (a mixture of salt and water) of varying concentrations.
Because the density of the brine increases with salt concentration, the most concentrated
layer forms at the bottom. The least concentrated layer is at the surface. The salts
commonly used are sodium chloride and magnesium chloride. A dark-colored material
usually butyl rubber lines the pond. As sunlight enters the pond, the water and the lining
absorb the solar radiation. As a result, the water near the bottom of the pond becomes
warm up to 93.3 °C. Even when it becomes warm, the bottom layer remains denser than
the upper layers, thus inhibiting convection. Pumping the brine through an external heat
exchanger or an evaporator removes the heat from this bottom layer. Another method of
heat removal is to extract heat with a heat transfer fluid as it is pumped through a heat
exchanger placed on the bottom of the pond.

Advantages
 Environment friendly energy – no pollution
 Renewable energy source
 It can be used for many purpose such as generation of electricity, heating of fluids
 No need of a separate collector for this thermal storage system
 Low maintenance costs.

3.6 Thermal Energy Storage System with PCM

Thermal energy storage captures heat from a hot fluid, and stores the energy for later
use. Energy storage can usually be found in renewable energy systems due to renewable
energy sources being diffuse and intermittent.
The primary components in a thermal energy storage consists of the following :
Storage medium, heat transfer fluid, and the insulation.
 The heat transfer fluid captures heat from solar irradiation, and transfers portion of
the heat to the storage medium.
 When the heat transfer fluid goes cold after sunset, the storage medium replaces the
sun as a heat source and heats the fluid.
Thermal Energy Storage or TES is defined as a technology that allows transfer and
storage of heat energy or energy from ice or water or cold air. This method is built into
new technologies that complement energy solutions like solar and hydro.

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledge

Renewable Energy Systems 3 - 16 Solar PV and Thermal Systems

PCM is a substance with a high heat of fusion which, melting and solidifying at a
certain temperature, is capable of storing and releasing large amounts of energy. Heat is
absorbed or released when the material changes from solid to liquid and vice versa.

Working principle
 The water is passed through the parabolic reflector from the inlet.
 The parabolic reflector is heated by absorbing solar energy from sun using
parabolic collector.
 It is designed in such a way that they are liquid flowing through the tubes get
heated by absorbing heat from source which is integral within it.
 The heated water is passed through the outlet tank.
 The Phase Changing Materials (PCM) are kept inside the tank.
 The PCM’s are maintain the heat of the water in the outlet tank.

Fig. 3.6.1 : PCM encapsulation

Process flow in a thermal energy storage system

Fig. 3.6.2 : Process flow chart of TES

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledge

Renewable Energy Systems 3 - 17 Solar PV and Thermal Systems

3.7 Solar Photovoltaic (PV) Power Systems

Solar PV system convert solar energy directly into electrical energy. The basic
conversion device is known as solar photovoltaic cell. Energy conversion device which
are used to convert into electricity by the use of photovoltaic effect are called solar cell.
When semiconductor materials are exposed to light, the some of the photons of light
ray are absorbed by the semiconductor crystal which causes a significant number of free
electrons in the crystal. This is the basic reason for producing electricity due to
photovoltaic effect. Photovoltaic cell is the basic unit of the system where the photovoltaic
effect is utilized to produce electricity from light energy. Silicon is the most widely used
semiconductor material for constructing the photovoltaic cell.

3.7.1 Photovoltaic Effect

When the solar cell is illuminated, electron-hole pairs are generated and it is acted by
the internal electric fields, resulting in a photocurrent (IL). The generated photocurrent
flows in a direction opposite to the forward dark current. Even in absence of an external
applied voltage, this photocurrent continues to flow and it is measured as short circuit
current (Isc). This phenomenon is called photovoltaic effect. This short circuit current
depends linearly on the light intensity because the absorption of more light results in
additional electron to flow in the internal electric field force. The overall current is
determined by subtracting the light induced current IL from the diode dark current ID.
Overall PV cell current I = ID - IL

3.7.2 Working of Solar PV

Solar cell consists of a PN junction formed in a semiconductor material similar to a
diode. Fig. 3.7.1 shows a schematic diagram of the cross section through a crystalline solar
cell. It consists of a 0.2–0.3 mm thick monocrystalline or polycrystalline silicon wafer
having two layers with different electrical properties formed by ‘‘doping’’ it with other
impurities (e.g., boron and phosphorus). An electric field is established at the junction
between the negatively doped (using phosphorus atoms) and the positively doped (using
boron atoms) silicon layers. If light is incident on the solar cell, the energy from the light
(photons) creates free charge carriers, which are separated by the electrical field. An
electrical voltage is generated at the external contacts, so that current can flow when a
load is connected. The photocurrent(Iph), which is internally generated in the solar cell, is
proportional to the radiation intensity.

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledge

Renewable Energy Systems 3 - 18 Solar PV and Thermal Systems

Fig. 3.7.1 : Principle of solar cell

A simplified equivalent circuit of a solar cell consists of a current source in parallel

with a diode. A variable resistor is connected to the solar cell generator as a load. When
the terminals are short-circuited, the output voltage and also the voltage across the diode
are both zero. The entire photocurrent (Iph) generated by the solar radiation then flows to
the output. The solar cell current has its maximum (Isc). If the load resistance is increased,

which results in an increasing voltage across the PN junction of the diode, a portion of the
current flows through the diode and the output current decreases by the same amount.
When the load resistor is open circuited, the output current is zero and the entire
photocurrent flows through the diode. The relationship between current and voltage may
be determined from the diode characteristic equation
qv/kt
I = Iph – Io (e –1) = Iph – Id
where q is the electron charge, k is the Boltzmann constant, Iph is photocurrent, I0 is
the reverse saturation current, Id is diode current, and T is the solar cell operating

temperature (K). The current versus voltage (I-V) of a solar cell is thus equivalent to an
‘‘inverted’’ diode.

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledge

Renewable Energy Systems 3 - 19 Solar PV and Thermal Systems

Fig. 3.7.2 : VI characteristics of solar PV

3.8 Solar PV Power Generation

A basic photovoltaic system integrated with the utility grid. It contains of the
following elements,
 Solar array
 Blocking diode
 Battery storage
 Inverter/converter
 switches and circuit breakers.

Solar array
Solar array is large or small element which converts the isolation into useful DC
electrical power.

Blocking diode
It lets the array generated power flow only towards the battery or grid. Without a
blocking, the battery would discharge back through the solar array at the time of no
isolation.

Battery storage
It is used to store the solar energy.

Inverter/ converter
It converts the battery bus-voltage to AC of frequency and phase to match to integrate
with the utility grid. It contains a suitable output step up transformer and power
correction circuits.

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledge

Renewable Energy Systems 3 - 20 Solar PV and Thermal Systems

Switches and circuit breakers

It permits isolating parts of the system as the battery.

3.8.1 Types of Solar PV Power Generation

Solar PV systems are broadly classified into three categories,
 Standalone Power system
 Central Power system or Grid connected system
 Hybrid system.

3.8.1.1 Standalone Power System

A standalone photovoltaic system requires storage to meet the energy demand during
period of low solar irradiation and night time. The provision of cost-effective electrical
energy storage remains one of the major challenges for the development on improved PV
power systems. Typically , lead acid batteries are used to guarantee several hours to a few
days of energy storage. Their reasonable cost and general availability have resulted the
widespread application of lead-acid batteries for remote are power supplies despite their
limited lifetime compared to other system components. An inverter is used to convert DC
power produced by the modules into alternating current that can plug into the existing
infrastructure to power lights, motors and other loads.

Fig. 3.8.1 Standalone power system

Charge controllers are used to regulate the charge transfer and prevent the battery
from being excessively charged and discharged. Blocking diodes in series with PV
modules are used to prevent the batteries from being discharged through PV cells at night
where there is no sun available to generate energy. Those blocking diodes also protect the
battery from short circuit. In a solar power system consisting of more than one string
connected in parallel if a short-circuit occurs in one of the strings and the blocking diode
prevents the other PV strings from discharged through the short-circuited string. The

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledge

Renewable Energy Systems 3 - 21 Solar PV and Thermal Systems

output of the array after converting to AC is fed to loads and the excess of load
requirement is used to charge the battery. When the sun is not available, the battery
supplies the load through the inverter.

3.8.1.2 Grid Connected System

In this system, PV panels are connected to a grid through inverters without battery
storage and all excess power is fed to grid. Also during the absence of inadequate
sunshine, power is maintained from grid and thus, the battery is eliminated. The grid
interactive inverter must be synchronized with grid in terms of voltage and frequency.
DC power is first converted to AC by an inverter. PV module along with inverters as an
integrator component in the junction box of the module. These are proposed in few MW
range to meet daytime peak lead only. The capital cost of the system is slightly high for
their commercial exploitation.

Fig. 3.8.2 Grid connected system

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledge

Renewable Energy Systems 3 - 22 Solar PV and Thermal Systems

3.8.1.3 Hybrid System

Conventional power systems used in remote area often based on manually controlled
diesel generators operating continuously or for a few hours. Extended operation of diesel
generators at low load levels significantly increase maintenance cost and reduce their
useful life. Renewable energy sources such as PV can be added to remote area power
systems using diesel and other fossil fuel powered generators to provide 24-hour power
economically and efficiently.

Fig. 3.8.3 Hybrid system

Advantages
 It has no moving parts.
 It has no pollution.
 It has wide power handling capacity.
 It has long effective life.
 It is highly reliable.
 Power to weight ratio is high.
 It can be used with or without sun tracking.

Disadvantages
 The system needs high cost.
 Energy storage is required because of no insolation at night.

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledge

Renewable Energy Systems 3 - 23 Solar PV and Thermal Systems

3.9 Types of Solar Cell

Solar cells are classified on the basis of the following factors.
 Thickness of active material
 Type of junction structure
 Type of active material.

Thickness of active material

In this solar cell is classified into two types,
 Bulk material cell
 Thin film cell.
In bulk material cells the base material is itself an active material. Thin film solar cells
have the major advantages of significantly low active material consumption and
continuous production process.

Type of junction structure

In this, solar cell is classified into five types :
 P-N homojunction call
 Hetero-junction cell
 P-N multi junction cell
 Metal-semiconductor Schottky junction
 P-I-N semiconductor junction.

Type of active material

It can be classified into seven types,
 Single crystal silicon cell
 Multicrystal silicon cell
 Amorphous silicon cell
 Gallium arsenide cell
 Copper indium diselenide cell
 Cadmium telluride cell
 Organic PV cell.

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledge

Renewable Energy Systems 3 - 24 Solar PV and Thermal Systems

3.10 Photovoltaic Cell Concepts

3.10.1 Solar Cell

Solar power or electricity from the solar system is obtained from solar photovoltaic
(PV) cells. The PV cell made from the silicon material, a semiconducting material.It is
called the photovoltaic (PV) cells because in Greek language phos means light, and volt,
measurement unit named for Alessandro Volta (1745-1827), a pioneer in the study of
electricity. Therefore, it's called photovoltaic. Solar cells are small devices, which can
convert sunlight into electricity. One cell has 0.5 to 0.6 volt. in series to get higher voltage.

Fig. 3.10.1 : Difference between solar cell, module, panel and array

3.10.2 Solar Module

A photovoltaic module is made of multiple interconnected solar cell. A solar PV panel
is collection of modules physically and electrically grouped together on a support
structure. These modules are connected in series/parallel to increase the voltage/current
rating. When modules are connected in series, it is desirable to have each module’s
maximum power production occurring with the same current.

Types of Solar Module

Monocrystalline solar panels :

The most efficient and expensive solar panels are made with Monocrystalline cells.
These solar cells use very pure silicon and involve a complicated crystal growth process.
Long silicon rods are produced which are cut into slices of 4 mm thick discs or wafers
which are then processed into individual cells that are wired together in the solar panel.

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledge

Renewable Energy Systems 3 - 25 Solar PV and Thermal Systems

Polycrystalline solar panels :

Often called Multi-crystalline, solar panels made with Polycrystalline cells are a little
less expensive and slightly less efficient than Monocrystalline cells because the cells are
not grown in single crystals but in a large block of many crystals which gives them that
striking shattered glass appearance. Like Monocrystalline cells, they are also then sliced
into wafers to produce the individual cells that make up the solar panel.

Amorphous solar panels :

These are not really crystals, but a thin layer of silicon deposited on a base material
such as metal or glass to create the solar panel. These Amorphous solar panels are much
cheaper, but their energy efficiency is also much less so more square footage is required
to produce the same amount of power as the Monocrystalline or Polycrystalline type of
solar panel. Amorphous solar panels can even be made into long sheets of roofing
material to cover large areas of a south facing roof surface.

3.10.3 Solar Panel

PV panel is collection of modules physically and electrically grouped together. Most
PV panels have 30 to 36 cells connected in series. Each cell produces about 0.5 V in
sunlight, so the panel produce 15 V to 18 V. these panels are designed to charge 12 V
batteries. The current depends on the size of each cell and the solar radiation intensity.
The current is the same in every cell because cells are connected in series. Most PV array
use an inverter to convert the DC power produced by the modules into alternating
current that can plug into the existing infrastructure to power lights, motors and other
loads.

3.10.4 PV Module I-V Characteristics

Solar cell is the basic unit of solar energy generation system where electrical energy is
extracted directly from light energy without any intermediate process. The working of a
solar cell solely depends upon its photovoltaic effect hence a solar cell also known as
photovoltaic cell. A solar cell is basically a semiconductor device. The solar cell produce
electricity while light strikes on it and the voltage or potential difference established
across the terminals of the cell is fixed to 0.5 volt and it is nearly independent of intensity
of incident light whereas the current capacity of cell is nearly proportional to the intensity
of incident light as well as the area that exposed to the light. Each of the solar cells has one
positive and one negative terminal like all other type of battery cells. Typically a solar or
photovoltaic cell has negative front contact and positive back contact. A semiconductor
p-n junction is in the middle of these two contacts.

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledge

Renewable Energy Systems 3 - 26 Solar PV and Thermal Systems

Fig. 3.10.2 : Construction of a solar cell

While sunlight falling on the cell the some photons of the light are absorbed by solar
cell. Some of the absorbed photons will have energy greater than the energy gap between
valence band and conduction band in the semiconductor crystal. Hence, one valence
electron gets energy from one photon and becomes excited and jumps out from the bond
and creates one electron-hole pair. These electrons and holes of e-h pairs are called light-
generated electrons and holes. The light-generated electrons near the p-n junction are
migrated to n-type side of the junction due to electrostatic force of the field across the
junction. Similarly the light-generated holes created near the junction are migrated to p-
type side of the junction due to same electrostatic force. In this way a potential difference
is established between two sides of the cell and if these two sides are connected by an
external circuit current will start flowing from positive to negative terminal of the solar
cell. This was basic working principle of a solar cell now we will discuss about different
parameters of a solar or photovoltaic cell upon which the rating of a solar panel depends.
During choosing a particular solar cell for specific project it is essential to know the
ratings of a solar panel. These parameters tell us how efficiently a solar cell can convert
the light to electricity.

Fig. 3.10.3 : Circuit of I-V characteristics of a solar cell

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledge

Renewable Energy Systems 3 - 27 Solar PV and Thermal Systems

3.10.5 Short Circuit Current of Solar Cell

The maximum current that a solar cell can deliver without harming its own
consumption. It is measured by short circuiting the terminals of the cell at most optimized
condition of the cell for producing maximum output. The term optimized condition I
used because for fixed exposed cell surface the rate of production of current in a solar cell
also depends upon the intensity of light and the angle at which the light falls on the cell.
As the current production also depends upon the surface area of the cell exposed to light,
it is better to express maximum current density instead maximum current. Maximum
current density or short circuit current density rating is nothing but ratio of maximum or
short circuit current to exposed surface area of the cell.
Isc
Jsc =
A
Where, Isc is short circuit current, Jsc maximum current density and A is the area of
solar cell.

3.10.6 Open Circuit Voltage of Solar Cell

It is measured by measuring voltage across the terminals of the cell when no load is
connected to the cell. This voltage depends upon the techniques of manufacturing and
temperature but not fairly on the intensity of light and area of exposed surface. Normally
open circuit voltage of solar cell nearly equal to 0.5 to 0.6 volt. It is normally denoted by
Voc.

3.10.7 Maximum Power Point of Solar Cell

The maximum electrical power one solar
cell can deliver at its standard test
condition. V-I characteristics of a solar cell
maximum power will occur at the bend
point of the characteristic curve. It is shown
in the V-I characteristics of solar cell by Pm.

Fig. 3.10.4 : Characteristics of a solar cell

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledge

Renewable Energy Systems 3 - 28 Solar PV and Thermal Systems

3.10.8 Current and Voltage at Maximum Power Point

The current and voltage at which maximum power occurs. Current at maximum
power point is shown in the V-I characteristics of solar cell by Im and voltage at
maximum power point is shown in the V-I characteristics of solar cell by Vm.

3.10.9 Fill Factor of Solar Cell

The ratio between product of current and voltage at maximum power point to the
product of short circuit current and open circuit voltage of the solar cell.
Pm
Fill factor =
Isc * Voc

3.11 Efficiency and Quality of A Cell

Efficiency of a cell is defined as the ratio of maximum electrical power output to the
radiation power input to the cell and it is expressed in percentage. It is considered that the
radiation power on the earth is about 1000 watt/square metre hence if the exposed surface
area of the cell is A then total radiation power on the cell will be 1000 A watts. Hence the
efficiency of a solar cell may be expressed as
Pm Pm
Efficiency (η) = 
Pin 1000 A
PV cells are typically square, with sides ranging from about 10 mm (0.3937 inches) to
127 mm (5 inches) or more on a side. Typical efficiencies range from 14 % to 18 % for a
monocrystalline silicon PV cell. Some manufacturers claim efficiencies greater than 18 %.
Several factors determine the efficiency of a PV cell : The type of cell, the reflectance
efficiency of the cell’s surface, the thermodynamic efficiency limit, the quantum
efficiency, the maximum power point, and internal resistances.
Key elements which define the best quality solar panels :

Quality manufacture
Quality manufacturing in solar panel production is now fully automated by precision
robotic machinery in a controlled environment. Selecting a solar panel manufacturer you
know, has a proven fully automated manufacturing process will ensure a reduced chance
of product contamination and inferior construction leading to the following common
defects :
 Delamination.
 Ingress.

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledge

Renewable Energy Systems 3 - 29 Solar PV and Thermal Systems

 Micro-cracks.
 Hot spot.
 Fire.
Human elements within the manufacturing process can greatly reduce the life
expectancy of a solar panel to within a 5 year period. Even though average product
warranties of 10 or 12-years exist, the warranty outcome is a rather sour experience due to
the many months of lost energy savings whilst waiting for the issue to be resolved.

Quality engineering
Quality design and engineering are what takes solar panels to the next level. Although
many solar panels look similar there are many detailed differences to excel energy
production and performance in the least ideal situations. The best quality solar panels are
engineered with select components on every level with refined specifications of
microscopic proportions. The level of detail is beyond mind-blowing.

Quality components
The individual components, when assembled, are everything. The best quality solar
panels built are constructed from high-specification base materials and products to ensure
a long life and exceptional output in tough conditions. Solar panels are expected to work
beyond 30-years, therefore, it is important to consider the following incorporated
components;
 Solar cell.
 Solar cell conductors.
 Interconnecting busbar technology.
 Rear junction box.
 Bypass diodes.
 Sealing agents.
 Front protective glass sheet.
 Rear protective laminate or glass sheet.
 Bonding agents.
 Structural framework.
 Interconnecting cable and connectors.
These are all critical components for successful solar power production over time.
Failure to any of the above will severely reduce solar panel performance or ensure a
premature malfunction.

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledge

Renewable Energy Systems 3 - 30 Solar PV and Thermal Systems

Quality construction
Assembly of solar cell must be implemented with eye-watering precision. A feature
leading manufacturers by volume alone find difficult to achieve. When achieving quality
construction with the finest components a solar panel can withstand the hardest elements
beyond 30-years. The best quality solar panels are constructed to withstand :
 Severe hail impact.
 Cyclonic wind pressures.
 High suction forces.
 Searing desert heat.
 Intense UV radiation.
 Salt spray corrosion.
 Elevated rural ammonia levels.
 Extreme temperature shift.

Quality innovation
Research, development and refinement. The best quality solar panels have proven
over time to be derived from leading innovation. Innovation and proprietary knowledge
which facilitates a competitive advantage. Not all solar panels are created equal and the
smallest innovative advantages create greater returns over time when compounded.
Consider a 1 % increase in solar module efficiency from a common 16 % module
efficiency. Innovation such as PERC (Passivated Emitter and Rear Cell or Passivated
Emitter Rear Contact) technologies can increase the same solar module and its efficiency
to around 17 %. A 6 % increase in overall performance from the previous state.
Furthermore, the infusion of Bifacial cell technology has the ability to increase the output
of a solar panel by up to 25 % in ideal conditions.

3.12 Series and Parallel Connections of a Solar Cell

Series combination of PV cells

When two or more solar cells are connected in series then it is called a series
combination of solar cells. The connection of solar cells in series can be done by
connecting the positive terminal of the panel to the negative terminal of the second panel.
In this connection, the output current of the solar cells is the same but their input voltage
becomes twice.
For example : If we connect four solar panels in a series combination then each solar
panel rated at 12 V and 5 amps, then the total array of panels would be 48 volts at 5 amps.

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledge

Renewable Energy Systems 3 - 31 Solar PV and Thermal Systems

Fig. 3.12.1 : Series Connection of a cell

Parallel Combination of PV Cells

When two or more solar cells are connected in parallel then it is called a parallel
combination of solar cells. The connection of solar cells in parallel can be done by
connecting all the positive terminals of the panels jointly whereas all the negative
terminals of the panels jointly. In this parallel connection, the output current of the solar
cells is twice but their input voltage is the same.
For example : If we connect four solar panels in a parallel combination then each solar
panel rated at 12 V as well as 5 amps, then the total array of panels would be 12 volts at
20 amps.

Fig. 3.12.2 : Parallel connection of a cell

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledge

Renewable Energy Systems 3 - 32 Solar PV and Thermal Systems

Series-Parallel Combination of PV Cells

In series to the parallel combination of solar cells, both the magnitudes of the current
as well as voltage increases. Thus, these panels are designed with the series and parallel
connection of the cells.

Fig. 3.12.3 : Series - parallel connection of a cell

3.13 Maximum Power Point Tracking

Maximum power point is a operating point at which maximum power can be
extracted from the system. Usually represented as MPP. The output of the solar module is
a function of solar irradiance and temperature. Generally MPPT is installed in between
PV system and load. Coupling to the load for maximum power transfer may require
either providing a higher voltage at lower current or lower voltage at higher current.
Maximum power point tracking is a technique used commonly with wind turbines
and photovoltaic (PV) solar systems to maximize power extraction under all conditions.
PV solar systems exist in many different configurations with regard to their
relationship to inverter systems, external grids, battery banks, or other electrical loads.
Regardless of the ultimate destination of the solar power, though, the central problem
addressed by MPPT is that the efficiency of power transfer from the solar cell depends on

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledge

Renewable Energy Systems 3 - 33 Solar PV and Thermal Systems

both the amount of sunlight falling on the solar panels and the electrical characteristics of
the load. As the amount of sunlight varies, the load characteristic that gives the highest
power transfer efficiency changes, so that the efficiency of the system is optimized when
the load characteristic changes to keep the power transfer at highest efficiency. This load
characteristic is called the Maximum Power Point (MPP) and MPPT is the process of
finding this point and keeping the load characteristic there. Electrical circuits can be
designed to present arbitrary loads to the photovoltaic cells and then convert the voltage,
current, or frequency to suit other devices or systems, and MPPT solves the problem of
choosing the best load to be presented to the cells inorder to get the most usable power
out.
Solar cells have a complex relationship between temperature and total resistance that
produces a non-linear output efficiency which can be analyzed based on the I-V curve. It
is the purpose of the MPPT system to sample the output of the PV cells and apply the
proper resistance (load) to obtain maximum power for any given environmental
conditions. MPPT devices are typically integrated into an electric power converter system
that provides voltage or current conversion, filtering, and regulation for driving various
loads, including power grids, batteries, or motors.
 Solar inverters convert the DC power to AC power and may incorporate MPPT,
such inverters sample the output power (I-V curve) from the solar modules and
apply the proper resistance (load) so as to obtain maximum power.
 The power at the MPP (Pmpp) is the product of the MPP voltage (Vmpp) and MPP
current (Impp).

Perturb and observe

In this method the controller adjusts the voltage by a small amount from the array and
measures power; if the power increases, further adjustments in that direction are tried
until power no longer increases. This is called the perturb and observe method and is
most common, although this method can result in oscillations of power output. It is
referred to as a hill climbing method, because it depends on the rise of the curve of power
against voltage below the maximum power point, and the fall above that point. Perturb
and observe is the most commonly used MPPT method due to its ease of implementation.
Perturb and observe method may result in top-level efficiency, provided that a proper
predictive and adaptive hill climbing strategy is adopted.

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledge

Renewable Energy Systems 3 - 34 Solar PV and Thermal Systems

Fig. 3.13.1 : Flow chart for P & O method

Incremental conductance
In the incremental conductance method, the controller measures incremental changes
in PV array current and voltage to predict the effect of a voltage change. This method
requires more computation in the controller, but can track changing conditions more
rapidly than the perturb and observe method (P&O). Like the P&O algorithm, it can
produce oscillations in power output. This method utilizes the incremental conductance
(dIpv/dVpv) of the photovoltaic array to compute the sign of the change in power with
respect to voltage (dPpv/dVpv). The incremental conductance method computes the
maximum power point by comparison of the incremental conductance (Ipv / Vpv) to the
array conductance (I / V). When these two are the same (I / V = Ipv / Vpv), the output
voltage is the MPP voltage. The controller maintains this voltage until the irradiation
changes and the process is repeated.

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledge

Renewable Energy Systems 3 - 35 Solar PV and Thermal Systems

The incremental conductance method is based on the observation that at the maximum
power point dPpv/dVpv = 0, and that P = IV. The current from the array can be expressed
as a function of the voltage : P = Ipv(V)Vpv. Therefore, dPpv/dVpv = VdIpv/dVpv + I(V).
Setting this equal to zero yields : dIpv/dVpv = -Ipv(V)/Vpv. Therefore, the maximum power
point is achieved when the incremental conductance is equal to the negative of the
instantaneous conductance.

Fig. 3.13.2 : Flow chart for incremental conductance

Current sweep
The current sweep method uses a sweep waveform for the PV array current such that
the I-V characteristic of the PV array is obtained and updated at fixed time intervals. The
maximum power point voltage can then be computed from the characteristic curve at the
same intervals.

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledge

Renewable Energy Systems 3 - 36 Solar PV and Thermal Systems

Fig. 3.13.3 : Flow chart for current sweep MPPT

Constant voltage
The term "constant voltage" in MPP tracking is used to describe different techniques
by different authors, one in which the output voltage is regulated to a constant value
under all conditions and one in which the output voltage is regulated based on a constant
ratio to the measured open circuit voltage (VOC). The latter technique is referred to in
contrast as the "open voltage" method by some authors. If the output voltage is held
constant, there is no attempt to track the maximum power point, so it is not a maximum
power point tracking technique in a strict sense, though it does have some advantages in
cases when the MPP tracking tends to fail, and thus it is sometimes used to supplement
an MPPT method. In the "constant voltage" MPPT method (also known as the "open
voltage method"), the power delivered to the load is momentarily interrupted and the
open-circuit voltage with zero current is measured. The controller then resumes operation
with the voltage controlled at a fixed ratio, such as 0.76, of the open-circuit voltage VOC.
This is usually a value which has been determined to be the maximum power point,
either empirically or based on modelling, for expected operating conditions. The
operating point of the PV array is thus kept near the MPP by regulating the array voltage
and matching it to the fixed reference voltage Vmodule = kVOC. The value of Vmodule may
be also chosen to give optimal performance relative to other factors as well as the MPP,
but the central idea in this technique is that Vmodule is determined as a ratio to VOC. One

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledge

Renewable Energy Systems 3 - 37 Solar PV and Thermal Systems

of the inherent approximations in the "constant voltage" ratio method is that the ratio of
the MPP voltage (Vmp) to VOC is only approximately constant, so it leaves room for
further possible optimization.

Fig. 3.13.4 : Flow chart for constant voltage MPPT

Temperature method
This method of MPPT estimates the MPP voltage (Vmpp) by measuring the
temperature of the solar module and comparing it against a reference. Since changes in
irradiation levels have a negligible effect on the maximum power point voltage, its
influences may be ignored - the voltage is assumed to vary linearly with the temperature
changes.
This algorithm calculates the following equation :
Vmpp (T) = Vmpp (Tref) + uVmpp (T – Tref)

Where :
Vmpp is the voltage at the maximum power point for a given temperature;
Tref is a reference temperature;

T is the measured temperature;

uVmpp is the temperature coefficient of Vmpp

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledge

Renewable Energy Systems 3 - 38 Solar PV and Thermal Systems

Advantages
 Simplicity : This algorithm solves one linear equation. Therefore, it does not
consume much computational power.
 Can be implemented as analog or digital circuits.
 Since temperature varies slowly with time, there are no steady-state oscillation and
instability.
 Low cost : Temperature sensors are usually very cheap.
 Robust against noise.

Disadvantage
 Estimation error might not be negligible for low irradiation levels (e.g. below
200 W/m²).

3.14 Applications
The main applications of solar thermal energy are as follows :
 Generation of electricity.
 Heat the water in the outdoor or indoor pools.
 Under floor heating or radiators.
 Obtaining sanitary hot water. It is used to heat domestic water for showering,
washing dishes, washing hands, etc. These systems are regularly used to heat
residential water in the summer period. During the winter period this system
begins to fulfill a task of supporting the main heat system
 Operating refrigeration appliances. Thermal solar energy can also be used for
cooling buildings (air conditioning) or in industrial processes (cooling).
 Agricultural product dryers.
 Industrial use, for example, in solar ovens.
 Cooling by solar energy
 Desalination using solar energy.
Thermal solar energy harnesses solar radiation to increase the internal energy of an
element to heat an element. Normally a liquid is heated to transport this heat energy
more easily to the place where you want to take advantage of it.
There is a technique to convert thermal solar energy into electrical energy.
Thermoelectric plants generate electricity by this method. They concentrate all the solar
radiation in one point to generate steam and with this steam, activate a turbine.

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledge

Renewable Energy Systems 3 - 39 Solar PV and Thermal Systems

Parabolic trough solar collectors

The parabolic trough collectors concentrate the solar radiation through parabolic
mirrors in an absorbent pipe that passes through the axis of the parabola. In the interior of
this absorbent pipe, a fluid that can reach temperatures of up to 450 ºC is heated.
Depending on the solar application and the temperature at which you want to reach,
one type of fluid or another is used. For a maximum temperature of 200 Celsius degrees,
demineralized water or Ethylene Glycol can be used as working fluids and for higher
temperatures up to 450 Celsius degrees, synthetic oils are used.
To obtain an optimal energy performance, this type of concentration sensor must
change its position adapting to the position of the Sun by turning around the axis parallel
to its focal line to take advantage of direct Sun radiation.

Solar tower power stations

This solar thermal system is based on the concentration of solar radiation towards a
point in a tower. It is also known as central receiver systems. The tower systems are
formed by a field of heliostats (mobile mirrors on 2 axes). The heliostats capture and
concentrate the solar radiation on a receiver, installed on the top of a central tower.
The operation of this type of renewable energy plant is simple, the central solar
receiver generates steam at high temperature. The generated steam is subsequently used
to move a steam turbine. Thanks to the steam turbine, mechanical work is obtained in the
form of kinetic energy (an axis in rotation) that, thanks to an electrical generator, will be
converted into electrical energy.

Parabolic discs
Parabolic discs are systems that concentrate solar energy at a point where the solar
receiver is located and a Stirling motor or a microturbine that is coupled to an alternator.
The fluid located in the receiver is heated to temperatures of more than 750 °C thereby
obtaining a certain heat energy. The thermal energy obtained is used by the Stirling
engine or the microturbine to produce electricity.
A Stirling engine is an external combustion engine, which means that the energy
contribution can be made by concentrated solar energy. An alternator coupled to the
Stirling engine takes advantage of the movement generated by the engine to produce
electrical energy. The electricity generated by this renewable resource can be connected to
the electricity grid for sale or in most cases it can be used for direct consumption.
This technology is still in experimentation and is still less profitable than the tower or
the parabolic mirrors.

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledge

Renewable Energy Systems 3 - 40 Solar PV and Thermal Systems

Linear fresnel receivers

The Fresnel linear reflector is a system of concentration of solar radiation similar to
parabolic trough mirrors. In this case, these linear solar collectors carry normal flat
mirrors and simulate the curvature of parabolic trough mirrors (more expensive) by
varying the angle of each row with a single tracking axis.
The main advantage of the Fresnel linear receiver system is its simple installation and
its low cost although the energy efficiency is lower than the Parabolic Cylinder Collector
(CCP) technology.
Solar thermal power plant
The operation of a solar thermal power plant is based on obtaining heat from solar
radiation and transferring it to a heat-carrying medium. Generally it is water.
Inorder to raise the water temperature to the desired high levels, the maximum solar
radiation must be concentrated at one point. In this way temperatures of 300 ºC to 1000 ºC
can be obtained. The higher the temperature, the greater the thermodynamic performance
of the solar thermal power plant.
The capture and concentration of the solar rays are made by means of mirrors with
automatic orientation that point to a central tower where the fluid is heated, or with
smaller mechanisms of parabolic geometry. The whole of the reflective surface and its
orientation device is called a heliostat.
There are various thermodynamic flows and cycles used in experimental setups. The
cycles used range from the Rankine cycle, (used in nuclear power plants, coal-fired power
plants) to the Brayton cycle (natural gas power plants). Many other varieties such as the
Stirling engine have also been made. The most used cycles are those that combine solar
thermal energy with natural gas.

3.15 Two Marks Questions with Answers

Part - A

Q.1 What is meant by solar energy ?

Ans. : The energy received in the form of radiation, can be converted directly or
indirectly into other forms of energy, such as heat and electricity, which can be utilized
by man.
Q.2 List the drawbacks of solar energy.

Ans. :
 The intermittent and variable manner in which it arrives at the earth’s surface and
 The large area required to collect the energy at a useful rate.

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledge

Renewable Energy Systems 3 - 41 Solar PV and Thermal Systems

Q.3 Define solar constant .

Ans. : Solar constant is defined as the amount of energy received in unit time on a unit
area perpendicular to the sun’s direction at the mean distance of the earth from the sun.
Q.4 Define solar time.
Ans. : Solar time (Local Apparent Time) is measured with reference to solar noon,
which is the time when the sun is crossing the observer’s meridian.
Solar time = Standard time ± 4 (Lst – Lloc) +E
Where Lst = Standard longitude
Lloc = Longitude of the observer’s location

E = Equation of time diffused radiation is known as global

radiation.
Q.5 What is meant by solar collector ? Mention its types.
Ans. : A solar collector is a device for collecting solar radiation and transfers the energy
to a fluid passing in contact with it. There are two types of collectors :
 Non- concentrating or flat plate type solar collector.
 Concentrating (focusing) type solar collector.
Q.6 Mention the ways of solar energy can be utilized.
Ans. : Solar energy can be utilized directly in two ways :
 By collecting the radiant heat and using it in a thermal system
 By collecting and converting it directly to electrical energy using a photovoltaic
system.
Q.7 What are the indirect forms of solar energy ?

Ans. :
 Wind energy
 Biomass energy
 Tidal energy
 Ocean wave energy
 Ocean thermal energy
 Fossil fuels and other organic chemicals
 Hydro energy.

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledge

Renewable Energy Systems 3 - 42 Solar PV and Thermal Systems

Q.8 What are the performance indices of a solar collector ?

Ans. : The performance indices of a solar collector are,
Collector efficiency is defined as the ratio of the energy actually absorbed and
transferred to the heat transport fluid by the collector(useful energy) to the energy
incident on the collector.
Concentration ratio is defined as the ratio of the area of aperture of the system to the
area of the receiver. The aperture of the system is the projected area of the collector
facing (normal) the beam.
Temperature range is the range of temperature to which the heat transport fluid is
heated up by the collector.
Q.9 Name the basic design of solar cookers.
Ans. : The four basic designs of the solar cookers are :
 Box type solar cooker
 Dish type solar cooker
 Community solar cooker
 Advanced solar cooker.
Q.10 List out the advantages and disadvantages of air flat plate collector.
Ans. : Advantages of flat plate air heating collector are,
 It is compact, simple in construction and requires little maintenance.
 The need to transfer thermal energy from the working fluid to another fluid is
eliminated as air is used directly as the working fluid.
 Corrosion is completely eliminated.
 Leakage of air from the duct is less severe.
 Possibility of freezing of working fluid is also eliminated.
 The pressure inside the collector does not become very high.

Disadvantages of flat plate air heating collector are,

 A large amount of fluid is to be handled due to low density. As a result, the electrical
power required to blow the air through the system can be significant if the pressure
drop is not kept within prescribed limits.
 Heat transfer between the absorber plate and air is poor.
 There is less storage of thermal energy due to low heat capacity.

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledge

Renewable Energy Systems 3 - 43 Solar PV and Thermal Systems

Q.11 What is meant by solar pond ?

Ans. : A natural or artificial body of water for collecting and absorbing solar radiation
energy and storing it as heat. Thus a solar pond combines solar energy collection and
sensible heat storage.
Q.12 What is meant by solar photo voltaic effect ?
Ans. : The direct conversion of solar energy into electrical energy by means of the
photovoltaic effect, that is, the conversion of light (or other electromagnetic radiation)
into electricity. The photovoltaic effect is defined as the generation of an electromotive
force as a result of the absorption of ionizing radiation.
Q.13 List the application of solar PV system.
Ans. :
 Water pumping sets for micro irrigation and drinking water supply
 Radio beacons for ship navigation at ports
 Community radio and television sets
 Cathodic protection of oil pipe lines
 Weather monitoring
 Railway signaling equipment
 Battery charging
 Street lighting.
Q.14 What are the advantages and disadvantages of PV solar energy conversion system ?
Ans. : Advantages
 Direct room temperature conversion of light to electricity through a simple solid
state device.
 Absence of moving parts
 Maintenance cost is low as they are easy to operate
 Do not create pollution
 Long effective life
 Highly reliable.

Disadvantages
 High cost
 In many applications energy storage is required because of no insolation at night.

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledge

Renewable Energy Systems 3 - 44 Solar PV and Thermal Systems

Q.15 What are the advantages and disadvantages of concentrating collectors over flat plate
type collectors ?

Ans. : Advantages :
 Reflecting surfaces required less material and are structurally simpler than flat plate
collectors. For a concentrator system the cost per unit area of solar collecting surface
is therefore potentially less than that for flat plate collectors
 The absorber area of a concentrator system is smaller than that of a flat plate system
for same solar energy collection and therefore the insulation intensity is greater.
 Little or no anti-freeze is required to protect the absorber in a concentrator system
whereas the entire solar energy collection surface requires anti-freeze protection in a
flat plate collector.

Disadvantages :
 Out of the beam and diffuse solar radiation components, only beam component is
collected in case of focusing collectors because diffuse component cannot be reflected
and is thus lost.
 Additional requirements of maintenance particularly to retain the quality of
reflecting surface against dirt, weather, oxidation etc.,
 Non-uniform flux on the absorber whereas flux in flat plate collectors is uniform
 Additional optical losses such as reflectance loss and the intercept loss, so they
introduce additional factors in energy balances.
 High initial cost.
Q.16 Name the types of concentrating collectors.
Ans. : The main types of concentrating collectors are :
 Parabolic trough collector
 Mirror strip reflector
 Fresnel lens collector
 Flat plate collector with adjustable mirrors
 Compound parabolic concentrator (CPC).
Q.17 What are the zones in solar pond ?
Ans. :
 Surface convective zone or upper convective zone (0.3-0.5 m)
 Non-convective zone (1-1.5 m) salinity increases with depth.
 Storage zone or lower convective zone (1.5-2 m) salinity = 20 %

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledge

Renewable Energy Systems 3 - 45 Solar PV and Thermal Systems

Q.18 What are the merits of solar cooker ?

Ans. :
 No attention needed while cooking
 No fuse required
 Negligible maintenance cost
 No pollution
 Vitamins of food are not destroyed
 No overflowing.
Q.19 What are the limitations of solar cooker ?
Ans. :
 According to sunshine menu should be prepared.
 Short time cooking not possible.
 Cooking at night or cloudy days is difficult.
 Takes long time for cooking.
 Chapattis are not cooked because of high temperature requirement and needs
manipulation at the time of baking.
Q.20 What are the reasons for solar pumping usage ?
Ans. :
 Need for pumping occurs during the summer when solar radiation is greatest.
 During periods of low radiation when pumping reduce evaporation losses from
crops also low.
Q.21 What is the need for solar crop drying ?
Ans. : High moisture crops are prone to fungus infection, attack by insects and rests.
Solar dryers remove moisture with no ingress at just and the product can be preserved
for a longer period at time.
Q.22 State the use of solar kilns ?
Ans. : For large scale drying i.e. seasoning of timber, corn drying, tea processing, fish
and fruit drying, solar kilns are in use.
Q.23 List the different modes of solar cooling.
Ans. :
 Evaporative cooling
 Absorption cooling and
 Passive desiccant cooling.

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledge

Renewable Energy Systems 3 - 46 Solar PV and Thermal Systems

Q.24 What are the units of absorption type solar cooler ?

Ans. :
 Generator
 Condenser
 Evaporator.
Q.25 What are the advantages of solar cells ?
Ans. :
 They need little maintenance.
 They have longer life.
 They do not create pollution problem.
 Their energy source is unlimited.
 Easy to fabricate.
 They can be made from raw materials which are easily available in larger quantities.
Q.26 What are the disadvantages of solar cell ?
Ans. :
 Compared with other sources of energy, solar cells produce electric power at very
high cost.
 Solar cell output is not constant and it varies with the time of day and weather.
 They can be used to generate small amount of electric power.
Q.27 What are the components of basic solar pumping system ?
Ans. :
 The solar collector
 The heat transfer system
 Boiler or heat exchanger
 Heat engine
 Condenser
 Pump.
Q.28 List the types of heat engines used in solar system.
Ans. :
 Rankine engine
 Reciprocating engine
 Vapour engine

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledge

Renewable Energy Systems 3 - 47 Solar PV and Thermal Systems

 Stirling hot gas engine

 Brayton cycle gas turbine
 Rotary piston engine.
Q.29 List the working fluids used in solar pumps.
Ans. :
 Foluene
 Monochloro benzene
 Frifuluroethanol
 Hexa flura benzene.
Q.30 What are the two types of flat plate collectors ?
Ans. :
 Liquid heating collectors
 Solar air heaters.
Q.31 What is Greenhouse effect ?
Ans. : The energy we receive from sun in the form of light is a shortwave radiation (not
visible to human eye). When this radiation strikes a solid or liquid it is absorbed and
transformed in to heat, the material becomes heat and conducts it to surrounding
materials (air, water or liquids) or reradiates in to other materials of low temperature as
long wave radiation.
Q.32 What is concentration ratio ?
Ans. : Concentration ratio is the ratio between the aperture area and receiver /absorber
area of the collector.
Q.33 List the five advantages of solar energy.
Ans. :
 It is free from pollution.
 The plant requires little maintenance or help after set up.
 It is economical.
 They collect solar energy optically and transfer it to a single receiver thus minimizing
thermal energy transport requirement.
 Concentration ratio is 300 to 1500 and are highly efficient both in collecting energy
and in converting energy.

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledge

Renewable Energy Systems 3 - 48 Solar PV and Thermal Systems

Q.34 List any four disadvantages of solar energy.

Ans. :
 It is available only by day and not when the sky is cloudy, thereby reducing the
chances of it being totally reliable and requiring storage facilities.
 It needs back up power plant to be kept hot and not to replace solar power stations
they stop producing energy.
 Keeping back up plants hot includes an energy cost which includes coal burning
 Places located at high altitudes or those that are often cloudy are not targets for solar
power use.

Solved Questions

Part - B
Q.1 Explain in detail how solar energy can be effectively utilized in day-to-day life.

(Refer section 3.1)

Q.2 Draw illustrative diagram showing all the important components of solar heating and solar
cooling unit. Explain the working principles of these devices. (Refer section 3.3)
Q.3 Explain with neat diagram solar space cooling and solar pond electric power plant.

(Refer sections 3.3 and 3.5)

Q.4 Explain with necessary diagram the construction, principles of operation and applications of
solar collector. (Refer sections 3.3.1 and 3.3.2)
Q.5 Write short notes on: a) Solar pumping b) Solar desalination. (Refer section 3.14)

Q.6 Describe the photovoltaic principles of solar power generation. Compare the different types of
solar cells with respect to power output and efficiency. (Refer sections 3.7 and 3.9)
Q.7 Write briefly about characteristics and principles of any three different types of solar collectors.
Draw diagrams illustrating the constructional features of these collectors. (Refer section 3.3)
Q.8 Draw and explain different types of solar cookers. (Refer section 3.14)

Q.9 Explain with neat diagram about solar pond and its characteristics. (Refer section 3.5)

Q.10 Draw schematic diagram of solar thermal power plant used for power production and explain
the operation of this system in detail. (Refer section 3.3)
Q.11 Discuss briefly about a) Solar drying b) Solar cells. (Refer section 3.14)
Q.12 a) Give merits and demerits of solar energy.
b) State some important applications of PV. (Refer sections 3.7 and 3.14)



TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledge

Unit - IV Biomass Energy
Syllabus
Introduction-Bio mass resources-Energy from Bio mass: conversion processes-Biomass
Cogeneration-Environmental Benefits. Geothermal Energy: Basics, Direct Use, Geothermal
Electricity. Mini/micro hydro power : Classification of hydropower schemes, Classification of
water turbine, Turbine theory, Essential components of hydroelectric system.

Contents
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Biomass Resources
4.3 Energy from Biomass

4.4 Conversion Process

4.5 Biomass Cogeneration
4.6 Environmental Benefits

4.7 Geothermal Energy

4.8 Power Generation from Geothermal Energy
4.9 Classifications of Water Turbine

4.10 Essential Components of Hydroelectric Systems

4.11 Classification of Hydropower Schemes

Two Marks Questions with Answers [Part A]

Solved Questions [Part B]

(4 - 1)
Renewable Energy Systems 4-2 Biomass Energy

4.1 Introduction
Biomass is the material derived from plants that use sunlight to grow which include
plant and animal material such as wood from forests, material left over from agricultural
and forestry processes, and organic industrial, human and animal wastes. Biomass energy
is a type of renewable energy generated from biological (such as, anaerobic digestion) or
thermal conversion (for example, combustion) of biomass resources.
In nature, if biomass is left lying around on the ground it will break down over a long
period of time, releasing carbon dioxide and storing energy slowly. By burning biomass,
its stored of energy is released quickly and often in a useful way. So converting biomass
into useful energy imitates the natural processes but at a faster rate.

Fig. 4.1.1 : Biomass sources

Biomass can be transformed into clean energy and/or fuels by a variety of

technologies, ranging from conventional combustion process to advanced biofuels
technology. Besides recovery of substantial energy, these technologies can lead to a
substantial reduction in the overall biomass waste quantities requiring final disposal,

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledge

Renewable Energy Systems 4-3 Biomass Energy

which can be better managed for safe disposal in a controlled manner while meeting the
pollution control standards.
Biomass conversion systems reduce greenhouse gas emissions in two ways. Heat and
electrical energy is generated which reduces the dependence on power plants based on
fossil fuels. The greenhouse gas emissions are significantly reduced by preventing
methane emissions from decaying biomass. Moreover, biomass energy plants are highly
efficient in harnessing the untapped sources of energy from biomass resources and
helpful in development of rural areas.

4.2 Biomass Resources

Biomass comes from a variety of sources which include :
 Woody Fuels
 Forestry Residues
 Mill Residues
 Agricultural Residues
 Urban Wood and Yard Wastes
 Chemical Recovery Fuels
 Animal Wastes
 Dry Animal Manure

Woody Fuels
Wood wastes of all types make excellent biomass fuels and can be used in a wide
variety of biomass technologies. Combustion of woody fuels to generate steam or
electricity is a proven technology and is the most common biomass-to-energy process.
Different types of woody fuels can typically be mixed together as a common fuel,
although differing moisture content and chemical makeup can affect the overall
conversion rate or efficiency of a biomass project.

Forestry Residues
Forestry residues have been the focus of many recent biomass studies and feasibility
assessments due to increasing forest management and wildfire prevention activities
under the National Fire Plan. The USDA Forest Service and the Bureau of Land
Management have been tasked with reducing the hazardous fuel loading within the
forests and the urban wild land interface.
Forestry residues are typically disposed of by on-site (in-forest) stacking and burning.
This results in substantial air emissions that affect not only the forest lands and nearby

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledge

Renewable Energy Systems 4-4 Biomass Energy

populations, but the overall regional air quality as well. Open burning can also cause
water quality and erosion concerns. The Forest Service and other public and private land
management entities would like to have viable alternatives for disposing of their forestry
residues in a more environmentally benign manner. An ideal situation, from the
perspective of forest managers, would be the creation of a market for the forestry
residues. The market they envision would generate revenues for the forest managers,
which in turn would allow much needed expansion of the forest management programs.

Mill Residues
Mill residues are a much more economically attractive fuel than forestry residues,
since in forest collection and chipping are already included as part of the commercial mill
operations. Biomass facilities collocated with and integral to the mill operation have the
advantage of eliminating transportation altogether and thus truly achieve a no-cost fuel.
Mill residues have long been used to generate steam and electricity.

Agricultural Residues
Agricultural residues can provide a substantial amount of biomass fuel. Similar to the
way mill residues provide a significant portion of the overall biomass consumption in the
Pacific Northwest, agricultural residues from sugar cane harvesting and processing
provide a significant portion of the total biomass consumption in other parts of the world.
One significant issue with agricultural residues is the seasonal variation of the supply.

Urban Wood and Yard Wastes

Urban wood and yard wastes are similar in nature to agricultural residues in many
regards. A biomass facility will rarely need to purchase urban wood and yard wastes, and
most likely can charge a tipping fee to accept the fuel. Many landfills are already sorting
waste material by isolating wood waste. This waste could be diverted to a biomass
project, and although the volume currently accepted at the landfills would not be enough
on its own to fuel a biomass project, it could be an important supplemental fuel and could
provide more value to the community in which the landfill resides through a biomass
project than it currently does as daily landfill cover.

Chemical Recovery Fuels

Chemical recovery fuels are responsible for over 60 percent of the total biomass energy
consumption of the United States, and therefore must be mentioned in any analysis of
biomass. By and large, the chemical recovery facilities are owned by pulp and paper
facilities and are an integral part of the facility operation.

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledge

Renewable Energy Systems 4-5 Biomass Energy

Animal Wastes
Animal wastes include manures, renderings, and other wastes from livestock finishing
operations. Although animal wastes contain energy, the primary motivation for biomass
processing of animal wastes is mitigation of a disposal issue rather than generation of
energy. This is especially true for animal manures. Animal manures are typically
disposed of through land application to farmlands. Tightening regulations on nutrient
management, surface and groundwater contamination, and odor control are beginning to
force new manure management and disposal practices. Biomass technologies present
attractive options for mitigating many of the environmental challenges of manure wastes.
The most common biomass technologies for animal manures are combustion, anaerobic
digestion, and composting. Moisture content of the manure and the amount of
contaminants, such as bedding, determine which technology is most appropriate.

Dry Animal Manure

Dry animal manure is produced by feedlots and livestock corrals, where the manure is
collected and removed only once or twice a year. Manure that is scraped or flushed on a
more frequent schedule can also be separated, stacked, and allowed to dry. Dry manure is
typically defined as having a moisture content less than 30 percent. Dry manure can be
composted or can fuel a biomass-to-energy combustion project.

4.3 Energy from Biomass

4.3.1 Fixed Dome Plant

A fixed-dome plant consists of a digester with a fixed, non-movable gas holder, which
sits on top of the digester. When gas production starts, the slurry is displaced into the
compensation tank. Gas pressure increases with the volume of gas stored and the height
difference between the slurry level in the digester and the slurry level in the
compensation tank. The costs of a fixed-dome biogas plant are relatively low. It is simple
as no moving parts exist. There are also no rusting steel parts and hence a long life of the
plant (20 years or more) can be expected. The plant is constructed underground,
protecting it from physical damage and saving space. While the underground digester is
protected from low temperatures at night and during cold seasons, sunshine and warm
seasons take longer to heat up the digester. No day/night fluctuations of temperature in
the digester positively influence the bacteriological processes. The construction of fixed
dome plants is labour-intensive, thus creating local employment. Fixed-dome plants are
not easy to build. They should only be built where construction can be supervised by
experienced biogas technicians. Otherwise plants may not be gas-tight (porosity and

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledge

Renewable Energy Systems 4-6 Biomass Energy

cracks). A fixed-dome plant comprises of a closed, dome-shaped digester with an

immovable, rigid gas-holder and a displacement pit, also named 'compensation tank'. The
gas is stored in the upper part of the digester. When gas production commences, the
slurry is displaced into the compensating tank. Gas pressure increases with the volume of
gas stored, i.e. with the height difference between the two slurry levels. If there is little
gas in the gas-holder, the gas pressure is low. The digesters of fixed-dome plants are
usually masonry structures, structures of cement and ferro-cement exist.

Fig. 4.3.1 : Fixed dome type

Advantages
 It has no corrosion trouble
 It requires less cost compared to a floating drum type
 It does not need maintenance
 Heat insulation is better and temperature will be constant.

Disadvantages
 It produces variable gas pressure
 It requires skilled masons
 Gas production of the digester volume is also less.

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledge

Renewable Energy Systems 4-7 Biomass Energy

4.3.2 Floating Gas Holder Type

In a floating gas holder type digester, the gas holder is separated from the digester. In
this type, gas collector is a cylindrical dome fabricated from mild steel plates. The floating
gas collector dome slides vertically up and down in the main digester in accordance with
the pressure and volume of biogas. Initially the gas holder is at the lower level. The
biogas is produced in the digester and it rises naturally into the floating dome collector.
The gas pressure in the dome increases and the dome rises to accommodate the gas
volume. As the floating dome rises, the volume of the gas in the floating dome increases.
The gas outlet pipe is connected to the upper most point of the floating dome. The axis
of the fixed digester and the floating dome collector are in one line. A central guide rod
passing through the dome gives a proper alignment. The seating arrangement and guide
arrangement are designed to provide leak proof and smooth operation.

Fig. 4.3.2 : Floating gas holder type

Advantages
 It has less trouble because solids are constantly submerged.
 It has no problem of gas leakage.
 Danger of mixing oxygen with the gas is minimized.
 No separate pressure device is needed when the fresh waste is added to the tank.
 Constant gas pressure is obtained.

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledge

Renewable Energy Systems 4-8 Biomass Energy

Disadvantages
 It has higher cost.
 It is not suitable for colder regions because of heat lost through the metal holder.
 It requires maintenance in flexible pipe joining area and main gas pipe.

4.4 Conversion Process

Biomass can be converted into different forms of energy by using various processes.
Many factors affect the choice of the process like quantity of biomass feedstock, desired
energy form, environmental standards, economic conditions, and project specific factors.
Biomass can be converted into three main products : power or heat generation,
transportation fuels and chemical feedstock.

Fig. 4.4.1 : Flowchart for biomass conversion technologies

4.4.1 Thermo-chemical Conversion

In thermo-chemical conversion, energy is produced by applying heat and chemical
processes. There are four thermo-chemical conversion processes, which are given below.

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledge

Renewable Energy Systems 4-9 Biomass Energy

4.4.1.1 Combustion Process

Combustion is an exothermic chemical reaction, in which biomass is burned in the
presence of air. In this process chemical energy which is stored in the biomass is
converted into the mechanical and electrical energies. This process is suitable for dry
biomass containing moisture less than 50 %. Biomass is burned at the temperature of
800-1000 °C. This process is used for domestic applications as well as commercially in
biomass power plants inorder to produce electricity. The typical efficiencies for stand-
alone biomass combustion power plants (using wood and forest residue as a fuel) range
between 20-50 MW, with the related electrical efficiencies in the range of 25-30 %. These
power plants are suitable where fuels are available at low costs. In recent years advanced
combustion technology is being used. The application of fluid bed system and advanced
gas cleaning allows for production of electricity from biomass, on scale of 50-80 MW, with
30-40 % electrical efficiencies.

Fig. 4.4.2 : Production of electricity by combustion of biomass

4.4.1.2 Pyrolysis Process

It is the process of conversion of biomass to liquid (bio-oil), solid (charcoal) and
gaseous (fuel gases) products by heating in the absence of air at 500 °C. There are three
types of pyrolysis : Fast pyrolysis, conventional (Carbonization) pyrolysis and slow
pyrolysis.

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledge

Renewable Energy Systems 4 - 10 Biomass Energy

Fast pyrolysis process has high heating value and heat transfer rate and completes
within seconds. Fast pyrolysis yields 60 % bio-oil, 20 % bio-char and 20 % biogas.
Conventional pyrolysis process is the process in which mostly carbon (35 %) is left as
residue. Slow pyrolysis takes more time than fast pyrolysis, it also has low temperature
and heating values. Flash pyrolysis is the type of fast pyrolysis, in which 80 % bio-oil is
obtained at keeping temperature low. If flash pyrolysis is used for converting biomass to
bio-crude, it has up to 80 % efficiency.

Fig. 4.4.3 : Production of electricity by pyrolysis of biomass

4.4.1.3 Gasification Process

In biomass gasification, charcoal, wood chips, energy crops, forestry residues,
agricultural waste and other wastes are transformed into flammable gases at high
temperature (800-1000 °C). In this process fuel (biomass) reacts with a gasifying medium
such as oxygen enriched air, pure oxygen, steam or a combination of both. The product
gas composition and energy content depends upon the gasifying media’s nature and

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledge

Renewable Energy Systems 4 - 11 Biomass Energy

amount of it. Low Calorific Value (CV) gas obtained by gasification about 4-6 MJ/N m³.
The product gas can be used as a feedstock (syngas) in the production of chemicals like
methanol. One promising concept is the biomass integrated gasification/ combined cycle
(BIG/CC), in which gas turbines convert the gaseous fuel to electricity with a high overall
conversion efficiency. The integration of gasification and combustion/ heat recovery
ensures 40-50 % conversion efficiency for a 30-60 MW. The syngas can be converted into
hydrogen gas, and it may have a future as fuel for transportation.

Fig. 4.4.4 : Production of electricity by gasification of biomass

4.4.1.4 Liquification Process

It is the process in which biomass is converted into liquid phase at low temperatures
(250-350 °C) and high pressures (100-200 bar), usually with a high hydrogen partial
pressure and catalysts to increase the rate of reaction. This process is used to get
maximum liquid yields with higher quality than from the pyrolysis process. The product
has higher heating value and lower oxygen content which makes the fuel chemically
stable. The main purpose of the liquefaction is to obtain high H/C ratio of the product oil

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledge

Renewable Energy Systems 4 - 12 Biomass Energy

Fig. 4.4.5 : Liquefaction process of biomass

4.4.2 Bio-chemical Conversion

Biochemical conversion makes use of the enzymes of bacteria and other living
organisms to break down biomass and convert it into fuels. This conversion process
includes anaerobic digestion and fermentation.

4.4.2.1 Anaerobic Digestion Process

This is a process in which organic material directly converted to a gas which is termed
as biogas. It is mixture of methane, carbon dioxide and other gases like hydrogen
sulphide in small quantities. Biomass is converted in anaerobic environment by bacteria,
which produces a gas having an energy of 20-40 % of lower heating value of the
feedstock. This process is suitable for organic wastes having high moisture about 80-90 %.
This biogas can be directly used in spark ignition gas engines and gas turbines and can be
upgraded to higher quality natural gas by removing carbon dioxide. The overall
conversion efficiency of this process is 21 %. Waste heat from engines and turbines can be
recovered by using combined heat and power system.

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledge

Renewable Energy Systems 4 - 13 Biomass Energy

Fig. 4.4.6 : Anaerobic digestion process

4.4.2.2 Fermentation Process

Fermentation is an anaerobic process that breaks down the glucose within organic
materials. It is a series of chemical reactions that convert sugars to ethanol. The basic
fermentation process involves the conversion of a plant’s glucose (or carbohydrate) into
an alcohol or acid. Yeast or bacteria are added to the biomass material, which feed on the
sugars to produce ethanol and carbon dioxide. The ethanol is distilled and dehydrated to
obtain a higher concentration of alcohol to achieve the required purity for the use as
automotive fuel. The solid residue from the fermentation process can be used as cattle-
feed and in the case of sugar cane; the bagasse (the dry pulpy residue left after the
extraction of juice from sugar cane) can be used as a fuel for boilers or for subsequent
gasification.

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledge

Renewable Energy Systems 4 - 14 Biomass Energy

Fig. 4.4.7 : Fermentation process

4.5 Biomass Cogeneration

Cogeneration or Combined Heat and Power (CHP) is defined as the sequential
generation of two different forms of useful energy from a single primary energy source,
typically mechanical energy and thermal energy. Mechanical energy may be used either
to drive an alternator for producing electricity, or rotating equipment such as motor,
compressor, pump or fan for delivering various services. Thermal energy can be used
either for direct process applications or for indirectly producing steam, hot water, hot air
for dryer or chilled water for process cooling. Cogeneration provides a wide range of
technologies for application in various domains of economic activities. The overall
efficiency of energy use in cogeneration mode can be up to 85 percent and above in some
cases.

4.5.1 Cogeneration Technology

Cogeneration technologies that have been widely commercialized include
extraction/back pressure steam turbines, gas turbine with heat recovery boiler (with or
without bottoming steam turbine) and reciprocating engines with heat recovery boiler.

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledge

Renewable Energy Systems 4 - 15 Biomass Energy

4.5.1.1 Steam Turbine Cogeneration Systems

The two types of steam turbines most widely used are the backpressure and the
extraction another variation of the steam turbine topping cycle cogeneration system is the
extraction-back pressure turbine that can be employed where the end-user needs thermal
energy at two different temperature levels. The full-condensing steam turbines are
usually incorporated at sites where heat rejected from the process is used to generate
power. The specific advantage of using steam turbines in comparison with the other
prime movers is the option for using a wide variety of conventional as well as alternative
fuels such as coal, natural gas, fuel oil and biomass. The power generation efficiency of
the demand for electricity is greater than one MW up to a few hundreds of MW. Due to
the system inertia, their operation is not suitable for sites with intermittent energy
demand.

Fig. 4.5.1 : Steam turbine cogeneration

4.5.1.2 Gasturbine Cogeneration Systems

Gas turbine cogeneration systems can produce all or a part of the energy requirement
of the site, and the energy released at high temperature in the exhaust stack can be
recovered for various heating and cooling applications though natural gas is most
commonly used, other fuels such as light fuel oil or diesel can also be employed. The
typical range of gas turbines varies from a fraction of a MW to around 100 MW. Gas
turbine cogeneration has probably experienced the most rapid development in the recent
years due to the greater availability of natural gas, rapid progress in the technology,
significant reduction in installation costs, and better environmental performance.

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledge

Renewable Energy Systems 4 - 16 Biomass Energy

Furthermore, the gestation period for developing a project is shorter and the equipment
can be delivered in a modular manner. Gas turbine has a short start-up time and provides
the flexibility of intermittent operation. Though it has a low heat to power conversion
efficiency, more heat can be recovered at higher temperatures. If the heat output is less
than that required by the user, it is possible to have supplementary natural gas firing by
mixing additional fuel to the oxygen-rich exhaust gas to boost the thermal output more
efficiently.

Fig. 4.5.2 : Gas turbine cogeneration

On the other hand, if more power is required at the site, it is possible to adopt a
combined cycle that is a combination of gas turbine and steam turbine cogeneration.
Steam generated from the exhaust gas of the gas turbine is passed through a backpressure
or extraction-condensing steam turbine to generate additional power. The exhaust or the
extracted steam from the steam turbine provides the required thermal energy.

4.5.1.3 Reciprocating Engine Cogeneration Systems

Reciprocating Engine Cogeneration Systems also known as Internal Combustion (I.C.)
engines, these cogeneration systems have high power generation efficiencies in
comparison with other prime movers. There are two sources of heat for recovery : exhaust
gas at high temperature and engine jacket cooling water system at low temperature As
heat recovery can be quite efficient for smaller systems, these systems are more popular
with smaller energy consuming facilities, particularly those having a greater need for
electricity than thermal energy and where the quality of heat required is not high, e.g. low
pressure steam or hot water.

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledge

Renewable Energy Systems 4 - 17 Biomass Energy

Fig. 4.5.3 : Reciprocating cogeneration

Though diesel has been the most common fuel in the past, the prime movers can also
operate with heavy fuel oil or natural gas. These machines are ideal for intermittent
operation and their performance is not as sensitive to the changes in ambient
temperatures as the gas turbines. Though the initial investment on these machines is low,
their operating and maintenance costs are high due to high wear and tear.

4.6 Environmental Benefits

Biomass energy is a renewable source of energy that is produced from things like
wood, crops waste, animal matter and living crops. Biomass is used as fuel to produce
electricity and other energy forms. These fuels can be in form of liquid , gas or solid. The
use of biomass energy has various benefits and those are mostly environment friendly
and economic. Biomass energy has become a great alternative nowdays to use fossil fuels
for energy production.

Reducing Carbon Footprint

Biomass energy produces less carbon footprint compared to fossil fuels. This is
because new plants grow to replace the old ones that were used to produce biomass
energy before. The use of fossil fuel reduces when biomass energy is produced and this
lowers the carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere. The only disadvantage is that fossil
fuels are usually used to harvest and manipulate biomass.

Reducing Methane Levels

With the introduction of biomass energy, methane levels in the atmosphere reduce.
Methane is responsible for the greenhouse effect and with the production of biomass

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledge

Renewable Energy Systems 4 - 18 Biomass Energy

energy, the gas levels are lowered. Methane is usually produced when organic matter
decomposes therefore by lowering it; the greenhouse effect is reduced as well.

Preventing Forest Fires

Virgin wood is one of the biomass plant materials that are used to produce biomass
energy and this material is usually obtained from forests. Cutting trees may not seem like
a sensible thing to reduce forest fires but this actually works. Harvesting trees from
forests can help to prevent fire breakouts as a result of dense growth. If there are too
many trees in the forest, there is a high risk of a forest fire and this is not good for the
environment because it means that a lot of carbon dioxide will be released into the
atmosphere.

Improved Air Quality

When biomass energy replaces fossil fuels, it helps to improve air quality because
there is less pollution. The use of fossil fuels has also been blamed for causing acid rain
and this is one of the benefits of biomass energy. Biomass does not produce sulphur
emissions when it is being burned and this reduces any chances of acid rain. The
atmospheric carbon is recycled with the use of biomass and this is an advantage because
human civilization therefore ends up with less pollution.

Reliability
There is an increased demand for power and this means that people need a source of
energy that can be relied upon. Biomass energy is reliable because the plant materials and
animal matter that are in use to produce it are in constant supply. Biomass is a reliable
source of electricity therefore; people do not have to worry about power blackouts. It is
also cheap to produce and this results in lower electric bills.

Recycling
Some of the sources of biomass energy include industrial waste and co-products and
this is a big advantage because it means that nothing will go to waste. All the waste
products that human get from industries can be used to produce biomass energy.

4.7 Geothermal Energy

Geothermal energy refers to heat energy stored under the ground for millions of years
through the earth formation. It utilizes a rich storage of unutilized thermal energy that
exists under the earth’s crust. Geothermal energy is site specific but can be very cheap
especially when used for direct heating. It is a challenge to estimate power from this
source since it occurs underground at extremely high temperatures. The earth’s crust has

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledge

Renewable Energy Systems 4 - 19 Biomass Energy

immense heat (thermal) energy stored over millions of years. There exists a huge
temperature difference between the earth’s crust and the surface. The temperature
difference is known as geothermal gradient. This energy is sufficient to melt rock. The
molten rock, called magma, at times erupts through cracks on earth surface as volcanoes.
Geothermal energy is converted to produce electricity. The presence of geothermal
deposits in form of hot geothermal fluid is a sign of a good site. The site should have a
shallow aquifer to allow injection of water. The inherent geothermal product should be
about 300 ºF.

4.7.1 Geothermal Resources

Basic kinds of geothermal sources are as follow
 Hydrothermal
 Geopressured
 Hot dry rock
 Magma resources
 Volcanoes.

4.7.2 Direct use of Geothermal Energy

 Hot springs for bathing.
 Cooking food.
 Heating swimming pools and baths or therapeutic use.
 Space heating and cooling.
 Agriculture (mainly greenhouse heating, crop drying, and some animal
husbandry).
 Aquaculture (heating mainly fish ponds and raceways).
 Providing heat for industrial processes and heat pumps (for both heating and
cooling).

4.7.3 Working Principle of Direct Usage

 Direct sources function by sending water down a well to be heated by the earth’s
warmth.
 Then a heat pump is used to take the heat from the underground water to the
substance that heats the house.
 Then the cold water is injected back into the earth.

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledge

Renewable Energy Systems 4 - 20 Biomass Energy

4.8 Power Generation from Geothermal Energy

4.8.1 Dry Steam Geothermal Power Plant

The Geysers dry steam power plant in Northern California, depend on high
temperature steam formations to directly provide the energy to drive power generator
turbines. This type of formation is called a "dry steam" power plant because the steam is
released from the pressure of a deep reservoir, through a rock catcher, and then past the
power generator turbines.

Fig. 4.8.1 : Dry steam system

Dry steam reservoirs use the water in the earth's crust, which is heated by the mantle
and released through vents in the form of steam. The dry steam power plant is suitable
where the geothermal steam is not mixed with water. Production wells are drilled down
to the aquifer and the superheated, pressurised steam (180°- 350 °C) is brought to the
surface at high speeds, and passed through a steam turbine to generate electricity. In
simple power plants, the low pressure steam output from the turbine is vented to the
atmosphere, but more commonly, the steam is passed through a condenser to convert it to
water. This improves the efficiency of the turbine and avoids the environmental problems
caused from the direct release of steam into the atmosphere. The waste water is then
reinjected into the ground with reinjection wells. The underground water reservoirs that
feed such a system are refilled when rain falls on the land. The rainwater eventually soaks
back into the crust of the earth. Because this occurs on a continuous basis, geothermal

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledge

Renewable Energy Systems 4 - 21 Biomass Energy

energy is considered a renewable resource. This is the oldest type of geothermal power
plant. It was first used at Lardarello in Italy where it has powered electric railroads since
1904. About 6 percent of the energy used in northern California is produced at 28 dry
steam reservoir plants found at The Geysers dry steam fields in northern California. At
peak production, these dry steam geothermal power plants are the world's largest single
source of geothermal power producing up to 2,000 megawatts of electricity an hour. That
is about twice the amount of electricity a large nuclear power plant can produce. These
dry steam power plants emit only excess steam and very minor amounts of gases.

4.8.2 Liquid-Dominated Geothermal Power Plant

In the liquid dominated reservoir, the water temperature is above the normal boiling
point 100 ºC. However, it does not boil but it remains in liquid state because the water in
the reservoir is under pressure. When the water comes to the surface, the pressure is
reduced, then rapid boiling occurs and the liquid water flashes into a mixture of hot
water steam. The steam can be separated and used to generate electric power or to
provide space and process heat or it may be distilled to yield the purified water. There are
two important methods of liquid-dominated systems as follows,
 Flash- steam system
 Binary- cycle system.

4.8.2.1 Flash-steam System

Flash steam power plants force water down into an injection well by a groundwater
pump. The well must be sunk deep enough to reach subterranean rocks at a temperature
higher than the boiling point of water. The water filters through the rocks where it
becomes heated and rises back up through the nearby production well. The hot water
from the production well enters a flash tank where the reduced pressure causes the water
to boil rapidly or "flash" into vapour. Water that remains liquid in the flash tank is
returned to the groundwater pump to be forced down into the earth again.

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledge

Renewable Energy Systems 4 - 22 Biomass Energy

Fig. 4.8.2 : Flash steam system

The vapour from the flash tank drives a steam turbine, which turns the shaft of an
electric generator. After passing through the turbine, the steam is cooled in a condenser.
This returns the water vapour to the liquid state, and this liquid is forced by the
groundwater pump back down into the earth along with the diverted water from the
flash tank. Some of the condensed vapour can be used for drinking and irrigation because
it is, in effect, distilled. The flash tank must be periodically flushed and cleaned to get rid
of mineral build up. If the water from the production well has high mineral content, the
flushing must be done more freqently. Flash steam stations pull deep, high-pressure hot
water into lower-pressure tanks and use the resulting flashed steam to drive turbines.
They require fluid temperatures of atleast 180 °C, usually more. This is the most common
type of station in operation today. Flash steam plants use geothermal reservoirs of water
with temperatures greater than 360 °F (182 °C). The hot water flows up through wells in
the ground under its own pressure. As it flows upward, the pressure decreases and some
of the hot water boils into steam. The steam is then separated from the water and used to
power a turbine/generator. Any leftover water and condensed steam may be injected back
into the reservoir, making this a potentially sustainable resource.

4.8.2.2 Binary Cycle System

Binary cycle power plants use a two-step process to extract power from geothermal
water that is not hot enough produce steam to spin a turbine by itself. The water from the
geothermal reservoir never comes into direct contact with the blades of the turbine

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledge

Renewable Energy Systems 4 - 23 Biomass Energy

generator and it uses water-based geothermal resources of approximately 200 to 360 °F. In
the binary cycle system, warm geothermal water is pumped to the surface and passed
through a heat exchanger that contains a fluid such as a butane or pentane hydrocarbon
with a much lower boiling point than water. The heat from the geothermal water causes
this secondary or 'binary' fluid to flash into vapour. The vapour created by heating the
pentane spins the turbine powering the generator, while the cooled steam from the
geothermal source is injected back into the formation where it heats up again and is
available to eventually re-circulate through the heat exchanger. That is why geothermal is
considered a renewable resource, as a properly managed formation can potentially
produce power indefinitely.

Fig. 4.8.3 : Binary cycle geothermal power system

The vapour created by heating the pentane drives the turbine on the power generator,
while the cooled steam from the geothermal source is injected back into the formation
where it heats up again and is available to eventually re-circulate through the heat
exchanger. That is why geothermal is considered a renewable resource, as a properly
managed formation can potentially produce power indefinitely.

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledge

Renewable Energy Systems 4 - 24 Biomass Energy

Moderate-temperature geothermal water is much more common than high-

temperature water and many areas have been identified as having geothermal reservoirs
with water that is below 400 °F (204 °C). The US department of energy predicts that most
geothermal power plants built in the future will be binary cycle power plants that can
take advantage of this slightly cooler water.

4.9 Classifications of Water Turbine

Water turbines/hydraulic turbines are rotary prime movers which convert the
potential or kinetic energy of water into mechanical energy in the form of rotational
energy. A water turbine when coupled with an electrical generator produces electrical
energy. It is one of the most suitable means of electric power generation system. It is
estimated that about 20 % of the total electric power in the world comes from hydro
power plants. The only limitation is that it can be operated through the turbine, if there is
a continuous flow of water. In the areas which are surrounded by hills and mountains
known as catchment area, water turbine systems can be installed. The small rivers form a
big river to flow. By constructing a machinery dam across flowing rivers, a water
reservoir can be formed. The water is carried from the reservoir to water turbine by a long
pipe known as penstock and the hydraulic energy possessed by water is converted into
mechanical energy and then to electrical energy. Depending upon the head of water and
available discharge, different types of water turbines are classified.
They are basically of two types :
 Impulse turbine and
 Reaction turbine.

4.9.1 Impulse Turbine

In an impulse turbine, the total potential energy available with water is fully converted
into kinetic energy by means of nozzle. The turbine is quite suitable for high head and
low discharge available with it.
In this type of turbine, there is a water nozzle which converts the total potential energy
available with water into kinetic energy. Water is discharged from the nozzle in the form
of water jet and high kinetic energy. The high kinetic energy jet is made to strike, on a
series of curved buckets or blades mounted on the periphery of a wheel which is placed
on the turbine shaft. This is the type of impulse turbine which requires high head and less
water availability. Pelton wheel is one of the most commonly used impulse turbines.

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledge

Renewable Energy Systems 4 - 25 Biomass Energy

Fig. 4.9.1 : Discharge of water from the nozzle

Fig. 4.9.2 : Pelton turbine with single jet

It shows the installation of Pelton wheel. The wheel, so called runner, consists of a
circular wheel mounted with large number of buckets or blades fixed on the periphery.
The buckets which are used are known as double hemispherical buckets . The buckets
are made of cast iron, bronze, or stainless steel. The flow of water through nozzle is
controlled by the to-and-fro movement of spear.
The impulsive force, which acts tangentially, imparted on a series of buckets one after
the another is made to rotate the runner in the direction of water jet impingement. The
entire combination is put inside a casing to prevent the scattering of water. The pressure
energy is fully converted to kinetic energy through nozzle. The high velocity of jet gives
impingement over the bucket. The impulsive force given by the jet rotates the wheel. The
pressure inside casing remains atmospheric.

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledge

Renewable Energy Systems 4 - 26 Biomass Energy

4.9.2 Reaction Turbine

Reaction turbine is quite suitable for low head and high discharge. The water supplied
to the reaction turbine possesses both pressure as well as kinetic energy. The total
pressure energy is not fully converted to kinetic energy initially, as it happens in impulse
turbine. The water flows first of all to guide blades which supply water in a proper
direction and then it is passed through moving blades which are mounted on the wheel.
A part of the pressure energy of water, when flowing through the moving blades, is
converted into kinetic energy which is absorbed by the turbine wheel. The water leaving
the moving blades is at low pressure. Thus, there is a difference in pressure between the
entrance and exit of the moving blades. Due to this difference in pressure, there is an
increase in kinetic energy and hence a reaction is developed in opposite direction which
acts on the moving blades. The rotation of the wheel is set up in opposite direction. In
case of reaction turbine, the water is discharged at the tail race through draft tube.

4.9.2.1 Francis Turbine

Francis turbine is also called medium head turbine. In this turbine, water flows
radially and finally discharges axially. Hence, this turbine is also called mixed flow
turbine. It consists of a spiral casing inside which there are large numbers of stationary
guide blades/guide vanes. They are fixed all around the circumference of an inner ring of
moving vanes called runner (Fig. 4.9.3). The runner is fixed on the turbine shaft.

Fig. 4.9.3 : Francis turbine component

The runner consists of a series of curved blades numbering 16-24. The runner vanes
are so well-designed in shape that water enters the runner radially and leaves the runner
axially. Water with pressure energy enters through the passage into the casing radially

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledge

Renewable Energy Systems 4 - 27 Biomass Energy

through the guide vanes. It flows from the outer periphery of the runner in the radial
direction over the moving vanes and finally it is discharged at the center axially at low
pressure.
The kinetic energy is imparted to the runner when it flows over the moving vanes
which produce rotation to the shaft. Water is then discharged at lower pressure through a
diverging conical tube known as draft tube, which is fitted at the center of the runner.

Fig. 4.9.4 : Francis turbine installation

The draft tube converts kinetic energy into pressure energy and hence the pressure
available at the exit of draft tube is the atmospheric pressure. The other end of the tube is
immersed in water known as tail race.

4.9.2.2 Kaplan Turbine

Kaplan turbine is also called as low head reaction turbine which is suitable for
comparatively low discharge and is known as axial flow reaction turbine. It is similar to
Francis turbine. It consists of a spiral casing in which there are large numbers of
stationery guide vanes. They are fixed all around the circumference of an inner ring of
moving vanes called runner. High-pressure water enters the turbine casing and enters
into the guide vanes. The water strikes the runner and flows axially through guide vanes
and imparts kinetic energy to the runner which produces rotation. The water is then
discharged at the center of the runner in axial direction into the draft tube. The outlet of
the draft tube is immersed in water. The construction of Kaplan turbine is just similar to
Francis turbine except the shape of runner. The runner of Kaplan turbine runner has only
3, 4, or 6 blades, either fixed or adjustable on hub. The latter is known as propeller
turbine.

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledge

Renewable Energy Systems 4 - 28 Biomass Energy

Fig. 4.9.5 : Components of Kaplan turbine

4.10 Essential Components of Hydroelectric Systems

A hydroelectric plant consists of a reservoir for storage of water, a diversion dam, an

intake structure for controlling and regulating the flow of water, a conduit system to
carry the water from the intake to the waterwheel, the turbines coupled with generators,
the draft tube for conveying water from waterwheel to the tailrace, the tailrace and a
power house i.e., the building to contain the turbines, generators, the accessories and
other miscellaneous items. The size, location, and type of each of these essential elements
depend upon the topography and geological conditions and the amount of water to be
used. The height to which the dam may be built is usually limited by the extent of
flowage damage. Pondage may have great value, particularly for peak load power plants,
warranting the purchase of extensive flowage rights. The spillway section of the dam
must be long enough to pass safely the maximum amount of water to be expected.
Likewise the abutments and other short structures must be built to withstand successfully
the greatest freshet conceivable on the river.

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledge

Renewable Energy Systems 4 - 29 Biomass Energy

Fig. 4.10.1 : Components of hydro electric system

Storage Reservoir :
It is the basic requirement of a hydroelectric plant. Its purpose is to store water during
excess flow periods (i.e., rainy season) and supply the same during lean flow periods (i.e.,
dry season) and thus it helps in supplying water to the turbines according to the load on
the power plant.
A reservoir can be either natural or artificial. A natural reservoir is a lake in high
mountains and an artificial reservoir is made by constructing a dam across the river. Low
head plants require very large storage reservoir. The capacity of reservoir depends on the
difference between runoffs during high and lean flows.

Dam :
The function of dam is not only to raise the water surface of the stream to create an
artificial head but also to provide the pondage, storage or the facility of diversion into
conduits. A dam is the most expensive and important part of a hydro-project. Dams are
built of concrete or stone masonry, earth or rock fill.
The type and arrangement depends upon the topography of the site. A masonry dam
may be built in a narrow canyon. An earth dam may be best suited for a wide valley. The
choice of dam also depends upon the foundation conditions, local materials and
transportation available, occurrence of earthquakes and other hazards.

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledge

Renewable Energy Systems 4 - 30 Biomass Energy

Forebay :
The forebay serves as a regulating reservoir storing water temporarily during light
load period and pro-viding the same for initial increase on account of increasing load
during which water in the canal is being accelerated. In short, a forebay may be
considered as an enlarged body of water just above the intake to store water temporarily
to meet the hourly load fluctuations. This may either be a pond behind the diversion dam
or an enlarged section of a canal spread out to accommodate the required widths of
intake.
Where the hydroelectric plants are located just at the base of the dam, no forebay is
required because the reservoir itself serves the purpose of the forebay. However, where
the plants are situated away from the storage reservoir a forebay is provided.

Spillway :
This is constructed to act as a safety valve. It discharges the overflow water to the
down-stream side when the reservoir is full, a condition mainly arising during flood
periods. These are generally constructed of concrete and provided with water discharge
opening shut off by metal control gates. By changing the degree to which the gates are
opened, the discharge of the head water to the tailrace can be regulated inorder to
maintain the water level in the reservoir.

Intake :
The intake includes the head-works which are the structures at the intake of conduits,
tunnels, or flumes. These structures include booms, screens or trash racks, sluices to
divert and prevent entry of debris and ice into the turbines. Booms prevent the ice and
floating logs from going into the intake by diverting them to a bypass chute. Screens or
trash racks are fitted directly at the intake to prevent the debris from going into the lake.
Debris cleaning devices should also be fitted on the trash racks. Intake structures can be
classified into high pressure intakes used in case of large storage reservoirs and low
pressure intakes used in case of small ponds provided for storing small amount of water
for daily or weekly load variations.

Surge Tank :
A reduction in load on the generator causes the governor to close the turbine gates and
thus create an increased pressure in the penstock. This may result in water hammer
phenomenon and may need pipe of extraordinary strength to withstand it otherwise the
penstock may burst. To avoid this positive water hammer pressure, some means are
required to be provided for taking the rejected flow. This may be accomplished by

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledge

Renewable Energy Systems 4 - 31 Biomass Energy

providing a small storage reservoir or tank (open at the top) for receiving the rejected
flow and thus relieving the conduit pipe of excessive water hammer pressure. This
storage reservoir, called the surge tank is usually located as close to the power station as
possible, preferably on ground to reduce the height of the tower.
A decrease in load demand causes a rise in water level in the surge tank. This
produces a retarding head and reduces the velocity of water in the penstock. The
reduction in flow velocity to the desired level makes the water in the tank to fall and rise
until damped out by friction. Increase in load on the plant causes the governor to open
the turbine gates inorder to allow more water to flow through the penstock to supply the
increased load and there is a tendency to cause a vacuum or a negative pressure in the
penstock. This negative pressure in the penstock provides the necessary accelerating force
and is objectionable for very long conduits due to difficult turbine regulation. Again
under such conditions, the additional water flows out of the surge tank. As a result the
water level in the surge tank falls, an accelerating head is created and flow of water in the
penstock is increased. Thus surge tank helps in stabilising the velocity and pressure in the
penstock and reduces water hammer and negative pressure or vacuum.
Though by providing a relief valve at the turbine inlet rejected flow can be dealt in a
better manner, but it cannot provide excess water required by the turbine when the load
demand increases. Open conduits leading water to the turbine require no protection but
when closed conduits are employed, protection becomes necessary to limit the abnormal
pressure in the conduit. For this reason, close conduits are always provided with a surge
tank. A forebay also serves the function of a surge tank. The ideal location of a surge tank
is at the turbine inlet but in the case of medium and high head power plants, the height of
the surge tank will become excessive. Because of this reason, the surge tanks are usually
provided at the junction of the pressure tunnel and the penstock. Several designs of surge
tanks have been adopted in hydroelectric power plants, the important considerations,
being the amount of water to be stored, the magnitude of pressure to be relieved of and
the availability of space at the construction site. Surge tanks may be simple surge tank,
restricted orifice surge tank or differential surge tank. Simple surge tank is very sluggish
in action and needs the largest volume. So this is the most expensive and is seldom used,
except in special cases.
The restricted orifice surge tank is more efficient and economical than the first one, but
its main drawback is that the desirable sudden creation of accelerating and retarding
heads in the conduits also results in correspondingly sudden fluctuations of head on the
turbine, which the governors may have difficulty to accommodate. Differential surge tank
is the compromise between the simple surge tank and the restricted orifice surge tank.

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledge

Renewable Energy Systems 4 - 32 Biomass Energy

Fig. 4.10.2 : Surge tank

Penstock :
It is a closed conduit which connects the forebay or surge tank to the scroll case of the
turbine. In case of medium head power plants each unit is usually provided with its own
penstock. In case of high head plants, a single penstock is frequently used, and branch
connections are provided at the lower end to supply two or more units. Penstocks are
built of steel or reinforced concrete. Steel penstocks are almost always welded on the
longitudinal seam. The circumferential seam may be welded also. In long penstocks great
care must be taken to protect the conduit against water hammer. The thickness must be
adequate to withstand both the normal hydrostatic pressure and also the sudden surges
both above and below normal caused by fluctuations in load and by emergency
conditions.

Valves and Gates :

In low head plants gates at the entrance to the turbine casing are usually all that is
needed to shut off the flow. Individual hoist-operated gates are provided in cases where
frequent shutdowns may be called for and where the time available for inspection is
limited. Other plants employ stop gates or stop logs which are placed in sections by
means of travelling crane. For installations employing medium or longer length penstocks
or employing a common penstock for more than one unit, it is necessary to install valves
at or near the entrance to the turbine casing. These are usually of the butterfly or pivot
type for low and medium heads.

Trash Racks :
These are built up from long, flat bars set vertically or nearly so and spaced in
accordance with the minimum width of water passage through the turbine. The clear
space between the bars varies from 25 mm or 40 mm to 150 or 200 mm on very large

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledge

Renewable Energy Systems 4 - 33 Biomass Energy

installations. These are to prevent the ingress of floating and other material to the turbine.
In some cases where large diameter turbines are employed, the racks are omitted, but
provision is usually made for skimmer walls or booms to prevent ice and other material
from entering the unit.

Tailrace :
The water after having done its useful work in the turbine is discharged to the tailrace
which may lead it to the same stream or to another one. The design and size of tailrace
should be such that water has a free exit and the jet of water, after it leaves the turbine,
has unimpeded passage.

Draft Tubes :
An airtight pipe of suitable diameter attached to the runner outlet and conducting
water down from the wheel and discharging it under the surface of the water in the
tailrace is known as draft tube.
If there is no draft tube and the water discharges freely from the turbine exit, then the
turbine operates under a head equal to the height of the headrace water level above the
runner exit. By installing draft tube, the operating head is increased by an amount equal
to the height of the runner outlet above the tailrace. This creates a negative pressure head
at the runner exit. This makes it possible to install the turbine above the tailrace without
loss of head. By installing the draft tube and increasing its section from runner exit to the
tailrace, some of the kinetic energy possessed by the water leaving the runner outlet is
converted into pressure energy and the water leaves at the tailrace at a much reduced
velocity. This results again in the kinetic head which increases the negative pressure at
the runner exit. This in turn increases the operating head on the turbine increasing its
output and efficiency. The height and type of tube used depends upon two factors. The
pressure at the turbine exit or inlet of the draft tube should not be less than one-third of
the atmospheric pressure. This is essential to avoid cavitation. Also to maintain continuity
of flow without vaporisation, the pressure at any point in the tube should not fall below
the vapour pressure of water. Further, to avoid separation of flow, the included angle
should not exceed 10°.
Various types of draft tubes are shown in Fig. 4.10.3. The straight conical type draft
tube, shown in Fig. 4.10.3 (a), has an efficiency of about 90 % and is employed for low
specific speed, vertical shaft Francis turbine. Vertical bell shaped draft tube is shown in
Fig. 4.10.3 (b). Where there is a little head room avail-able, the bent draft tubes, shown in
Fig. 4.10.3 (c) and Fig. 4.10.3 (d) are used. In Fig. 4.10.3 (d), the horizontal portion of the

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledge

Renewable Energy Systems 4 - 34 Biomass Energy

tube is gradually bent upwards to lead the water gradually to the tailrace and to prevent
entry of air from the outlet end. The exit end of the tube must always be immersed in
water.

Fig. 4.10.3 : Draft tubes

Prime Movers or Water Turbines :

In hydroelectric power plants, water turbines are used as prime movers and their
function is to convert the kinetic energy of water into mechanical energy which is further
utilised to drive the alternators generating electrical energy.

4.11 Classification of Hydropower Schemes

The hydroelectric power plants may be classified according to :
 Classification according to the extent of water flow regulation available.
 Classification according to availability of water head.
 Classification according to type of load supplied.
 Classification of hydroelectric power plants based on installed capacity.

Classification according to the extent of water flow regulation available :

According to the extent of water flow regulation available the hydroelectric power
plants may be classified into :
 Run-off river power plants without pondage.
 Run-off river power plants with pondage.
 Reservoir power plants.

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledge

Renewable Energy Systems 4 - 35 Biomass Energy

Run-Off Power Plants without Pondage :

Some hydro power plants are so located that the water is taken from the river directly,
and no pondage or storage is possible. Such plants are called the run-off river power
plants without pondage. Such plants can use water only as and when available; these
cannot be used at any time at will or fit any desired portion of the load curve. In such
plants there is no control on flow of water.
During high flow and low load periods, water is wasted and during the lean flow
periods the plant capacity is very low. As such these plants have a very little firm
capacity. At such places, the water is mainly used for irrigation or navigation and power
generation is only incidental. Such plants can be built at a considerably low cost but the
head available and the amount of power generated are usually very low.
During floods, the tail water level may become excessive rendering the plant
inoperative. The main objective of such plants is to use whatever flow is available for
generation of energy and thus save coal that otherwise be necessary for the steam plants.
During the high flow periods such plants can be employed to supply a substantial portion
of base load.

Run-Off River Power Plants with Pondage :

The usefulness of run-off river power plants is increased by pondage. Pondage refers
to storage at the plant which makes it possible to cope, hour to hour, with fluctuations of
load throughout a week or some longer period depending on the size of pondage. With
enough pondage, the firm capacity of the power plant is increased. Such type of power
plants can be used on parts of the load curve as required, within certain limitations and is
more useful than a plant without pondage. Such power plants are comparatively more
reliable and its generating capacity is less dependent on available rate of flow of water.
Such power plants can serve as base load or peak load power plants depending on the
flow of stream.
During high flow periods these plants may be used as base load and during lean flow
periods these plants may be used to supply peak loads only. When providing pondage,
tailrace condition should be such that floods do not raise the tailrace water level, thus
reducing the head on the plant and impairing its effectiveness. Such plants offer
maximum conservation of coal when operated in conjunction with steam power plants.

Reservoir Power Plants :

When water is stored in a big reservoir behind a dam, it is possible to control the flow
of water and use it most effectively. Storage increases the firm capacity of the plant and it

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledge

Renewable Energy Systems 4 - 36 Biomass Energy

can be used efficiently through-out the year. Such a plant can be used as a base load or as
a peak load plant as per requirement. It can also be used on any portion of the load curve
in a grid system. Most of the hydroelectric power plants everywhere in the world are of
this type.

Classification According to Availability of Water Head :

According to availability of water head the hydroelectric power plants may be
classified into :
 Low head
 Medium head and
 High head power plants.
Though there is no definite line of demarcation for low, medium and high heads but
the head below 30 metres is considered low head, the head above 30 metres and below
300 metres is considered as medium head and above 300 metres is considered as high
head.

Low Head Hydroelectric Power Plants :

A typical low head installation on a river consists essentially of a dam across the
stream to back up the river and create a fall, the water flowing through the turbines and
remerging the river below the dam. A dam or barrage constructed across the river creates
the necessary head. The power plant is located near the dam and therefore, no surge tank
is required. Either one half of the barrage has regulating gates for discharge of surplus
water while the plant is in front of second half or the plant is constructed by the side of
the river.
In low head power plants Francis, propeller or Kaplan turbines are employed. Since
for given output, large quantity of water is required, head being low, therefore pipes of
large diameter and short length are required in low head plants. Structure of such plants
is extensive and expensive. Generators employed in such plants are of low speed and
large diameter.

Medium Head Hydroelectric Power Plants :

In these power plants, the river water is usually tapped off to a forebay on one bank of
the river as in case of a low head plant. From the forebay the water is led to the turbines
through penstocks. The forebay provided at the beginning of penstock serves as a water
reservoir for such power plants.

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledge

Renewable Energy Systems 4 - 37 Biomass Energy

In these plants, water is usually carried in open channel from main reservoir to the
forebay and then to the turbines through the penstock. The forebay itself serves as the
surge tank in this case. In these plants horizontal shaft Francis, propeller or Kaplan
turbines are used.

High Head Hydroelectric Power Plants :

If high head is available, a site may be chosen, where a stream descending a steep
lateral valley can be dammed and a reservoir for storage of water is formed. A pressure
tunnel is constructed between reservoirs to valve house at the start of penstock to carry
water from reservoir to valve house.
Surge tank (a tank open from the top) is built just before the valve house so that the
severity of water hammer effect on penstock can be reduced in case of sudden closing of
fixed gates of the water turbine. Surge tank also serves as a ready reservoir from which
the turbine can draw water temporarily when there is sudden increase in demand.
The valve house consists of main sluice valves and automatic isolating valves, which
operate on bursting of penstock and cut off further supply of water to penstock.
Penstocks are pipes and carry the water from the valve house to the turbines. For heads
above 500 m Pelton wheels are used while for lower heads Francis turbines are employed.
The generators used are of high speed and small diameter. Penstocks are of large length
and comparatively smaller cross section.

Classification According to Type of Load Supplied :

According to the load supplied hydroelectric power stations may be classified into :
 Base load
 Peak load
 Pumped storage plants for the peak load.

Base Load Plants :

The plants, which can take up load on the base portion of the load curve of the power
system, are called the base load power plants. Such plants are usually of large capacity.
Since such plants are kept running practically on block load (i.e., the load that is
practically constant), load factor of such plants is therefore high. Run-off river plants
without pondage and reservoir plants are used as base load plants. Plants having large
storage can best be used as base load plants and particularly in rainy seasons, when the
water level of the reservoir will be raised by rain water. For a plant to be used as base
load plant, the unit cost of energy generated by the plant should be low.

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledge

Renewable Energy Systems 4 - 38 Biomass Energy

Peak Load Plants :

Plants used to supply the peak load of the system corresponding to the load at the top
portion of the load curve are called the peak load plants. Runoff river plants with
pondage can be employed as peak load plants. If the pondage is enough, a large portion
of the load can be supplied by such a plant if and when required. Reservoir plants can of
course be used as peak load plants also. Peak load plants have large seasonal storage.
They store water during off-peak periods and are operated during peak load periods.
Load factor of such plants is low.

Classification of Hydroelectric Power Plants Based on Installed Capacity :

Apart from above classification, hydroelectric power plants can be classified, on the
basis of installed capacity, as large, medium, small, mini, and micro hydro power plants.
Generally the mini, micro, and pico hydro come under the subcategory of small hydro
plants.

4.12 Two Marks Questions with Answers

Part - A

Q.1 What is meant by biomass energy and biomass energy resource ?

Ans. : Organic matters derived from biological organisms are called biomass. The
energy obtained from biomass is called biomass energy. The raw organic matter
obtained from nature for extracting secondary energy is called biomass energy
resource.
Q.2 Classify the biomass resources.
Ans. : Biomass resources are broadly classified into two categories :
 Biomass from cultivated fields, crop and forest.
 Biomass derived from waste e.g., municipal waste, animal excreta/dung, forest
waste, agricultural waste, bioprocess waste, butcharry waste, fishery
waste/processing waste etc.,
Q.3 What do you mean by fossil fuels ?
Ans. : Fossil fuels (coal, petroleum oil and natural gases) are produced from dead,
buried biomass under pressure and in absence of air during several millions of years.
However; they are considered separately as fossils and are not included in the category
of biomass.

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledge

Renewable Energy Systems 4 - 39 Biomass Energy

Q.4 What are the categories of scope of biomass energy ?

Ans. : The scope of biomass energy is of three categories. They are,
 Rural application of biomass energy
 Urban and industrial applications of biomass energy
 Biomass as a primary source for large scale electrical power generation.
Q.5 List the secondary energy forms of biomass.
Ans. : The biomass can be converted to useful secondary energy forms such as,
 Heat
 Gaseous fuels
 Solid fuels
 Organic chemical
 Liquid fuels.
Q.6 Point out the cultivated biomass.
Ans. : The cultivated biomass (biomass from energy farms) includes :
 Sugar cane crops, sweet sorghum crops, sugar beets.
 Herbaceous crops which are non-woody plants which can be converted into biogas
or biochemical fuels.
 Cereals, potatoes and other carbohydrate fruit crops, etc. grown for producing in
feeds to the fermentation plants.
 Forests crops of fast growing energy intensive trees specially grown as source of
energy.
 Aquatic crops grown in fresh water, sea water, muddy water etc., and these crops
include submerged plants, surface plants and include seaweeds, marine algae, water
hyacinth, floating kelp etc. algae is considered to be a promising aquatic biomass.
Q.7 List out the biomass energy resources from waste.
Ans. : The waste to energy processes convert organic wastes to intermediate or
secondary energy forms such as heat, biogas, alcohol, fuels, chemicals, etc. The waste is
classified as urban (municipal) waste industrial organic waste, process waste
agricultural farm waste rural animal waste forest waste fishery, poultry, butcharry
waste Animal and human excreta
Q.8 What is meant by biogas plant ?
Ans. : The plant which converts biomass to biogas (methane plus carbon dioxide) by
the process of anaerobic digestion is generally called a biogas plant.

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledge

Renewable Energy Systems 4 - 40 Biomass Energy

Q.9 Mention advantages of biomass energy.

Ans. : It is a renewable source. The energy storage is an in-built feature of it. It is an
indigenous source requiring little or no foreign exchange. The forestry and agricultural
industries that supply feed stocks also provide substantial economic development
opportunities in rural areas. The pollutant emissions from combustion of biomass are
usually lower than those from fossil fuels.
Q.10 Mention disadvantages of biomass energy.
Ans. : It is a dispersed and land intensive source. It is often of low energy density. It is
also labour intensive and the cost of collecting large quantities for commercial
application is significant. Most current commercial large quantities for commercial
application are significant. Most current commercial applications of biomass energy,
use material that has been collected for other reasons, such as timber and food
processing residues and urban waste. Capacity is determined by availability of biomass
and not suitable for varying loads. Not feasible to set up at all locations.
Q.11 What is meant by biomass gasification ?
Ans. : The word gasification (or thermal gasification) implies converting solid fuel into
a gaseous fuel by thermo chemical method without leaving any solid carbonaceous
residue.
Q.12 Classify the biogas plant.
Ans. : The biogas plant are classified into
 Continuous and batch types
 The dome and drum types.
Q.13 List the factors affecting bio digestion or generation of gas.
Ans. : The factors affecting bio digestion or generation of gas are :
 pH or the hydrogen-ion concentration
 Temperature
 Total sold content of the feed material
 Loading rate
 Seeding
 Uniform feeding
 Nutrients
 Type of feed stocks
 Toxicity due end product

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledge

Renewable Energy Systems 4 - 41 Biomass Energy

 Pressure
 Acid accumulation inside the digester.
Q.14 Why the biogases are mainly utilized ?
Ans. : Biogases are mainly utilized. The biogas can be utilized effectively for,
 Household cooking
 Lighting
 Operating small engines
 Utilizing power for pumping water
 Chaffing fodder
 Grinding flour.
Q.15 List the feature of continuous plant .
Ans. :
 It will produce gas continuously.
 It requires small digestion chambers.
 It needs lesser period for digestion.
 It has less problems compared to batch type and it is easier in operation.
Q.16 List the features of batch plant.
Ans. :
 The gas production in it is intermittent, depending upon the clearing of the digester.
 It needs several digesters or chambers for continuous gas production, these are fed
alternatively.
 Batch plants are good for long fibrous materials.
 This plant needs addition of fermented slurry to start the digestion process.
 This plant is expensive and has problems comparatively; the continuous plant will
have less problems and will be easy for operation.
Q.17 Write the advantages of floating drum plant.
Ans. :
 It has scum troubles because solids are constantly submerged.
 In it, the danger of mixing oxygen with the gas to form an explosive mixture is
minimized.
 No problem of gas leakage.
 Constant gas pressure.

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledge

Renewable Energy Systems 4 - 42 Biomass Energy

Q.18 Write the disadvantages of floating drum plant.

Ans. :
 It is costlier since cost is dependent on steel and cement.
 Heat is lost through the metal gas holder, hence it troubles in colder regions and
periods
 Gas holder requires painting once or twice a year, depending on the humidity of the
location.
 Flexible pipe joining the gas holder to the main gas pipe requires maintenance, as it
is damaged by ultraviolet rays in the sun.
 It may be twisted also, with the rotation of the drum for mixing or scum removal.
Q.19 Mention some advantages of fixed dome type plant.
Ans. :
 It is cheaper as compared to floating drum type, as it uses only cement and no steel.
 It has no corrosion trouble.
 Heat insulation is better as construction is beneath the ground.
 Temperature will be constant.
 Cattle and human excreta and long fibrous stalks can be fed.
 No maintenance.
Q.20 Mention some disadvantages of fixed dome type plant.
Ans. :
 This type of plant needs the service of skilled masons, who are rather scarce in rural
areas.
 Gas production per cubic meter of the digester volume is also less.
 Scum formation is a problem as no stirring arrangement.
 It has variable gas pressure.
Q.21 What are the techniques or methods of maintaining biogas production ?
Ans. : The methods for maintaining biogas production are,
 Insulating the gas plant
 Composting
 Hot water circulation
 Use of chemicals
 Solar energy systems.

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledge

Renewable Energy Systems 4 - 43 Biomass Energy

Q.22 What is meant by cogeneration ?

Ans. : A procedure for generating electric power and useful heat in a single installation
is known as cogeneration. Heat may be supplied in the form of steam, hot water or hot
air. The net result is overall increase in the efficiency of fuel utilization.
Q.23 Mention the types and explain the cogeneration principles.
Ans. : Types of cogeneration principles are :
The Topping Cycle : Primary heat is used to generate high pressure and temperature
steam for electrical energy generation. The discharged low grade heat, which would
otherwise be dispersed to the environment, is utilized in an industrial process or in
other ways.
The Bottoming Cycle : Primary heat at high temperature is used directly for industrial
process requirements. The remaining low grade heat is then used for electrical power
generation, e.g. high temperature cement kiln.
Q.24 What are the three general types of cogeneration systems ?
Ans. : The three general types of cogeneration principles systems are :
 Waste heat utilization,
o Space heating and cooling
o Warm water in agriculture
o Warm water in aquaculture
 Total/Integrated energy system for residential complex
 Total Energy System (TES) for industry.
Q.25 What is meant by incineration ?
Ans. : Organic matter can be burnt in presence of oxygen/air to produce heat and
byproducts. This is the well known process called combustion. Complete combustion
to ashes is called incineration.
Q.26 What are the types of gasifiers ?
Ans. : In down draft gasifier fuel and air move in a cocurrent manner.
In update gasifier fuel and air move in a counter current manner. But the basic
reaction zones remain the same.
Q.27 What are the types of biomass resources ?
Ans. :
 Forests
 Agricultural crops residues

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledge

Renewable Energy Systems 4 - 44 Biomass Energy

 Energy crops
 Vegetable oil crops
 Aquatic crop
 Animal waste
 Urban waste
 Industrial waste.
Q.28 What is transesterification ?
Ans. : Process where the raw vegetable oils are treated with alcohol (Methanol or
ethanol with a catalyst) to form methyl or ethyl esters.
Q.29 What are the advantages of bio-diesel as engine fuel ?
Ans. :
 Biodegradable produces 80 % less CO2 and 100 % less SO2 emissions
 Renewable
 Higher octane number
 It can be used as neat fuel or mixed in any ratio with petro diesel
 It has a higher flash point making it safe to transport.
Q.30 What are the components of cogeneration system ?
Ans. :
 Prime mover
 Generator
 Heat recovery
 Electrical interconnection.
Q.31 What are the types of prime movers ?
Ans. :
 Reciprocating engine
 Combustion of gas functions
 Steam turbines
 Micro turbines
 Fuel cells.

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledge

Renewable Energy Systems 4 - 45 Biomass Energy

Q.32 Write any two benefits of cogeneration.

Ans. :
 Increased efficiency of energy conversion and use.
 Lower emission to the environment in particular of CO2, the main greenhouse gas.
 Biomass fuels and some waste materials such as refinery gases, agricultural wastes
are used. They serve as fuels for cogeneration schemes increases the cost
effectiveness and reduces the need for waste disposal.
Q.33 What are the types of cogeneration system ?
Ans. :
 Steam turbine cogeneration system
 Gas turbine cogeneration system
 Reciprocating engine cogeneration system.
Q.34 What are the types of steam turbine ?
Ans. :
 Back pressure turbine
 Extraction condensing turbine.

Solved Questions

Part - B

Q.1 Describe in detail the construction and working of various types of bio-gas plants. State the
merits and demerits of the biogas power plant. (Refer section 4.3)
Q.2 Write short notes on : a) Energy from industrial and municipal waste b) Applications of bio-
energy. (Refer section 4.4)
Q.3 What is the principle involved in the production of biogas and what is the chemical composition
of the gas ? What are the various applications of this gas ? Draw a sketch to illustrate the
constructional features of a typical biogas plant and describe its operation.
(Refer section 4.5)
Q.4 a) Compare the advantages and disadvantages of power generation from industrial wastes,
municipal waste and agricultural wastes.
b) How do we get energy from various types of wastes ? (Refer section 4.4)
Q.5 a) Name the various model of biogas plant.
b) What are the main problems in straw fermentation ? (Refer sections 4.3 and 4.6)

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledge

Renewable Energy Systems 4 - 46 Biomass Energy

Q.6 Sketch and describe any one type of bio-mass gas generation plant. Mention four uses of the
biogas produced. (Refer section 4.3)
Q.7 How are biogas plant classified ? Explain continuous and batch type plants and compare them
with regard to operation and efficiency. (Refer sections 4.2 and 4.3)
Q.8 Write short notes on a) Continuous type plant b) Flexible dome type plant. (Refer section 4.3)

Q.9 What is community biogas plant ? What is the main problem encountered with operation ?
(Refer section 4.2)
Q.10 List out the various points to be carried out for selection of site for a biogas plant.
(Refer section 4.6)
Q.11 Draw schematic diagram of biogas power plant and explain its operation. State and justify the
potential of this in satisfying energy demand of our country. (Refer sections 4.3 and 4.4)
Q.12 Write briefly on power production from agricultural waste. Draw relevant sketches and point
out the relative merits of this technique. (Refer section 4.4)
Q.13 What is biomass gasification ? Explain its classification with neat diagram. (Refer section 4.4)
Q.14 How ethanol is produced from biomass ? Explain its major classification. (Refer section 4.4)
Q.15 What is meant by cogeneration ? How they are classified ? Explain its principles.
(Refer section 4.5)
Q.16 Explain the following cogeneration systems. a) Steam turbine b) Gas turbine.
(Refer section 4.9)
Q.17 Explain the following cogeneration systems. a) Reciprocating IC Engine b) Combined cycle.
(Refer section 4.9)
Q.18 Enumerate the application of the following. a) Cogeneration in utility sector b) Biomass.
(Refer sections 4.2 and 4.5)
Q.19 Explain the theory of the origin of geothermal energy. Draw the layout of geothermal power
plant and explain its operation. (Refer sections 4.7)
Q.20 a) Compare tidal power plant with geothermal power plant. b) With relevant diagram, explain
the operation of tidal power plant. (Refer sections 4.7 and 5.2)
Q.21 Explain in detail any one type of geothermal power plant. Compare its efficiency with tidal
power plant. (Refer sections 4.7 and 5.1)
Q.22 Draw the schematic and explain the vapour dominated geo thermal plant.
(Refer section 4.8)
Q.23 Draw the layout of the micro-hydro scheme and explain its components. What are its
advantages and disadvantages ? (Refer section 4.10)



TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledge

 Other Energy Sources
Unit - V
Syllabus
Tidal Energy : Energy from the tides, Barrage and Non Barrage Tidal power systems. Wave
Energy: Energy from waves, wave power devices. Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC)-
Hydrogen Production and Storage - Fuel cell : Principle of working- various types -
construction and applications. Energy Storage System- Hybrid Energy Systems.

Contents
5.1 Tidal Energy

5.2 Working of Different Tidal Power Plants

5.3 Wave Energy

5.4 Energy From Waves

5.5 Wave Power Devices

5.6 Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion

5.7 Hydrogen Production and Storage

5.8 Fuel Cell

5.9 Principle of Working

5.10 Types of Fuel Cells

5.11 Energy Storage System

5.12 Hybrid Energy System

Two Marks Questions with Answers [Part A]

Solved Questions [Part B]

(5 - 1)
Renewable Energy Systems 5-2 Other Energy Sources

5.1 Tidal Energy

Tides are periodic rise and fall of water level of sea which are caused by the action of
sun and moon on the water in the earth. They are mainly caused by the gravitational
attraction of the moon and sun on the water of solid earth and oceans. 70 % of tides are
produced by the force due to moon. Moon is the major factor in the tide.
Two tidal cycles occurs during a lunar day of 24 Hrs 50 Minutes. They are two high
tides and two low tides. Time between high tides and low tides at any given location is a
little over 6 Hrs.
A high tide will be experienced at a point which is directly under the moon. At the
same time, a diametrically opposite point on the earth‘s surface also experience a high
tide due to dynamic balancing. Hence the full moon as well as a no moon produce a high
tide. The rise and fall of water level follows a sinusoidal curve. Tides are periodical
phenomenon. No two tides are alike, since the relative positions of sun and moon and
their distances are continuously changing.
When the water is above the mean sea level, it is called flood tide and when the level
is below the mean level, it is called ebb tide. These tides can be used to produce electrical
power which is known as tidal power.

Fig. 5.1.1 : Tides of sea

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledge

Renewable Energy Systems 5-3 Other Energy Sources

Basic principle of tidal power plant

A dam is constructed in such a way that a basin gets separated from the sea and a
difference in the water level is obtained between the basin and sea. The constructed basin
is filled during high tide and emptied during low tide passing through sluices and
turbine respectively. The potential energy of the water stored in the basin is used to drive
the turbine which in turn generates electricity as it is directly coupled to an alternator.

Fig. 5.1.2 : Principle of tidal power plant

Components of tidal power plants

There are three main components of a tidal power plant.
 Dam or barrage
 Sluice-ways from the basins to the sea and vice versa.
 Power house.

Barrage
Dam and barrage are synonymous terms. The function of dam is to form a barrier
between the sea and the basin or between one basin and the other in case of multiple
basins. Tidal power barrages have to resist waves whose shock can be severe and where
pressure changes sides continuously. The barrage needs to provide channels for the
turbines in reinforced concrete.
The location of the barrage is important, because the energy available is related to the
size of trapped basin and to the square of the tidal range. The nearer it is built to the
mouth of bay, the larger the basin, but the smaller the tidal range. A balance must also be

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledge

Renewable Energy Systems 5-4 Other Energy Sources

struck between increased output and increased material requirements and construction
costs. Tidal barrages require sites where there is a sufficiently high tidal range to give a
good head of water - the minimum useful range is around three meters.

Gates and Locks

The sluice ways are used either to fill the basin during the high tide or empty the basin
during the low tide, as per operational requirement. Gate structures can be floated as
modular units. Though, in existing plants, vertical lift gates have been used. The
technology is about ready to substitute a series of flap gates. Flap gates are gates operated
by water pressure that are positioned so as to allow water in to the holding basin and
require no mechanical means of operation. The flap gates allow only in the direction of
the sea to basin. Hence, the basin level rises well above to sea level as ebb flow area is far
less than flood flow area.

Power House

The turbines, electric generators and other auxiliary equipment’s are the main
components of a power house. For small head, large size turbines are needed; hence, the
power house is also a large structure. Both the French and Soviet operating plants use the
bulb type of turbine of the propeller type, with revisable blades, bulbs have horizontal
shafts coupled to a single generator.
(See Fig. 5.1.3 on next page.)
The design cycle may also provide for pumping between the basin and the sea in
either direction. If reversible pump turbines are provided, the pumping operation can be
taken over at any time by the same machine. The modern tubular turbines are so versatile
that they can be used either as turbines or as pumps in either direction of flow. In
addition, the tubular passages can also be used as sluice-ways by locking the machine in
to a standstill. As compared to conventional plants, this, however, imposes a great
number of operations in tidal power plants.

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledge

Renewable Energy Systems 5-5 Other Energy Sources

Fig. 5.1.3 : Schematic layout of tidal power house

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledge

Renewable Energy Systems 5-6 Other Energy Sources

Classification of Tidal Power Plants

The tidal power plants are generally classified on the basis of the number of basins
used for the power generation. They are further subdivided as one-way or two-way
system as per the cycle of operation for power generation.

5.2 Working of Different Tidal Power Plants

Single basin-One-way cycle
This is the simplest form of tidal power plant. In this system, a basin is allowed to get
filled during flood tide and during the ebb tide. The water flows from the basin to the sea
passing through the turbine and generates power. The power is available for a short
duration during ebb tide.

Fig. 5.2.1 : Single basin tidal power plant

Fig. 5.2.1. Shows a single tide basin before the construction of dam and Fig. 5.2.1 shows
the diagrammatic representation of a dam at the mouth of the basin and power
generation during the falling tide.

Fig. 5.2.2 : Single basin-one-way tidal power plant

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledge

Renewable Energy Systems 5-7 Other Energy Sources

Single-basin two-way cycle

In this arrangement power is generated both during flood tide as well as ebb tide also.
The power generation is also intermittent but generation period is increased compared
with one-way cycle. However the peak power obtained is less than the one-way cycle.
The arrangement of the basin and the power cycle is shown in Fig. 5.2.3.

Fig. 5.2.3 : Single basin-two-way tidal power plant

The main difficulty with this arrangement, the same turbine must be used as prime
mover as ebb and tide flows pass through the turbine in opposite directions. Variable
pitch turbine and dual rotation generator are used for such schemes.

Single-basin two-way cycle with pump storage

The Rance tidal power plant in France uses this type of arrangement. In this system,
power is generated both during flood and ebb tides. Complex machines capable of
generating power and pumping the water in either direction are used. A part of the
energy produced is used for introducing the difference in the water levels between the
basin and the sea at any time of the tide and this is done by pumping water into the basin
up or down. The period of power production with this system is much longer than the
other two described earlier.

Double basin type

In this arrangement, the turbine is set up between the two basins as shown in
Fig. 5.2.4. one basin is intermittently filled by the flood tide and other is intermittently
drained by the ebb tide. Therefore a small capacity but continues power is made available
with this system as shown in Fig. 5.2.4. The main disadvantage of this system is that 50 %
of the potential energy is sacrificed in introducing the variation in the water levels of the
two basins.

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledge

Renewable Energy Systems 5-8 Other Energy Sources

Fig. 5.2.4 : Single basin-one-way cycle

Double basin with pumping

In this case, off peak power from the base load plant in a interconnected transmission
system is used to pump the water up the high basin. Net energy gain is possible with
such a system if the pumping head is lower than the basin-to-basin turbine generating
head.

Advantages
 It is free from pollution as it does not use any fuel.
 The tides are totally independent on nature’s cycle of rainfall.
 This will also not produce any unhealthy waste like gases, ash, atomic refuse which
entails heavy removal costs.
 Another notable advantage of tidal power is that it has a unique capacity to meet
the peak power demand effectively when it works in combination with thermal or
hydroelectric system.

Disadvantages
 These power plants can be developed only if natural sites are available.
 These power plants will be always located far away from the load centers. The
power generated must be transported to long distances. This increases the
transportation cost.
 The capital cost of the plant (` 5000/kW) is considerably large compared with
conventional-power plants (hydro, thermal).
 The supply of power is not continuous as it depends upon the timing of tides.
Therefore some arrangements (double basin or double basin with pump storage)
must be made to supply the continuous power. This also further increase the capital
cost of the plant.

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledge

Renewable Energy Systems 5-9 Other Energy Sources

 It is interesting to note that the output of power from tidal power plant varies with
lunar cycle, because the moon largely influences the tidal rhythm, where as our
daily power requirement is directly related to solar cycle.

5.3 Wave Energy

Wave energy is a renewable energy whereby we capture the energy that is being
generated naturally by waves. Waves get their energy from the wind passing over the
surface of the sea as well and can transmit their energy over long distances with little
degradation; wave energy is considered a significant renewable energy resource.

Fig. 5.3.1 : Wave energy

The irregular and oscillating flow of wave energy in oceans is called as - kinetic energy
which has tremendous energy potential and if harnessed could provide a tremendous
addition to a clean energy system. The energy in a wave is determined and calculated by
wave height, speed, length, and the density of the water. Though most wave technologies
are intended to be installed near the ocean’s surface, they can be used in nearshore,
offshore, and far offshore locations depending on where the resources lie.
Wave power systems are not practical everywhere due to the variation in wave
energy. Ideal locations for wave energy farms exist on the western coasts of Scotland,
Northern Canada, Northwest America, Southern Africa, and Australia. Large commercial
wave farms have only begun to be tested, with several challenges arising through the
trials :
 Wave energy is irregular which can create problems with absorption rates.
 Wave energy devices need to withstand major oceanic assaults such as storms and
saltwater corrosion.
 Currently wave power is very expensive to the point where it is not yet competitive
with fossil fuel energies.

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledge

Renewable Energy Systems 5 - 10 Other Energy Sources

 State and federal legislations as well as public outcries over the degradation of
ocean views are stalling several major projects.
 There are some concerns about the environmental impact of wave energy for
marine populations.
 Wave energy farms can result in the displacement of fishing grounds, which can
have a negative impact on local economies.
 Toxic leaks or spills can occur when liquids used in wave power systems are
accidentally released, contaminating local habitats.
The potential for wave energy is truly tremendous, with some estimates of deep-water
wave power resources creating upwards of 10 terawatts, which is a little less than the
amount needed to supply worldwide energy consumption.

5.4 Energy From Waves

Wave energy also known as ocean wave energy, is another type of ocean based
renewable energy source that uses the power of the waves to generate electricity. Unlike
tidal energy which uses the ebb and flow of the tides, wave energy uses the vertical
movement of the surface water that produce tidal waves. Wave power converts the
periodic up-and-down movement of the oceans waves into electricity by placing
equipment on the surface of the oceans that captures the energy produced by the wave
movement and converts this mechanical energy into electrical power.
Wave energy is actually a concentrated form of solar power generated by the action of
the wind blowing across the surface of the oceans water which can then be used as a
renewable source of energy. As the sun rays strike the Earth’s atmosphere, they warm it
up. Differences in the temperature of the air masses around the globe causes the air to
move from the hotter regions to the cooler regions, resulting in winds.
As the wind passes over the surface of the oceans, a portion of the winds kinetic
energy is transferred to the water below, generating waves. In fact, the ocean could be
viewed as a vast storage collector of energy transferred by the sun to the oceans, with the
waves carrying the transferred kinetic energy across the surface of the oceans. Then we
can say that waves are actually a form of energy and it is this energy and not water that
moves along the ocean’s surface.
These waves can travel (or “propagate”) long distances across the open oceans with
very little loss in energy, but as they approach the shoreline and the depth of the water
becomes shallower, their speed slows down but they increase in size. Finally, the wave
crashes onto the shoreline, releasing an enormous amount of kinetic energy which can be

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledge

Renewable Energy Systems 5 - 11 Other Energy Sources

used for electricity production. A breaking waves energy potential varies from place to
place depending upon its geographic location and time of year, but the two main factors
which affect the size of the wave energy are the winds strength and the uninterrupted
distance over the sea that the wind can blow.
Then we can say that “wave energy” is an indirect form of wind energy that causes
movement of the water on the surface of the oceans and by capturing this energy the
motion of the waves is converted to mechanical energy and used to drive an electricity
generator. In many respects, the technology used for capturing this wave energy is
similar to tidal energy or hydroelectric power.
The kinetic energy of the wave turns a turbine attached to a generator, which produces
electricity. However, the open oceans can be a stormy and violent environment, resulting
in the wave energy machines being destroyed by the wave energy they were designed to
capture.
In its simplest terms, an ocean wave is the up-and-down vertical movement of the sea
water which varies sinusoidally with time. This sinusoidal wave has high points called
crests and low points called troughs.
The difference in height of a wave between the crest and the trough is called the peak-
to-peak amplitude, then the waves amplitude or height is the centre of these two points
and corresponds to the actual sea level when there is no movement of the water, in other
words, a calm sea.
The amplitude of an ocean wave depends on the weather conditions at that time, as
the amplitude of a smooth wave, or swell, will be small in calm weather but much larger
in stormy weather with strong gales as the sea water moves up and down.

Fig. 5.4.1 : Ocean wave movement

As well as the amplitude of the wave, another important characteristic is the distance
between each successive crest, or trough, known as the wave period, (T). This wave

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledge

Renewable Energy Systems 5 - 12 Other Energy Sources

period is the time in seconds between each crest of the wave. Then for a gentle swell this
time period may be very long, but for a stormy sea this time period may be very short as
each wave crashes onto the one in front.
The reciprocal of this time (1/T) gives us the fundamental frequency of the ocean wave
relative to some static point. Smaller periodic waves generated or superimposed onto this
fundamental wave such as reflected waves are called harmonic waves. Then the
frequency and amplitude characteristics of a wind-generated wave depend on the
distance the wind blows over the open water (called the fetch), the length of time the
wind blows, the speed of the wind and the water depth.
Waves transport energy from where they were created by storms far out in the ocean
to a shoreline. But a typical ocean wave does not resemble a perfect sinusoid, they are
more irregular and complex than a simple sinusoidal wave. Only the steady up-and-
down movement of a heavy swell resembles a sinusoidal wave much more than the
chaotic nature of locally generated wind waves, as real sea waves contain a mixture of
waves with different frequencies, wave heights and directions.

5.5 Wave Power Devices

Ocean wave energy has many advantages over ocean wind energy in that it is more
predictable, less variable and offers higher available energy densities. Depending on the
distance between the energy conversion device and the shoreline, wave energy systems
can be classified as being either shoreline devices, Nearshore devices or Offshore devices.
So what is the difference between these three types of energy extraction devices.

Fig. 5.5.1 : Wave power devices

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledge

Renewable Energy Systems 5 - 13 Other Energy Sources

Shoreline devices are wave energy devices which are fixed to or embedded in the
shoreline, that is they are both in and out of the water. Nearshore devices are
characterised by being used to extract the wave power directly from the breaker zone and
the waters immediately beyond the breaker zone, (i.e. at 20 m water depth).
Offshore devices or deep water devices are the farthest out to sea and extend beyond
the breaker lines utilizing the high-energy densities and higher power wave profiles
available in the deep water waves and surges. One of the advantages of offshore devices
is that there is no need for significant coastal earthworks, as there is with onshore devices.
As most of the energy within a wave is contained near the surface and falls off sharply
with depth. There is a surprising range of designs available that maximize the energy
available for capture. These wave energy devices are either fixed bottom standing designs
used in shallow water and which pierce the water surface, or fully floating devices that
are used to capture the kinetic energy content of a waves movement and convert each
movement into electricity using a generator.
There are currently four basic wave energy “capture” type methods :
 Point Absorbers - These are small vertical devices either fixed directly to the ocean
floor or tethered via a chain that absorb the waves energy from all directions. These
devices generate electricity from the bobbing or pitching action of a floating device.
Typical wave energy devices include, floating buoys, floating bags, ducks, and
articulated rafts, etc. These devices convert the up-and-down pitching motion of the
waves into rotary movements, or oscillatory movements in a variety of devices to
generate electricity. One of the advantages of floating devices over fixed devices it
that they can be deployed in deeper water, where the wave energy is greater.
 Wave Attenuators - Also known as “linear absorbers”, are long horizontal semi-
submerged snake-like devices that are oriented parallel to the direction of the
waves. A wave attenuator is composed of a series of cylindrical sections linked
together by flexible hinged joints that allow these individual sections to rotate and
yaw relative to each other. The wave-induced motion of the device is used to
pressurize a hydraulic piston, called a ram, which forces high pressure oil through
smoothing accumulators to turn a hydraulic turbine generator producing electricity.
Then wave attenuators convert the oscillating movement of a wave into hydraulic
pressure.
 Oscillating Water Column - is a partly submerged chamber fixed directly at the
shoreline which converts wave energy into air pressure. The structure could be a
natural cave with a blow hole or a man made chamber or duct with an wind turbine

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledge

Renewable Energy Systems 5 - 14 Other Energy Sources

generator located at the top well above the water surface. The structure is built
perpendicular to the waves so that the ebbing and flowing motion of the waves
force the trapped water inside the chamber to oscillate in the vertical direction.
As the waves enter and exit the chamber, the water column moves up and down and
acts like a piston on the air above the surface of the water, pushing it back and forth. This
air is compressed and decompressed by this movement and is channeled through a wind
turbine generator to produce electricity. The speed of air in the duct can be enhanced by
making the cross-sectional area of the duct much less than that of the column.
 Overtopping Devices - Also known as “spill-over” devices, are either fixed or
floating structures that use ramps and tapered sides positioned perpendicular to the
waves. The sea waves are driven up the ramp and over the sides filling-up a small
tidal reservoir which is located 2 to 3 metres above sea level. The potential energy of
the water trapped inside the reservoir is then extracted by returning the water back
to the sea through a low head Kaplan turbine generator to produce electricity.
Then overtopping devices convert the potential energy available in the head of
water into mechanical energy. The disadvantage of onshore overtopping schemes is
that they have a relatively low power output and are only suitable for sites where
there is a deep water shoreline and a low tidal range of less than about a meter. The
idea of harnessing the tremendous power of the oceans waves is not new. Like
other forms of hydro power, wave energy does not require the burning of fossil
fuels, which can pollute the air, contributing to acid rain and global warming. The
energy is entirely clean and endlessly renewable. Wave power has many
advantages compared to other forms of renewable energy with its main advantage
being that it is predictable.
However, like many other forms of renewable energy, ocean wave energy also has
its disadvantages such as its inflexible generation times dependent upon the tides,
the visual impact of wave devices on the seas surface, as well as the threat of
collision to shipping and navigation.
Here are some of the main advantages and disadvantages of wave energy.

Wave Energy Advantages

 Wave energy is an abundant and renewable energy resource as the waves are
generated by the wind.
 Pollution free as wave energy generates little or no pollution to the environment
compared to other green energies.

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledge

Renewable Energy Systems 5 - 15 Other Energy Sources

 Reduces dependency on fossil fuels as wave energy consumes no fossil fuels during
operation.
 Wave energy is relatively consistent and predictable as waves can be accurately
forecast several days in advance.
 Wave energy devices are modular and easily sited with additional wave energy
devices added as needed.
 Dissipates the waves energy protecting the shoreline from coastal erosion.
 Presents no barriers or difficulty to migrating fish and aquatic animals.

Wave Energy Disadvantages

 Visual impact of wave energy conversion devices on the shoreline and offshore
floating buoys or platforms.
 Wave energy conversion devices are location dependent requiring suitable sites
where the waves are consistently strong.
 Intermittent power generation as the waves come in intervals and does not generate
power during calm periods.
 Offshore wave energy devices can be a threat to navigation that cannot see or detect
them by radar.
 High power distribution costs to send the generated power from offshore devices to
the land using long underwater cables.
 They must be able to withstand forces of nature resulting in high capital,
construction and maintenance costs.

5.6 Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion

Ocean thermal energy also called as Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC) refers
to a method of using the temperature difference between the deep parts of the sea which
are cold and the shallow parts of the sea which are cold to run a heat engine and produce
useful work. Basically, Ocean thermal energy conversion is an electricity generation
system. The deeper parts of the ocean are cooler due to the fact that the heat of sunlight
cannot penetrate very deep into the water. Here the efficiency of the system depends on
the temperature difference. Greater the temperature difference, greater the efficiency. The
temperature difference in the oceans between the deep and shallow parts is maximum in
the tropics, 20 to 25 ºC. Tropics receive a lot of sunlight which warms the surface of the
oceans, increasing the temperature gradient.

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledge

Renewable Energy Systems 5 - 16 Other Energy Sources

Fig. 5.6.1 : OTEC

The energy source of OTEC is abundantly available, free and will be so for as long as
the sun shines and ocean currents exist. Estimates suggest that ocean thermal energy
could contain more than twice the world’s electricity demand. This makes it necessary for
us to give it a closer look.

5.6.1 Types of Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion Systems

 Closed cycle
 Open cycle

5.6.1.1 Closed Cycle OTEC System

Closed cycle ocean thermal energy conversion systems use a working fluid with a low
boiling point, Ammonia for example, and use it to power a turbine to generate electricity.
Warm seawater is taken in from the surface of the oceans and cold water from the deep at
50 ºC. The warm sea water vaporizes the fluid in the heat exchanger which then turns the
turbines of the generator. The fluid now in the vapour state is brought in contact with
cold water which turns it back into a liquid. The fluid is recycled in the system which is
why it is called a closed system.

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledge

Renewable Energy Systems 5 - 17 Other Energy Sources

Fig. 5.6.2 : Closed cycle OTEC

Ammonia (or another low-boiling, heat-transport fluid) flows around a closed loop at
the heart of the system. That's the white square in the centre of this illustration. Hot water
enters a completely separate pipe near the surface of the ocean and is piped toward the
central loop containing the ammonia. The hot water and the ammonia flow past one
another in a heat exchanger, so the hot water gives up some of its energy to the ammonia,
making it boil and vaporize. The vaporized ammonia flows through a turbine, making it
spin. The turbine spins a generator, converting the energy to electricity. The electricity is
carried ashore by a cable. Having left the turbine, the ammonia has given up much of its
energy, but needs to be cooled fully for reuse. If the ammonia weren't cooled in this way,
it wouldn't be able to pick up as much heat next time around. The cold water and
ammonia meet in a second heat exchanger, which cools the ammonia back down to its
original temperature ready to pass around the cycle again. The cold water from the ocean
depths, now slightly warmed, escapes into the ocean (or it can be used for refrigeration or
air conditioning). The hot water from the ocean surface, slightly cooled, drains back into
the upper ocean.

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledge

Renewable Energy Systems 5 - 18 Other Energy Sources

5.6.1.2 Open System OTEC System

Open cycle OTEC directly uses the warm water from the surface to make electricity.
The warm sea water is first pumped in a low-pressure chamber where due to the drop in
pressure, it undergoes a drop in boiling point as well. This causes the water to boil. This
steam drives a low-pressure turbine which is attached to an electrical generator. The
advantage this system has over a closed system is that, in open cycle, desalinated water in
the form of steam is obtained. Since it is steam, it is free from all impurities. This water
can be used for domestic, industrial or agricultural purposes.
Open cycle systems have specific conditions necessary for operation (“Ocean
Thermal”) :

1. Open-cycle systems must be sealed carefully to prevent in-leakage of atmospheric

air because atmospheric air can greatly degrade or stop the operation of open
system operation.

2. The specific volume of low-pressure steam used in operation is much larger than
that of the working fluid in closed cycle OTEC. Because of this large required
volume, components of open cycle devices require large flow areas. A large area for
steam flow ensures that steam velocities remain within workable bounds and do
not reach excessively high speeds.

3. Gases including oxygen, nitrogen, and carbon dioxide dissolved in sea water are
released from the solution in a vacuum. These gases do not condense and therefore
must be removed from the system.

Despite these requirements, open cycle OTEC benefits greatly by utilizing water as its
working fluid. Where ammonia is toxic, water is environmentally benign. Additionally,
evaporators used in open cycle systems produce steam that is desalinated, which allows
condensers to produce fresh water. In many tropical areas where open cycle systems
would be effective, drinking water is in high demand. By adding a commodity into the
economies surrounding the water where open cycle systems would be utilized, the capital
price of such systems can be offset. Other benefits of open cycle OTEC include
aquaculture, with cold ocean water being brought onshore, refrigeration, air conditioning,
and mineral extraction

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledge

Renewable Energy Systems 5 - 19 Other Energy Sources

Fig. 5.6.3 : Open cycle OTEC

Ocean Thermal Energy (OTEC) is a real candidate as one of the future sources of
energy. Its environmental impact is negligible, in fact, the mixing of deep and shallow
seawater brings up nutrients from the seafloor. The deepwater is rich in nitrates and this
can also be used in agriculture.
Advantages of Ocean Thermal Energy
 Renewable Energy
 Reliable
 Clean Energy
 Low Maintenance
 Independent of Weather
 Environmental-friendly.

Disadvantages of Ocean Thermal Energy

 High Initial Cost
 Locality of Production
 Small Temperature Difference
 Harmful Effects on Marine Life
 Interfere with Navigation
 Large Size Turbines with Expensive Liquid

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledge

Renewable Energy Systems 5 - 20 Other Energy Sources

5.7 Hydrogen Production and Storage

Electricity can be converted into hydrogen by electrolysis. The hydrogen can be then
stored and eventually re-electrified. The roundtrip efficiency today is lower than other
storage technologies. Despite this low efficiency the interest in hydrogen energy storage is
growing due to the much higher storage capacity compared to batteries (small scale).

5.7.1 Hydrogen Production

Alkaline electrolysis is a mature technology for large systems, whereas PEM (Proton
Exchange Membrane) electrolysers are more flexible and can be used for small
decentralized solutions. The conversion efficiency for both technologies is about
65 % ~ 70 % (Lower heating value). High temperature electrolyzers are currently under
development and could represent a very efficient alternative to PEM and alkaline
systems, with efficiencies up to 90 %.

Fig. 5.7.1 : Hydrogen production

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledge

Renewable Energy Systems 5 - 21 Other Energy Sources

5.7.2 Hydrogen Storage

Small amounts of hydrogen (up to a few MWh) can be stored in pressurized vessels, or
solid metal hydrides or nanotubes can store hydrogen with a very high density. Very
large amounts of hydrogen can be stored in constructed underground salt caverns of up
to 500,000 cubic meters at 2,900 psi, which would mean about 100 GWh of stored
electricity. In this way, longer periods of flaws or of excess wind / PV energy production
can be leveled. Even balancing seasonal variations might be possible.

5.7.3 Hydrogen Re-Electrification

Hydrogen can be re-electrified in fuel cells with efficiencies up to 50 %, or alternatively
burned in combined cycle gas power plants (efficiencies as high as 60 %).

Other Uses of Hydrogen

Because of the limited round trip efficiency, direct uses of green hydrogen are under
development, e.g. as feedstock for the chemical and the petrochemical industry, as fuel
for fuel cell cars or blending with natural gas of up to 5 to 15 % in natural gas pipelines.
Several European and American companies offer integrated hydrogen solutions for the
supply of electric power to small isolated sites or islands. Demonstration projects have
been performed since 2000 in Europe and the USA and commercial products are
available. Large scale hydrogen storage in salt cavern is standard technology.

5.8 Fuel Cell

A fuel cell can be defined as an electrochemical cell that generates electrical energy
from fuel via an electrochemical reaction. These cells require a continuous input of fuel
and an oxidizing agent (generally oxygen) inorder to sustain the reactions that generate
the electricity. Therefore, these cells can constantly generate electricity until the supply of
fuel and oxygen is cut off.
Despite being invented in the year 1838, fuel cells began commercial use only a
century later when they were used by NASA to power space capsules and satellites.
Today, these devices are used as the primary or secondary source of power for many
facilities including industries, commercial buildings, and residential buildings.
A fuel cell is similar to electrochemical cells, which consists of a cathode, an anode,
and an electrolyte. In these cells, the electrolyte enables the movement of the protons.

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledge

Renewable Energy Systems 5 - 22 Other Energy Sources

5.9 Principle of Working

The reaction between hydrogen and oxygen can be used to generate electricity via a
fuel cell. Such a cell was used in the Apollo space programme and it served two different
purposes - It was used as a fuel source as well as a source of drinking water (the water
vapour produced from the cell, when condensed, was fit for human consumption).
The working of this fuel cell involved the passing of hydrogen and oxygen into a
concentrated solution of sodium hydroxide via carbon electrodes. The cell reaction can be
written as follows :
Cathode Reaction : O2 + 2H2O + 4e – → 4OH –
Anode Reaction : 2H2 + 4OH – → 4H2O + 4e –
Net Cell Reaction : 2H2 + O2 → 2H2O

However, the reaction rate of this electrochemical reaction is quite low. This issue is
overcome with the help of a catalyst such as platinum or palladium. Inorder to increase
the effective surface area, the catalyst is finely divided before being incorporated into the
electrodes. A block diagram of this fuel cell is provided below.

Fig. 5.9.1 : Block diagram of fuelcell

The efficiency of the fuel cell described above in the generation of electricity generally
approximates to 70 % whereas thermal power plants have an efficiency of 40 %. This
substantial difference in efficiency is because the generation of electric current in a
thermal power plant involves the conversion of water into steam, and the usage of this
steam to rotate a turbine. Fuel cells, however, offer a platform for the direct conversion of
chemical energy into electrical energy.

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledge

Renewable Energy Systems 5 - 23 Other Energy Sources

5.10 Types of Fuel Cells

Despite working in a similar manner, there exist many varieties of fuel cells. Some of
these types of fuel cells are discussed in this subsection.

5.10.1 Polymer Electrolyte Membrane (PEM) Fuel Cell

 These cells are also known as proton exchange membrane fuel cells (or PEMFCs).
 The temperature range that these cells operate in the temperature range of 50 ºC to
100 ºC
 The electrolyte used in PEMFCs is a polymer which has the ability to conduct
protons.
 A typical PEM fuel cell consists of bipolar plates, a catalyst, electrodes, and the
polymer membrane.

Fig. 5.10.1 : PEM fuel cell

 Despite having eco-friendly applications in transportation, PEMFCs can also be

used for the stationary and portable generation of power.

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledge

Renewable Energy Systems 5 - 24 Other Energy Sources

5.10.2 Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cell

Fig. 5.10.2 : Phosphoric acid fuel cell

 These fuel cells involve the use of phosphoric acid as an electrolyte in order to
+
channel the H .
 The working temperatures of these cells lie in the range of 150 ºC – 200 ºC.
 Electrons are forced to travel to the cathode via an external circuit because of the
non-conductive nature of phosphoric acid.
 Due to the acidic nature of the electrolyte, the components of these cells tend to
corrode or oxidize over time.

5.10.3 Solid Acid Fuel Cell

 A solid acid material is used as the electrolyte in these fuel cells.
 The molecular structures of these solid acids are ordered at low temperatures.
 At higher temperatures, a phase transition can occur which leads to a huge increase
in conductivity.
 Examples of solid acids include CsHSO4 and CsH2PO4 (cesium hydrogen sulphate
and cesium dihydrogen phosphate respectively).

5.10.4 Alkaline Fuel Cell

 This was the fuel cell which was used as the primary source of electricity in the
Apollo space program.
 In these cells, an aqueous alkaline solution is used to saturate a porous matrix,
which is in turn used to separate the electrodes.

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledge

Renewable Energy Systems 5 - 25 Other Energy Sources

Fig. 5.10.3 : Alkaline fuel cell

 The anode and cathode are made of lower-cost, nonprecious metals such as nickel.
The electrolyte is a solution of potassium hydroxide (KOH) in water, which ionizes
+ –
to form potassium ions (K ) and hydroxyl (OH ) ions.
 In the AFC, hydrogen gas is oxidized to hydrogen ions and combines with the
hydroxide ions, which produces water (H2O) and releases two electrons. The
electrons flow through the external circuit and return to the cathode, where they
reduce oxygen to form more hydroxide ions and water.
 The operating temperatures of these cells are quite low (approximately 90 ºC).
 These cells are highly efficient. They also produce heat and water along with
electricity.

5.10.5 Solid Oxide Fuel Cell

 These cells involve the use of a solid oxide or a ceramic electrolyte (such as yttria-
stabilized zirconia).
 These fuel cells are highly efficient and have a relatively low cost (Theoretical
efficiency can even approach 85 %).

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledge

Renewable Energy Systems 5 - 26 Other Energy Sources

Fig. 5.10.4 : Solid oxide fuel cell

 The operating temperatures of these cells are very high (lower limit of 600 ºC,
standard operating temperatures lie between 800 and 1000 ºC).
 Solid oxide fuel cells are limited to stationary applications due to their high
operating temperatures.

5.10.6 Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell

 The electrolyte used in these cells is lithium potassium carbonate salt. This salt
becomes liquid at high temperatures, enabling the movement of carbonate ions.
 Similar to SOFCs, these fuel cells also have a relatively high operating temperature
of 650 ºC.

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledge

Renewable Energy Systems 5 - 27 Other Energy Sources

Fig. 5.10.5 : Molten carbonate fuel cell

 The anode and the cathode of this cell are vulnerable to corrosion due to the high
operating temperature and the presence of the carbonate electrolyte.
 These cells can be powered by carbon-based fuels such as natural gas and biogas.

Advantages of fuel cell

 High efficiency - Most fuel cells are 60 % - 80 % energy efficient. However, this
efficiency can increase to 85 %, when these fuel cells are used in a cogeneration
system.
 Clean - Fuel cells work with no emissions, the only products being electricity, heat
and water. They are thus, much cleaner than traditional power generation,
producing 97 % less nitrogen oxide emissions than the thermal power plants.
 Scalable - Can be stacked on one another.
 No Noise - More silent in operation when compared to the conventional sources of
power generators. There are no moving parts in a fuel cell stack, making them
quieter.

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledge

Renewable Energy Systems 5 - 28 Other Energy Sources

 Low Maintenance - Though the initial cost is higher, fuel cell technology does not
involve much maintenance. Fuel cells do not degrade over time, unlike batteries,
and can, therefore, provide electricity continuously.

Disadvantages of fuel cell

 One of the major drawbacks of this technology is the challenge in production,
transportation, flammability and storage of hydrogen gas, which is the main
constituent in the fuel cells.
 Lack of proper infrastructure in the form of recharging stations also stunts the
growth of fuel cell vehicles.
 The absence of proper hydrogen infrastructure to supply hydrogen fuel is a major
disadvantage too.

Applications of fuel cell

Fuel cell technology has a wide range of applications. Currently, heavy research is
being conducted inorder to manufacture a cost-efficient automobile which is powered by
a fuel cell. A few applications of this technology are listed below,
 Fuel cell electric vehicles, or FCEVs, use clean fuels and are therefore more eco-
friendly than internal combustion engine-based vehicles.
 They have been used to power many space expeditions including the apollo space
program.
 Generally, the byproducts produced from these cells are heat and water.
 The portability of some fuel cells is extremely useful in some military applications.
 These electrochemical cells can also be used to power several electronic devices.
 Fuel cells are also used as primary or backup sources of electricity in many remote
areas.

5.11 Energy Storage System

The energy storage along with renewable energy generators/PV is required to increase
the reliability and flexibility. The intermittent nature of renewable sources like solar and
wind needs storage to deliver the right amount of power at right quality to accommodate
the projected high penetration of solar and wind energy in future grids with lower grid
rejection loss.

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledge

Renewable Energy Systems 5 - 29 Other Energy Sources

Services of Energy Storage System

Energy Arbitrate : Storing cheap off-peak energy and dispatching it as peak electricity
which requires large storage reservoir required at large capacity. Examples : Compressed
air and pumped hydro storage.

Load Regulation :
 Responding to small changes in demand energy storage technologies were suitable
for load/frequency regulation due to their high response time and high partial load
efficiency.
 They have to be,
o Highly reliable
o Continuous change in output power
o Suitable for frequent ON-OFF
o Examples : Flywheel, ultra capacitors, batteries.
Contingency Reserves : Mainly used as alternatives for generators when there is
transmission line trip or grid failure. These are categorized into three types :
 Spinning reserve : Operates within 10 mins of outage.
 Supplemental reserve : Comes into operation when spinning reserve is fully
discharged.
 Back up reserve : Acts as a backup in case of spinning/supplemental reserve failure.
In all the services the load regulation service yields more revenue but each storage
technology can participate in more than one market.

Other Services of Energy Storage System

Load following : To fill the difference or gap between demand and supply.
 Difference between load following and load regulation is the time scale.
 The range for load regulation is a few seconds.
 The range for load following is within minutes.
Capacity supply : The capacity supply reduces the investment for new thermal or
other conventional generation technologies. The investor could rent the storage capacity
in the market.
Transmission and distribution loss reduction : With the rise in demand new
transmission lines has to be set up which increases capital cost and the transmission
losses. Energy storage at the load centers resolves both the problems.

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledge

Renewable Energy Systems 5 - 30 Other Energy Sources

Categories of Energy Storage System

Power quality : Main purpose is frequency and voltage regulation. Its operating range
is from seconds to few minutes. Examples : Flywheel, ultra capacitors, SMES, batteries
Bridging power : Main purpose is to act as contingency reserves and ramping of load.
Its operating range is from few minutes to one/two hour. Examples : High energy density
batteries.
Energy management : The main purpose is load following, Capacity supply,
Reduction of transmission and distribution losses. Its operating range is from few hours
to days. Examples : Compressed air energy storage, pumped hydro storage.

5.12 Hybrid Energy System

As conventional fossil fuel energy sources diminish and the world’s environmental
concern about acid deposition and global warming increases, renewable energy sources
(solar, wind, tidal, biomass and geothermal etc) are attracting more attention as
alternative energy sources. These are all pollution free and one can say eco-friendly.
These are available at free of cost.
In India, there is severe power shortage and associated power quality problems. The
quality of the grid supply in some places is characterized by large voltage and frequency
fluctuations, scheduled and unscheduled power cuts and load restrictions. Load shedding
in many cities in India due to power shortage and faults is a major problem for which
there is no immediate remedy in the near future since the gap between the power
demand and supply is increasing every year.
In India wind and solar energy sources are available all over the year at free of cost
whereas tidal and wave are coastal area. Geothermal is available at specific location. To
meet the demand and for the sake of continuity of power supply, storing of energy is
necessary. The term hybrid power system is used to describe any power system combine
two or more energy conversion devices, or two or more fuels for the same device, that
when integrated, overcome limitations inherent in either.
Usually one of the energy sources is a conventional one (which necessarily does not
depend on renewable energy resource) powered by a diesel engine, while the other(s)
would be renewable viz. solar photovoltaic, wind or hydro. The design and structure of a
hybrid energy system obviously take into account the types of renewable energy sources
available locally, and the consumption the system supports. For example, the hybrid
energy system presented here is a small-scale system and the consumption of power takes
place during nights.

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledge

Renewable Energy Systems 5 - 31 Other Energy Sources

The wind energy component will make a more significant contribution in the hybrid
system than solar energy. Although the energy produced by wind during night can be
used directly without storage. Battery is needed to store solar and wind energy produced
during the day. In addition to the technical considerations, cost benefit is a factor that has
to be incorporated into the process of optimizing a hybrid energy system.
In general, the use of wind energy is cheaper than that of solar energy. In areas where
there is a limited wind source, a wind system has to be over-dimensioned inorder to
produce the required power, and this results in higher plant costs. It has been
demonstrated that hybrid energy systems (renewable coupled with conventional energy
source) can significantly reduce the total life cycle cost of a standalone power supplies in
many off-grid situations. while at the same time providing a reliable supply of electricity
using a combination of energy sources.
Numerous hybrid systems have been installed across the world, and expanding
renewable energy industry has now developed reliable and cost competitive systems
using a variety of technologies. Research in the development of hybrid systems focused
on the performance analysis of demonstration systems and development of efficient
power converters.

Features of Hybrid Energy System

 Hybrid systems can address limitations in terms of fuel flexibility, efficiency,
reliability, emissions and / or economics.
 Incorporating heat, power, and highly efficient devices (Fuel cells, advanced
materials, cooling systems, etc.) can increase overall efficiency.
 Conserve energy for a hybrid system when compared with individual technologies.
 Achieving higher reliability can be accomplished with redundant technologies
and/or energy storage.
 Some hybrid systems typically include both, which can simultaneously improve the
quality and availability of power.
 Hybrid systems can be designed to maximize the use of renewable.
 Resulting in a system with lower emissions than traditional fossil-fuel technologies.
 Hybrid systems can be designed to achieve desired attributes at the lowest
acceptable cost, which is the key to market acceptance.

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledge

Renewable Energy Systems 5 - 32 Other Energy Sources

5.12.1 Wind/PV Hybrid System

 A typical hybrid energy system consists of solar and wind energy sources.
 The principle of an open loop hybrid system of this type is shown in Fig. 5.12.1.

Fig. 5.12.1 : Wind/PV hybrid system

 The power produced by the wind generators is an AC voltage but have variable
amplitude and frequency that can then be transformed into DC to charge the
battery.
 The controller protects the battery from overcharging or deep discharging.
 As high voltages can be used to reduce system losses, an inverter is normally
introduced to transform the low DC voltage to an AC voltage of 230 V of frequency
50 Hz.
 The system, whose block diagram is shown in Fig. 5.12.1 above, consists of 12
photovoltaic (PV) panels, which can provide a total power of 900 W, and a wind
generator that can produce a maximum power of 2200 W.
 The hybrid PV-wind generator system has been designed to supply continuous
power of 1.5 kW and should has the following capabilities :
o Maximizes the electric power produced by the PV panels or by the wind
generator by detecting and tracking the point of maximum power.
 Stores the electric energy in lead-acid batteries for a stable repeater operation.
 Controls the charge and discharge processes of the batteries.
 Protects wind generator from over speeding by connecting a dummy load to its
output.

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledge

Renewable Energy Systems 5 - 33 Other Energy Sources

Fig. 5.12.2 : Wind Speed Vs frequency curve

 Initiates the operation of a diesel generator or connects the system to the electric
grid (if available), when the renewable energy sources fail to produce sufficient
electric energy.
 Provides continuous and uninterruptible electric power (220 V, 50 Hz) to a 1.5-kW
house load.

Fig. 5.12.3 : Local solar radiation curve

 Local solar radiation information : High, low and average values of daily solar
radiation calculated over one year.

5.12.2 PV/ Hydro Hybrid System

 The block diagram of hybrid system, which combines PV with hydro system, is
shown in Fig. 5.12.4.

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledge

Renewable Energy Systems 5 - 34 Other Energy Sources

Fig. 5.12.4 : PV/ Hydro hybrid system

 In this system there is a small reservoir to store the water.

 This type of hybrid system sometimes depends upon the geographical condition
where the water at some height is available.
 System capacity depends upon the water quantity and solar radiation.
 The power supplied by falling water is the rate at which it delivers energy, and this
depends on the flow rate and water head.
 The local water flow and head are limited at this project site, and a relatively simple
hydro energy component is used in the project.
 Hydropower available is may be of runoff river type hence produces variable
amplitude and frequency voltage.
 It can be used to charge the battery after converting it into DC.

5.13 Two Marks Questions with Answers

[Part A]

Q.1 What is meant by tidal current energy ?

Ans. : Tidal currents are the flow of water during changing tidal level. The tidal
currents flow in horizontal direction and have kinetic energy. This energy is called tidal
current energy.
Q.2 What is meant by tidal current ?
Ans. : The tidal rise and fall of water is accompanied by periodic horizontal to and fro
motion of water called tidal currents.

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledge

Renewable Energy Systems 5 - 35 Other Energy Sources

Q.3 Define tidal range.

Ans. : The tidal range is the difference between consecutive high and low tide water
levels. It is denoted by R unit is meter.
R = (High tide level) – (Low tide level) m
Q.4 Define the following terms a) Spring tides b) Neap tides.

Ans. :
a) Spring tides : The tidal range is maximum on full moon and new moon and such
tides are called spring tides.
b) Neap tides : The tidal range is minimum on first quarter and third quarter moon
and such tides are called the neap tides.
Q.5 List out the limitations of tidal energy.
Ans. : The main limitations of tidal energy are,
 Economic recovery of energy from tides is feasible only at those sites where energy is
concentrated in the form of tidal range of about 5 m or more and the geography
provides a favorable site for economic construction of a tidal plant. Thus it is site
specific.
 Due to mismatch of lunar driven period of 12 hours 25 min and human (solar) period
of 24 hours, the optimum tidal power generation is not in phase with demand.
 Changing tidal range in two-week periods produces changing power.
 The turbines are required to operate at variable head.
 Requirement of large water volume flow at low head necessitates parallel operation
of many turbines.
 Tidal plant disrupts marine life at the location and can cause potential harm to
ecology.
Q.6 List out the advantages of small hydro schemes.

Ans. :
 Small hydro plants can be tailored to the needs of the end use market within the
limits of water resources available.
 It serves to enhance economic development and living standards, especially in
remote areas with limited or no electricity at all.
 It has a short gestation period.
 There is no need of long transmission lines because the output is consumed near the
source.
 High performing electrical equipment can be easily found in the market.

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledge

Renewable Energy Systems 5 - 36 Other Energy Sources

Q.7 List out the disadvantages of small hydro schemes.

Ans. :
 Hydro systems, unlike solar components for example, do require some maintenance.
 The quality of output of small power stations is not as good as that of bigger ones as
these power plants are generally designed on the basis of short term raw data. Thus,
the ground conditions of operation are much different from those considered for the
design.
 Spilling of water over spillways can result in super saturation of water with gases
from the air. The gas bubbles absorbed into fish tissues, may cause damage and
ultimately kill the fish.
 In the absence of adequate hydrological and geological data, there are always
uncertainties about their potential as a resource.
Q.8 Mention the components of micro hydro scheme.
Ans. : The main components of micro hydro scheme are,
(i) Diversion weir
(ii) Water conductor system with regulating gates and spillways
(iii) Desilting tank with spillway,
(iv) Headrace channel,
(v) Forebay tank with desilting basin and spillway,
(vi) Penstock
(vii) Power house and
(viii) Tail race channel.
Q.9 Define the following terms a) Forebay b) Penstock c) Tailrace.

Ans. :
a) Forebay - A Forebay is a temporary storage of water (pond age), to be finally
utilized for energy generation. The storage size ranges from 2 minutes to
6 hours depending on the economic justifiability.
b) Penstock - A penstock is water conduit joining a forebay and a turbine.
Penstock can be made of steel pipes, hume pipes and PVC pipes depending on
the design pressure.
c) Tailrace - Tailrace is a simple water channel to transport discharge from the
turbine back to the river with maximum flow of 1 m/s.

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledge

Renewable Energy Systems 5 - 37 Other Energy Sources

Q.10 What are the kinds of geothermal resources ?

Ans. : There are five kinds of geothermal resources. They are :
 Hydrothermal convective systems.
o Vapour dominated or dry steam fields.
o Liquid dominated system or wet steam fields and
o Hot water fields.
 Geo pressure resources
 Petro-thermal or Hot Dry Rocks(HDR)
 Magma resources
 Valcanoes.
Q.11 What is meant by OTEC ?
Ans. : The temperature gradient can be utilized in a heat engine to generate power is
called as Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion(OTEC).This energy has very low efficiency
and has very high capital cost, because the temperature difference is small even in
tropics.
Q.12 How the fuel cells are classified ?
Ans. : The classifications of fuel cells are :
 Based on the type of electrolyte
 Based on the types of the fuel and oxidant
 Based on operating temperature
 Based on application
 Based on the chemical nature of electrolyte.
Q.13 Mention some advantages of fuel cells.
Ans. :
 It is quiet in operation .
 Less pollutant.
 Conversion efficiency is more due to direct single stage energy conversion.
 Fuel cell plant can be installed near the point of use, thus transmission and
distribution losses are avoided.
 Fuel cell plants are compact and require less space.
 No charging is required.

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledge

Renewable Energy Systems 5 - 38 Other Energy Sources

Q.14 What is meant by stirling engine ?

Ans. : A stirling engine is a mechanical device which operates on a closed regenerative
thermodynamic cycle, with cycle compression and expansion of the working fluid at
different temperature levels and where the flow is controlled by volume changes, so
that there is a net conversion of heat to work or vice versa.
Q.15 List the main components of stirling engine.
Ans. : There are five main components of stirling engine. They are :
(a) Heater (b) Regenerator
(c) Coolers (d) Displacer
(e) Power piston.
Q.16 Mention some uses of Stirling engine.
Ans. : Uses of stirling engine are :
 Automobile engine
o Low air pollution levels that are possible
o Low noise levels because there are no explosions as in internal combustion
engines and
o Ability to use a variety of fuels such as natural or synthetic gaseous or liquid
hydrocarbons, stored in solar energy, or even possibly powdered coal
 Stationary engine.
Q.17 What are the types of tidal power plants ?
Ans. :
 Single basin single effect plant
 Single basin double effect plant
 Double basin with linked basin operation
 Double basin with paired basin operation.
Q.18 What are the important components of a tidal power plant ?
Ans. :
 Barrage
 Sluice gates
 Power house with turbines each coupled to a generator along with auxiliary
equipment.

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledge

Renewable Energy Systems 5 - 39 Other Energy Sources

Q.19 What are the advantages of tidal plant ?

Ans. :
 Tidal power is predictable.
 It is free from pollution.
 It is inexhaustible and is a renewable source of energy.
 Does not require valuable land as they are located on sea sources.
 Tidal power with thermal plant can meet the load demand.
 After the capital power is paid off , the cost of power generated is very low.
 Tidal power is firm not changes seasonally.
Q.20 What are the disadvantages of tidal plant ?
Ans. :
 Tidal power plant output varies with the variation in tidal range.
 Tidal power supply is intermittent.
 Capital cost of plant is not economical compared to conventional sources of energy
 Slitting of basins is a problem with tidal power plants
Q.21 What are the advantages of wave energy generation ?
Ans. :
 It is a free and renewable energy source.
 Wave power devices use less land than solar and wind.
 Devices are pollution free. Remove energy from the waves; leave the water in a
placid state.
 The degree of power concentration effected by waves is large.
Q.22 What are the disadvantages of wave energy generation ?
Ans. :
 Wave energy equipment must be capable of withstanding very reverse peak stress
and storms.
 Wave energy equipment’s are complicated.
 Capital investment, cost of maintenance repair and replacement growth of biological
organisms are other problems.
 Energy is available on the ocean. The extraction equipment must be operated in a
marine environment.

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledge

Renewable Energy Systems 5 - 40 Other Energy Sources

Q.23 Define lamberts law of absorption.

Ans. : Each water layer of identical thickness absorbs an equal fraction of light that
passes through it. The intensity of heat decreases with the increase in water depth.
Q.24 What are the types of OTEC plants ?
Ans. :
 Open
 Closed and
 Thermoelectric.
Q.25 What is Bio fouling ?
Ans. : The raw ocean water which is pumped in for evaporator and condenser contains
microorganisms which stick on the water side of both the heat exchangers. This
biological impurity of sea water that deposits and grows on the evaporator and
condenser metal surfaces creating thermal resistance for heat transfer is known as bio
fouling.
Q.26 Define small hydro plant.
Ans. : A power station having 5000 kW output and having a low head upto 15 m. But
there is no restriction on head.
Q.27 Define micro and mini hydro plant.
Ans. : Stations upto 1000 kW output - micro hydroplant Stations upto 5000 kW output-
mini hydroplant.
Q.28 What are the major components of small hydropower projects ?
Ans. :
 Diversion weir and intake
 Desilting tank
 Water conductor system
 Forebay
 Penstock
 Spillway
 Power house
 Tail race.

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledge

Renewable Energy Systems 5 - 41 Other Energy Sources

Q.29 What are the three parts of earth ?

Ans. :
 Crust
 Mantle and
 Core.
Q.30 What are the two parts of the crust ?
Ans. :
 Solid crust
 Ocean crust.
Q.31 What are plate tectonics ?
Ans. : Movement of crust caused by the movement of the lithosphere over the
asthenosphere.
Q.32 What are the types of geo thermal resources ?
Ans. :
 Hydrothermal
 Vapour dominated resource
 Hot dry rock resource
 Geo pressured resource
 Magma resource.
Q.33 Define magma ?
Ans. : Magma is a molten rock at temperature ranging from 700 ºC to 1600 ºC. This hot
viscous liquid comes out at active volcanic vents and solidifies.
Q.34 What are the types of geothermal power generation ?
Ans. :
 Liquid dominated
 Flashed steam engine
 Binary cycle system
 Vapour dominated resource.
Q.35 Write the field of utilization of geothermal energy.
Ans. :
 Power generation
 Space heating

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledge

Renewable Energy Systems 5 - 42 Other Energy Sources

 Extraction and refining at borax and sulphur

 Green house heating
 Refrigeration.
Q.36 What are the advantages of geothermal energy ?
Ans. :
 Versatile in its use.
 It is cheaper compared to the energies obtained from other sources both zero fuels
and fossil fuels.
 It delivers greater amount of net energy from its system than other alternative of
conventional systems.
 It has the highest annual load factor at 85 % to 90 % compared to 50 % for fossil fuel
plants.
 Pollution produced is least.
Q.37 What are the disadvantages of geothermal energy ?
Ans. :
 Overall efficiency is 15 % compared to 35-40 % for fossil fuel plants.
 The withdrawal of large amount of steam or water from a hydrothermal reservoir
may result in surface subsidence.
 Drilling operation is noisy.
 Large areas are needed for exploitation of geothermal energy as much of it is
diffused.
Q.38 Define fuel cell.
Ans. : It is an electrochemical device that converts chemical energy of fuel in to
electricity without involving a combustion cycle
Q.39 What are the technical parameters of a fuel cell ?
Ans. :
 Individual cell - 0.55 to 0.75 V.
 No of cells arranged in stacks provides required level of voltage.
 Given power- electrode size and number of cells.
Q.40 What are configurations of stirling engine ?
Ans. :
 Single acting
 Dual acting

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledge

Renewable Energy Systems 5 - 43 Other Energy Sources

Solved Questions

[Part B]

Q.1 Explain in detail the general arrangements for generating units in tidal power plants. What are
its merits and demerits ? (Refer sections 5.1 and 5.2)
Q.2 Describe the construction and working principle of geothermal power plants in detail.
Enumerate the advantages and disadvantages of geothermal plant.
(Refer sections 5.1 and 5.2)
Q.3 Explain the working of a tidal power plant and the two way operating cycle for its units.

(Refer section 5.2)

Q.4 a) Compare tidal power plant with geothermal power plant.

b) With relevant diagram, explain the operation of tidal power plant.

(Refer sections 4.7 and 5.2)
Q.5 a) Explain in detail any one type of geothermal power plant. Compare its efficiency with tidal
power plant. (Refer sections 4.7 and 5.1)
Q.6 a) Define tidal plant.

b) With a neat sketch explain the working principle of two pool tidal system.
(Refer sections 5.1 and 5.2)
Q.7 Draw and explain the following cycles a) Open OTEC b) Closed OTEC. (Refer section 5.6)

Q.8 What is wave energy ? Explain the wave energy components with neat diagram. List out its
merits and demerits. (Refer section 5.3)



TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledge

Renewable Energy Systems 5 - 44 Other Energy Sources

Notes

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledge

Time : Three Hours] [Maximum Marks : 100

Answer ALL Questions

PART A - (10  2 = 20 Marks)

Q.1 What are the factors causing wind ?

(Refer Two Marks Q.11 of Chapter - 1)
Q.2 What are the advantages of renewable energy source ?
(Refer Two Marks Q.3 of Chapter - 1)
Q.3 Draw the block diagram of wind power plant.
(Refer Two Marks Q.5 of Chapter - 2)
Q.4 Define wind turbine and its types.
(Refer Two Marks Q.14 of Chapter - 2)
Q.5 What is meant by solar ponds ?
(Refer Two Marks Q.11 of Chapter - 3)
Q.6 List the application of solar PV systems.
(Refer Two Marks Q.13 of Chapter - 3)
Q.7 Classify the biomass resources. (Refer Two Marks Q.2 of Chapter - 4)
Q.8 What is meant by cogeneration ?
(Refer Two Marks Q.22 of Chapter - 4)
Q.9 What are the types of tidal power plant ? (Refer Two Marks Q.17 of Chapter - 5)
Q.10 Define lamberts law of absorption. (Refer Two Marks Q.23 of Chapter - 5)
PART B - (5  13 = 65 Marks)

Q.11 a) Summarize the energy consumption pattern and growth rate of energy consumption in
India. What do you conclude from this ? (Refer section 1.7) [13]

OR

b) Illustrate the different types of renewable energy sources. (Refer section 1.5) [13]
Q.12 a) Classify the components and working principle of wind power plant.
(Refer section 2.5) [13]

(M - 1)
Renewable Energy Systems M-2 Solved Model Question Paper

OR

b) Outline the classifications of wind turbine.

(Refer section 2.4.4) [13]

Q.13 a) i) Explain about solar radiation and its measurement.

(Refer section 3.1) [7]

ii) Explain about the working principle of solar ponds.

(Refer section 3.5) [6]

OR

b) Summarize the different types of solar thermal collector. (Refer section 3.3) [13]
Q.14 a) Explain in detail about energy from biomass. (Refer section 4.3) [13]

b) Infer the power generation from the geothermal energy.

(Refer section 4.8) [13]

Q.15 a) Illustrate the fuel cell and its types. (Refer section 5.8) [13]

b) Explain about any one of the hybrid system. (Refer section 5.12) [13]

PART C - (1  15 = 15 Marks)

Q.16 a) Demonstrate the biomass cogeneration system.

(Refer section 4.5) [15]

OR

b) Explain about the construction and working principle of hydro power plant.
(Refer section 4.10) [15]



TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledge