Ethical Issues in Research

Ethics is concerned with the conduct of a human being. All scientific activities, including those
by social scientists, are conducted with the participation of human beings or have an impact on
human beings and on the wider society and environment. For making an ethical judgment, the
researcher relies upon various standards of ethics, which could be universal or specific to the
cultures or localities. A researcher should have deep concern for human welfare and sensitivity
for the rights of the research subjects. Sometimes, the ethical responsibility to safeguard the
subject’s rights conflicts with the efficiency with which one progresses with the research; it may
affect the ultimate quality of the results.
The period during the origin of ethical research is known as the dark ages of ethics. Slaves,
prisoners, criminals, children and poor people were forcibly used as samples or experimentation
subjects for the research activities. They were treated like animals and there was no
consideration for their rights, consent, wishes, or values. This dark period of ethical concern is
considered to be a big unhealed wound in the initial period of development of ethical research.
Between 1932 and 1972, there was a drastic and contagious spread of a sexually transmitted
disease called syphilis. This disease was studied by researchers as a kind of retrospective
cohort study to know the natural history of the disease, which has pre-pathogenesis,
pathogenesis, recovery from acute disease or chronic existence of disease leading to terminal
illness with disability or death. The research study titled “The Tuskegee Study of Untreated
Syphilis in Negro Male” done in Macon County, Alabama, used 400 Black males as subjects.
The main aim of the study was to determine the damage caused in the patients affected by
syphilis if it was left untreated. The spirochete treponema palladium, which caused the disease,
was injected into the subjects without their consent and they were left untreated. They were not
given any information regarding the disease and were left to die or experience the course of
illness, even though a proven cure was available for the disease.
The Nuremberg trials in 1947 helped bring forth many hidden details regarding the ethical
issues in the Second World War and paved the way for the establishment of the Nuremberg
Code. It became the foundation for future ethical guidelines regarding the use of human
samples in the research study.

Consideration of Human Rights in Research

Nurses are always present with patients and are under pressure to deal with all kinds of
problems and issues during patient care. There is a need for each nurse to be well acquainted
with the ethical principles and norms, so that they act as a shield and protect them from all the
legal and ethical issues concerning patient care. Therefore, the nurse should update their
knowledge about the new technology as well as the ethical issues affecting it.
The ethical considerations safeguarding the subject’s rights must always be given the highest
priority. Among human subjects, the rights that must be taken into consideration are as follows:

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 1. The right to choose whether or not to participate in the research and the option to
withdraw without being penalized, in other words, freedom from coercion
2. The right to full information about the research, that is, what is to be expected, and the
right to raise questions about the research as it progresses
3. The right for protection from unnecessary risk or harm as a result of participating in the
research project
4. The right to be informed of any potential risk or harm that might be incurred as a result of
participating in the research
5. The right for privacy, dignity and confidentiality
6. The right to be informed about the results of the research
Ethical Issues
Ethical and legal issues play an important role throughout the process of research activity, right
from the selection of the problem until its application. Research process must remove the
unwanted ethical issues and ensure a safe and harmless research process.
Selection of Research Problems and Conceptual Models: This is a crucial period during the
research process. Initially, it is not possible for the researcher to accurately estimate the
expense for the research process when selecting a research statement. He/she should select a
problem that is free from ethical issues, is affordable, is reasonable, has widely implementable
outcomes and has more benefits to the public. Adequate time and expert guidance are needed
to select the conceptual model for the research.
Ethical Research Concerning Research Methodology: There should be truth, honesty, and
sincerity in collecting the data for the research process. Faking or fabricating the data is against
ethical principles and becomes an ethical issue. The researcher should be evaluated at each
step by the guide and co-guide. Duplicating the results may help the researcher to complete the
project easily, but if the research data is found to be fabricated, it will ruin their future.
Methodology means the design of research. The core of research should be clear, the methods
should be enjoyable, and the subjects as well as the investigator should have full interest in the
research.
Ethical Issues in Publishing Research Reports: The reports should be original, clear, and
verified by the experts. The report should be relevant to the research statement and should be
made known to the public.
Ethical Issues in Application of Research Outcomes: It should be possible to apply the
findings of a research project in practice. For example, it was proved with evidence that
changing the position of an unconscious or bedridden patient every two hours reduces the
incidence of pressure sores. Thus, the finding should be constructive, creative, innovative, and
useful. It should benefit the patient and be widely implementable. It should be ensured that the
findings published in the report are not fake or duplicate, because implementing fake findings in
nursing care may prove harmful.

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The Nuremberg Code (1947)
It is a code of research-related principles for doing human experimentation, which has been
framed based on the Nuremberg trials that happened subsequent to the Second World War.
This code is framed to protect the humans from being forcibly used as experimental subjects
and to prevent them from being harmed or injured through human experimental research.
The Ten Points of Nuremberg Code
1. Voluntary Informed Consent: The voluntary consent of the human subject is absolutely
essential. This means that the participant should give consent wholeheartedly to
participate in the study, and not by force or compulsion. The researcher should give
complete details about the research to be conducted, such as the nature, duration,
purpose, advantages, and problems that participants may have to face in the research.

2. Beneficial Results: The research should yield results that benefit the society and
should not be random or uncertain in nature. The researcher should anticipate the
benefits and ensure that the experiment does not harm the humans or society.

3. Prior Experimentation on Animals and Prior Knowledge of Problem: The

experiments should not be performed on humans without tests to determine their safety
on animals, and the researchers should determine from prior knowledge the likely effects
of the experiment. Thus, the problem under the study will justify the conduct of the
experiment on humans.

4. Avoidance of Physical and Mental Harm: The experiment conducted on humans

should ensure that it does not harm or injure them physically or psychologically. The
researcher should justify and prove that the subjects are not made to suffer any harm,
injury or insult during the research study.

5. Avoidance of Lethal or Disabling Experiments: Experiments should not be performed

if there is an a priori reason to believe that death or disabling injury will occur. The
exception to this rule is if the physicians performing the experiment also serve as
subjects.

6. Limitation of Risk in Study: There should no increase in the degree of risk mentioned.
The degree of risk should not be more than the benefits caused by solving the problem
through the research.

7. Protection and Facilities for the Subjects Involved in Research: Adequate physical
facilities should be provided for each participant to safeguard them from any possible
injury, disability or death.

8. Performance of Experiment by Qualified and Experienced Persons: It is important

that the research is conducted by a qualified as well as experienced researcher with
good skill and knowledge about the research study through all the phases of the
research process.

9. Freedom or Liberty for the Subjects to Withdraw: The participants of the study must
have the freedom to withdraw from the study at any time if they feel physically or

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 mentally unable to continue. This allows the subjects to choose what happens to them
and to protect their rights.

10. Termination of Study at any Stage: During the course of the experimentation, the
researcher must be prepared to terminate the study if there is a cause to believe, after
careful judgement, that the continuation of the experiment might cause injury, disability,
or death to the subjects.

The Importance of Research Ethics

Research ethics are important for a number of reasons.
1. They promote the aims of research, such as expanding knowledge.
2. They support the values required for collaborative work, such as mutual respect and
fairness. This is essential because scientific research depends on collaboration between
researchers and groups.
3. They mean that researchers can be held accountable for their actions. Many
researchers are supported by public money, and regulations on conflicts of interest,
misconduct, and research involving humans or animals are necessary to ensure that
money is spent appropriately.
4. They ensure that the public can trust research. For people to support and fund research,
they have to be confident in it.
5. They support important social and moral values, such as the principle of doing no harm
to others.

Research is searching for something that is unknown. Nursing research is the steppingstone for
quality care. Following ethical principles and gaining knowledge about ethical issues in the
nursing research are essential and will ensure that the outcome of the research is good and
valid. It is the responsibility of a nurse to follow ethics in research and apply the relevant
principles wherever needed, so that they able to bring out an excellent nursing research activity,
which leads to quality care.

References
1. Clement, N. (2013). "Nursing ethics: Concepts, trends and practices".
2. Edge, R. and Groves, J. (2019). Ethics of Health Care: A guide for Clinical Practice. (4th
Edition). Cengage.
3. Resnick, D. B. (2015) What is Ethics in Research and Why is it Important?

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