Lecture Notes 2

in
STRUCTURAL THEORY 1
CE-03
First semester
2022-2023
BSCE Curriculum 2018

Presented by: NENITA M. ABARADO, C.E.

BOHOL ISLAND STATE UNIVERSITY MAIN CAMPUS
College of Engineering and Architecture
 Lesson 2
Determination of Loads (Dead Load and Live Load)

Learning Objectives:

At the end of the lesson, the students should be able to:

1. calculate the influence areas for beam and column;

2. determine the dead load and live load of the sections permitted by the specified code
and
3. sketch the loading that acts along specified members of the given structural framework

Time Frame: 5 hours

Introduction

A structural engineer's goal is to build a structure that can withstand all the loads it is
subjected to while serving its intended purpose over its intended life span. Therefore, in
designing a structure, an engineer must consider all the loads that can be expected to act
practically on the structure during its projected life span.

The loads acting on typical civil engineering structures can be divided into three: (1)
dead loads due to the weight of the structural elements and any other material permanently
attached to them; (2) live loads due to the structure's use; and (3) environmental loads due to
environmental effects;

2.1 Dead Loads

Dead loads consist of the weights of the various structural members and also the weight
of any objects permanently fixed to the structure. The dead loads therefore include the weights
of the columns, beams, and girders, the floor slab, roofing, walls , windows, plumbing , electrical
fixtures, or other miscellaneous fixtures for a building.

All the dead loads are known as permanent loads. Permanent loads involve not only
dead loads but also forces formed by permanent changes in the constraints loads of a structure
due to settlement, the secondary effects of pre-stress or due to shrinkage and concrete
creeping.

 Procedure

Basic formulae based on the weights and sizes of the members of the structures will
estimate the dead load satisfactorily. When determining the sizes of the various components
of the structure, the weights of the materials can be obtained from the tables specifying its
densities. (The NSCP has loading specification tables.) Tables 1 and 2 using the ASCE
Specifications shown below:
 Table 1 : Minimum Densities for Design Loads from
Materials*
kN/m3
Aluminum 26.7
Concrete, plain cinder 17.0
Concrete, plain stone 22.6
Concrete, reinforced cinder 17.4
Concrete, reinforced stone 23.6
Clay, dry 9.9
Clay, damp 17.3
Sand and gravel, dry, loose 15.7
Sand and gravel, wet 18.9
Masonry, lightweight solid concrete 16.5
Masonry, normal weight 21.2
Plywood 5.7
Steel, cold-drawn 77.3
Wood, Douglas Fir 5.3
Wood, Southern Pine 5.8
Wood, Spruce 4.5

Table 2 : Minimum Design Dead Loads*

Walls kN/m2
100 mm clay brick 1.87
200 mm clay brick 3.78
300 mm clay brick 5.51
Frame Partitions and Walls
Exterior stud walls with brick veneer 2.30
Windows, glass, frame and sash 0.38
Wood studs 50x100 mm unplastered 0.19
Wood studs 50x100 mm plastered one side 0.57
Wood studs 50x100 mm plastered two sides 0.96
Floor Fill
Cinder concrete, per mm 0.017
Lightweight concrete, plain, per mm 0.015
Stone concrete, per mm 0.023
Ceilings
Acoustical fiberboard 0.05
Plaster on tile or concrete 0.24
Suspended metal lath and gypsum plaster 0.48
Asphalt shingles 0.10
Fiberboard, 1.3 mm 0.04
*Reproduced with permission from American Society of Civil Engineers Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and Other
Structures, SEI/ASCE 7-02. Copies of this standard may be purchased from ASCE at 345 East 47th Street, New York, N.Y
10017-2398

Table 1 shows the densities of typical building materials whereas Table 2 presents the
part of a list showing their weights. Although calculating dead loads based on the use of
tabulated data is relatively straightforward, it should be realized that these loads has to be
estimated during initial design phase. Such projections include the non-structural materials
such as prefabricated facade panels, electrical and plumbing systems, etc.

Besides that, even if the material is specified, the unit weights of the materials specified
in the code may change from those supplied by manufactures, so, the actual use in the building
may entail some adjustments in dead loading. As a result, estimates of dead loads can be up
to 15 percent to 20 percent or more in error.

Normally the dead load is not significant compared to the design load for simple
structures such as a beam or a single-story frame; however, it is essential for multi – storey
buildings to have an accurate accounting of all dead loads in order to properly design the
columns, specifically for the lower floors.

See pages 20-22, Kassimali (for the load path illustration)

Sample Problem 1.

In the given figure, the floor beam is used to support the 1.83
m width of a 102 mm thick, lightweight plain concrete slab. For
the floor below, the slab acts as a portion of the ceiling and
thus its bottom is covered with plaster. In addition, a beam is
supporting a masonry light weignt concrete block wall 2.44 m
high and has a width of 305 mm. Determine the beam load
determined by beam length per meter. Use ASCE
specification as provided in this lesson.

Solution:

Using the data in Tables 1 and 2, we have

Concrete slab: (0.015kN/m2./mm) (102mm) (1.83m) = 2.80 kN/m

Plaster ceiling: (0.24 kN/ m2) (1.83m) = 0.44 kN/m

Block wall: (16.5 kN/ m3) (2.44m) (0.305m) = 12.26 kN/m

-----------------
Total load = 15.50kN/m

2.2 Live Loads

Live loads are imposed loads, are temporary, of short duration, or moving. These
dynamics loads may involve considerations as impact, momentum, vibration, slosh dynamics
of fluids, fatigue, etc. Live loads, also referred to as probabilistic loads, involve all forces within
the usual operation period of objects which are variable.

Live loads being generated from structure usage. They are dependent on time, and
dependent on space. Their magnitudes and distribution differ considerably according to
occupancy and purpose.

The reason to allow concentrated loads is that certain localized loads (e.g. heavy
furniture products, machinery, or vehicles) may not be adequately reflected by a UDL.

The distributed and concentrated imposed loads shall be considered separately and
design carried out for the most adverse effect. A concentrated load shall be applied as follows:

2.2.1 Reduced Live Load

Many codes will allow for a reduction in the uniform live load for a floor as it is possible
that the specified live load will take place simultaneously in the entire structure at any time. For
instance, ASCE 7-10 allows live load reduction on a member having an area of influence of
400 ft2 or more.

Equation in calculating reduced live load:

4.57
𝐿 = 𝐿𝑂 (0.25 + )
√𝐾𝐿𝐿 𝐴 𝑇 Eq. 1–1

where:

L = reduced design live load per square meter of area supported by the member

Lo = unreduced design live load per square meter of area by the member

KLL = live load element factor. For interior columns KLL = 4.

AT = tributary area in square meters.

Reduced Live load specified by Eq. 1–1 is limited to not less than 50% for members that
support one floor, or not less than 40% for members that support more than one floor. No
reduction is allowed for loads exceeding 100 lb/ft2 or 14.79 kN/m 2 or for structures used for
public assembly, garages, or roofs.

Sample Problem 2.

A two-storey office building has interior columns that are spaced 6.71 m apart in two
perpendicular directions. If the (flat) roof loading is 0.96kN/m 2, determine the reduced live load
supported by a typical interior column located at the ground level.
Refer to Table 3 for Lo.

Table 3 : Minimum Live Loads

Live Live Load
Occupancy or Use Load Occupancy or Use kN/m2
kN/m2
Assembly areas and theaters Residential
Fixed seats 2.87 Dwellings (one- and two-family) 1.92
Movable seats 4.79 Hotels and multifamily houses
Dance halls and ballrooms 4.79 Private rooms and corridors 1.92
Garages (passenger cars only) 2.40 Public rooms and corridors 4.79
Office buildings Schools
Lobbies 4.79 Classrooms 1.92
Offices 2.40 Corridors above first floor 3.83
Storage warehouse
Light 6.00
Heavy 11.97

*Reproduced with permission from Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and Other Structures, ASCE/SEI 7-10 (Hibbeler, p.13-
Table 1-4)

Solution:

As shown in the figure, each interior column has a tributary area or effective loaded
area or effective loaded area of:

𝐴 𝑇 = (6.71𝑚)(6.71𝑚) = 45.0 𝑚2
A ground-floor column therefore supports a roof live load

𝐹𝑅 = (0.96𝑘𝑁/𝑚2 )(45.0𝑚2 ) = 43.1 𝑘𝑁

This load cannot be reduced, since it is not a floor load. For the second floor,

Lo = 2.4kN/m2. Since KLL = 4, then 4AT = 4(45.0m2) = 180 m2 and 180 m2 and

180 m2 > 37.2 m2, the live load can be reduced using Eq. of reduced live load. Thus,

4.57
𝐿 = 2.4 (0.25 + ) = 1.42𝑘𝑁/𝑚2
√4(45.0)

The load reduction here is (1.42/2.4)100% = 59.1% > 50%. OK

Therefore,

FF = (1.42kn)/m2) (45.0m2) = 63.9kN

The total live load supported by the ground-floor column is thus

F = 𝐹𝑅 + 𝐹𝐹 = 43.1 + 63.9 = 𝟏𝟎𝟕. 𝟎 𝒌𝑵 Ans.

Note:

⠀The Structural Engineer generally addresses two types of codes: general building
code, and structural design code. The general building code defines the specifications of
government bodies while the structural design code sets the minimum building loads and
requirements.

Design codes have specific technical standards and are used to set practical structural
design criteria. Table 1–1 lists some of the codes that are essential in practice. But it must be
understood that codes only have a general design guide. The Civil Engineer is directly
responsible for the design

.2.3 Tributary area

Sometimes beams and girders are used to support floors in construction. In particular,
a girder is the floor’s main load carrying element, while the smaller elements which have a
shorter span and are connected to the girders are called beams. Often the loads that are
applied to a beam or girder are transmitted to it by the floor that is supported by the beam or
girder.
It is rational for analysis to assume that the joints are connecting to girders by pin and/or
roller and also that the girders are connected to the columns by pin and/or roller. The top view
of this system's structural framing plan is given in Fig. L2–2 (b).

Note in this "graphic" scheme that the "lines" representing the joists do not touch the
girders, and the columns do not touch the lines for the girders. This symbolizes pin- and/ or
roller-supported connections.
 On the other hand, if the framing plan is intended to represent fixed-connected
members, such as those welded in place of simple bolted connections, then the lines for the
beams or girders would touch the columns. (see. Hibbeler, p.38)

(Please recall these views and idealized system from your courses in Engineering
Drawing and Building Plans)

Tributary Loadings:

If a structural frame supports flat surfaces such as walls, floors, or roofs, how the
loads are transferred to the different structural elements used for their support is
important. There are two ways to do that. The choice is based upon the structural
system's geometry. There are the two-way and one-way systems.

2.3.1. One Way System (One way slab)

According to the American Concrete Institute, ACI 318 code, if L2 >L1, and the span
ratio L2/L1 >2, the slab will behave as a one-way slab.
Thus, the member is subjected to a linear distribution of load.
L2 = (greater span length) -the distance between two intermediate supports in a longitudinal
direction of a building.
L1 = (lesser span length) is the space between posts in the transverse direction of the building.
Sample Problem 3

The floor of a classroom is to be supported by the bar joist each 15ft long and they are spaced
2.5 ft. on centers. The floor itself is to be made from lightweight concrete that is 4 inches thick.
Determine the load that acts along each joist. (Neglect the weight of the joist and the corrugated
metal deck. Use ASCE 7 specification.
Solution:
From Table 1-3,
4” lightweight concrete = (4in) (8 lb/ft2/in )= 32 lb/ft2

From table 1-4,

Live load for a classroom is 40 lb/ft2.
Total floor load = 32 lb/ft2 + 40 lb.ft2 = 72 lb/ft2.

For the floor system, L1 = 2.5 ft.

L2 = 15 ft. since L2/L1 >2, concrete slab is treated as one-way slab.

Therefore, the uniform load acting on its length is, w = 72 lb/ft2. (2.5 ft.) = 180 lb/ft

2.3.2 Two-way system

If, according to the ACI 318 concrete code, the support span ratio L2/L1 ≤ 2 the load is
assumed to be delivered to the supporting beams and girders in two directions. When this is
the case the slab is referred to as a two-way slab.

The assumed beam tributary area is calculated by constructing 45 ° diagonal lines,

which intersect as shown in the figure. A load imposed on the slab then generates distributed
trapezoidal and triangular loads on the members.
Sample Problem 4.
The concrete girders of the passenger car
parking garage span 30 ft and are 15 ft on
center. If the floor slab is 5 in. thick and made
of reinforced stone concrete, and the
specified live load is 50 lb/ft2 (see Table 1–
4), determine the distributed load the floor
system transmits to each interior girder.
SOLUTION:

Span L2 = 30’
Bay length L1 = 15’ L2/L1 = 2, two –way system

Note: From table 1-2, for reinforced stone concrete, the specific weight = 150 #/ft3
Thus, the design floor loading;
P = 150 #/ft3 (5/12) ft. + 50 #/ft2 = 112.5#/ft2.

Load intensity for girder AB:

112.5 #/ft2 (7.5ft) = 843.75#/ft
On girder AB, this intensity becomes
2(843.75#/ft) = 1687.5#/ft

Loading diagram for Girder AB

Exercise 2.
Try this problem.

The flat roof of the steel-frame building is intended to support a total load of over its
surface. Determine the roof load within region ABCD that is transmitted to beam BC.
The dimensions are shown in Fig. 2.

Fig. 2
Solution:
Span L2 = 5m.
Bay length L1 = 4m.
L2/L1 = 1.25 < 2, two-way system (continue solving the problem)

Plate 2.

Identify the types of material on your structure in Plate 1. Using NSCP

2015, determine the densities or unit weight of those materials. Indicate
the table number and pages in the NSCP. Determine the dead load and
live load of the flooring system. Sketch the loading diagram of the beams
and girders.

References
Books:

 R.C. Hibbeler , STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS

 Aslam Kassimali, STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS

Websites:

 http://www.proz.com/kudoz/english/construction_civil_engineering/2837197-
live_load_vs_dead_load.html
 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Live_load#Loads_on_Architectural_and_Civil_Engineering
_Structureshang@civil.uwa.edu.au