Strength of Materials

About the Author

B.K. Sarkar is Professor and Head, Department of Mechanical and Automobile

Engineering, Maida Polytechnic, Malda, West Bengal. He obtained his first class
degree in Mechanical Engineering from the University of North Bengal in 1969.
After working as an engineer in the Indian Posts and Telegraphs department, he
joined the Maida Polytechnic of the Government of West Bengal in 1975. His
teaching experience spans over two decades. He is a member of the Institution
of Engineers (India).
He is a recipient of the "Vijaya Shree" award given by the India International
Friendship Society.
He has authored six books; two of which, Thermal Engineering and Theory
of Machines have been published by Tata McGraw-Hill.
Strength of Materials

B K Sarkar
Professor and Head,
Department of Mechanical and Automobile Engineering
Malda Polytechnic,
Malda, West Bengal

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2003, Tata McGraw Hill Education Private Limited

Eighth reprint 2010

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Dedicated to my beloved wife
Suchitra Sarkar
PREFACE

The author has primarily written this book for the students of Diploma and
Degree Examinations in Mechanical, Civil, Electrical and Automobile Engineer-
ing of various state boards of Technical Education and Universities, in India and
abroad.
Strength of materials is a core subject and includes all the basics which
need to be learnt by an engineering student to facilitate learning of other applied
engineering subjects in his programme of study as well as for solving practical
problems in the field of work. In view of this, the subject matter of the book
is dealt with in a very concise and lucid manner. Each chapter of the book
include numerous illustrative examples, review questions and problems for
practice. Systeme Internationale (SI) units of measurement have been used
throughout the book. This book will be found useful even by the students
preparing, A.M.I.E. Examinations.
In spite of every care and best efforts to deal with the subject matter in a most
rational manner, it is quite possible that some omissions or misprints might have
inadvertently crept in the text. The author would be grateful to his readers for
pointing out such omissions and misprints. Constructive suggestions for im-
provement of the book will also be most gratefully acknowledged.

BRAJENDRA KUMAR SARKAR

CONTENTS

Preface vii

CHAPTER 1
CENTRE OF GRAVITY
1.1 Gravity and Gravitational Force 1
1.2 Centre of Gravity 1
1.3 Centroid 1
1.4 Location of the Centroid 2
1.5 Centroids of Regular Areas 3
1.6 Procedure for Locating the Centroid 5
1.7 Centre of Gravity of Regular Solids 5
1.8 Location of Centre of Gravity of Solids 6
1.9 Method of Integration to Locate
the Centroid or Centre of Gravity 7
1.10 Centre of Gravity of Irregular Bodies 7
1.11 Centre of Gravity of Composite Sections 8
Solved Problems 8
Review Exercises 18
CHAPTER 2
MOMENT OF INERTIA 22
2.1 Moment of Inertia 22
2.2 Moment of Inertia of a Lamina 22
2.3 Radius of Gyration 23
2.4 Theorems Involving Moment of Inertia
of Plane Figures 23
2.5 Moment of Inertia of Plane Laminas 25
2.6 Section Modulus 28
2.7 Mass Moment of Inertia 28
2.8 Polar Moment of Inertia 28
2.9 Mass Moment of Inertia and Radius
of Gyration of Simple Bodies 28
Solved Problems 29
Review Exercises 39
x Contents

CHAPTER 3
STRESSES AND STRAINS 42
3.1 Loads and Forces 42
3.2 Stress (a) 42
3.3 Strain (e) 44
3.4 Elasticity and Elastic Limit 46
3.5 Hooke's Law 46
3.6 Stress-strain Curve for Mild Steel 47
3.7 Factor of Safety 7
/ 4l
3.8 Poisson's Ratio (— 1 I 48
rn
3.9 Change in Dimensions of a Bar 48
3.10 Change in Volume 49
3.11 Elongations of Bars of Varying
Cross-sections 49
3.12 Elongation of Uniformly Tapering Rod 50
3.13 Extension of a Bar Under its Own Weight 50
3.14 Composite Bar Under Tension or Compression 51
3.15 Temperature Stress and Strain 52
Solved Problems 54
Review Exercises 68
CHAPTER 4
SHEARING FORCE AND BENDING MOMENT 75
4.1 Beam 75
4.2 Classification of Beams 75
4.3 Types of Loading 77
4.4 Shear Force 77
4.5 Bending Moment 78
4.6 Sign Convention 78
4.7 Calculation of Shear Force at Any Section 79
4.8 Calculation of Bending Moment at Any Section 79
4.9 Shear Force and Bending Moment Diagrams 79
4.10 Cantilever Beam with a Concentrated
Load at the Free End 80
4.11 Cantilever Beam with Number of
Concentrated Loads 80
4.12 Cantilever Beam with u.d.l.
Over the Entire Span 81
4.13 Simply Supported Beam with a Concentrated
Load at the Mid-span 82
 Contents xi

4.14 Simply Supported Beam with a u.d.l.

Over the Entire Span 83
4.15 Simply Supported Beam of Span L which
Carries Over its Full Span a Load Varying
Uniformly from Zero at Either Ends to
w N/m at Mid-span 85
4.16 Beams with Oblique Loading 86
4.17 Overhanging Beams 87
Solved Problems 89
Review Exercises 109
CHAPTER 5

BENDING STRESSES IN BEAMS 117

5.1 Simple Bending 117
5.2 Assumptions in Theory of Simple Bending 117
5.3 Bending Equation 118
5.4 Polar Modulus 121
5.5 Beams of Unifoun Stiength 132
5.6 Composite or Flitched Beams 132
Review Exercises 138
CHAPTER 6

SLOPE AND DEFLECTION 142

6.1 Introduction 142
6.2 Beams Bending with Uniform Curvature 142
6.3 Differential Equation of the
Deflection Curve 143
6.4 Strain Energy Due to Bending 145
6.5 Methods of Solution 146
Solved Problems 154
Review Exercises 172
CHAFFER 7

TORSION 176
7.1 Torsion of Shafts 176
7.2 Shear Stress in a Circular Shaft
Subjected to Torsion 176
7.3 Torsion Equation 176
7.4 Hollow Circular Shafts 178
7.5 Power Transmitted by a Shaft 179
7.6 Torsional Rigidity 180
7.7 Composite Circular Shafts 180
xii Contents

7.8 Torsional Resilience 181

7.9 Shaft Coupling 182
Solved Problems 183
Review Exercises 194
CHAPTER 8
SPRINGS 198
8.1 Spring 198
8.2 Important Functions of Spring 198
8.3 Materials for Springs 198
8.4 Types of Springs 199
8.5 Close-coiled Helical Spring with Axial Load 199
8.6 Springs in Series 201
8.7 Springs in Parallel 202
8.8 Leaf Spring 202
8.9 Open-coiled Helical Spring 204
Solved Problems 206
Review Exercises 220
CHA1 lER 9
COLUMNS AND STRUTS 223
9.1 Definitions 223
9.2 Classification of Columns 223
9.3 Euler's Formula 224
9.4 Euler's Analysis 224
9.5 End Conditions 224
9.6 Limitations of Euler's Formula 229
9.7 Empirical Formula 230
9.8 Eccentric Loading 231
Solved Problems 232
Review Exercises 241
CHAPTER 10

ANALYSIS OF FRAMED STRUCTURES 246

10.1 Introduction 246
10.2 Definitions 246
10.3 Difference Between Plane-frame and Space Frame 247
10A Reactions at Supports 247
10.5 Sign Convention 248
10.6 Methods of Analysis 248
10.7 Method of Joints 248
10.8 Method of Sections 248
 Contents xiii

10.9 Graphical Method 249

Solved Problems 249
Review Exercises 265
CHAPTER 11 ,
COMBINED DIRECT AND BENDING STRESSES 268
11.1 Introduction 268
11.2 Load Acting Eccentrically to One Axis 268
11.3 Load Acting Eccentrically to Both Axes 269
11.4 Limit of Eccentricity 270
11.5 Core or Kernel 271
Solved Problems 273
Review Exercises 279
CHAPTER 12
PROPPED CANTILEVER 280
12.1 Introduction 280
12.2 Analysis 280
12.3 Propped Cantilever with a Concentrated Load
W at its Mid-span and Propped at the Free End 281
12.4 A Cantilever with a Uniformly Distributed Load
co Per Unit Length and Propped at the Free End 283
Solved Problems 286
Review Exercises 293
CHAPTER 13
SHEAR STRESS IN BEAMS 295
13.1 Variation of Shear Stress 295
13.2 Shear Stress Over a Rectangular
Section 296
13.3 Shear Stress Over a Circular
Section 297
13.4 Shear Stress Over an I-section 298
Solved Problems 300
Review Exercises 311
CHAPTER 14.
DAMS AND RETAINING WALLS 313
14.1 Dam 313
14.2 Analysis of Masonry Dam 313
14.3 Conditions for the Stability of a Dam 318
14.4 Middle Third Rule 319
xiv Contents

14.5 Minimum Base Width of a Dam 319

14.6 Retaining Walls 321
14.7 Rankine's Theory 321
14.8 Angle of Repose 322
14.9 Retaining Wall of Trapezoidal Section,
Earth Level with Top 322
Solved Problems 325
Review Exercises 343
CHAPTER 15

THIN CYLINDRICAL SHELL 345

15.1 Introduction 345
15.2 Design of Thin Cylinders 345
15.3 Strains in Thin Cylindrical Shell
Due to Internal Pressure 347
15.4 Thin Spherical Shell 348
15.5 Wire Wound Thin Cylinders 349
Solved Problems 351
Review Exercises 360
CHAPTER 16
RIVETED JOINTS 361
16.1 Introduction 361
16.2 Rivet 361
16.3 Types of Riveted Joints 361
16.4 Caulking and Fullering 363
16.5 Failure of Riveted Joint 363
16.6 Efficiency of a Riveted Joint 364
16.7 Unwin's Formula 365
16.8 Lozenge Joint 365
Solved Problems 366
Review Exercises 371
CHAPTER 17
WELDED JOINTS 374
17.1 Introduction 374 •
17.2 Types of Welded Joints 374
17.3 Advantages of Welding Over Riveting 375
17.4 Disadvantages of Welding 375
17.5 Strength of Welded Joints 375
17.6 Welded Joints for Unsymmetrical Sections
Subject to Axial Load 376
 Contents xv

17.7 Eccentrically Loaded Welded Joints 377

Solved Problems 379
Review Exercises 384
INDEX 386
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•
CENTRE OF GRAV

1.1 GRAVITY AND GRAVITATIONAL FORCE

We know that all material bodies are attracted by the earth. This attraction of
earth on material bodies is called gravity. Due to this attraction, the earth applies
a force on all bodies. This force is called the gravitational force. A body is
composed of small particles. The gravitational forces on the different particles
are all directed towards the centre of the earth. These forces form a system of
like parallel forces. The magnitude of the resultant of all such parallel forces is
equal to the algebraic sum of all the gravitational forces. The point of application
of the resultant can be determined from the principle of moments.

1.2 CENTRE OF GRAVITY

The centre of gravity of a body is the point at which the resultant gravitational
force on the body acts, irrespective of the orientation of the body. Stated
otherwise, the centre of gravity of a body is the point in the body through which
the resultant of the weights of its different parts is assumed to be acting, or the
point at which the whole of its mass may be assumed to be concentrated. Thus
if a body is supported at its centre of gravity by a force equal and opposite to
its weight, it will remain in equilibrium. The centre of gravity of a body always
lies in a plane of symmetry if any, of a body. A plane of symmetry of a body
is a plane through the body such that the mass distribution is symmetrical on
either side of the plane.

1.3 CENTROID
The centre of gravity of a plane figure which has area but no weight and where
the entire area is assumed to be concentrated is known as the centroid of that
area. The centroid of an area always lies on an axis of symmetry, if any, of an
area.
2 Strength of Materials

1.4 LOCATION OF THE CENTROID

(a) Analytical method for the location of centroid Let us take a plane
area as shown in Fig. 1.1. Let x and y be the co-ordinates of centre of gravity
of the area from OY and OX axis respectively. Divide the entire area A into small
elementary areas a l, a2, a3, a4 , etc.
whose centroids are at distances of x1,
x2, x3, x4 , etc. respectively from the
vertical axis OY.
The algebraic sum of the moments of
these elemental areas about Y axis = a1
+ a2 X2 + a3 X3 + a4 X4 -I-
The moment of the total area about
Y-axis = A X
The algebraic sum of the moments of
the elemental areas about any axis is
equal to the moment of the total area 'A'
about the same axis.
• al x1 + a2 x2 + a3 x3 + a4 x4 +
ai + a2 x2 + a3 x3 + a4 x4 + • • •
=
A
ai xi + a2 x2 + a3 x3 + a4 x4 + • • • lax
al + a2 + a3 + a4 + • • • Ea
Similarly by equating moments of the elemental areas about x—axis with that
of the total area we have
al yl+ a2 y2 ÷ a3 y3 + a4 y4 + Lay
Y al + a2 + a3 + a4 + La
Knowing X- and 33, the position of centroid of the given figure is fixed.
(b) Graphical method The following procedure is adopted to locate the
centroid of a plane area graphically.
(i) Divide the given area into a number of small areas as shown by numbers
(1), (2), (3), etc.
(ii) Calculate the areas a l, a2, a3, etc. and locate their centroids, and assume
that these areas are equivalent to forces whose magnitudes are al, a2, a3,
etc. acting parallel to the y-axis, as shown. They form a system of parallel
forces.
(iii) Let the forces be represented by AB, BC and CD. Adopting a convenient
scale mark off ab = ... units, be = ... units and cd = ... units.
(iv) A pole o is chosen and ao, bo, co and do are joined. Starting from any
point on the load line AB the funicular polygon is drawn, and the point oi,
is obtained. Through oi a vertical line is drawn. This line represents the
 Centre of Gravity 3

G )

Fig. 1.2

vertical centroidal axis (Resultant R1) and the distance of the line of action
of R1 from y-axis gives X- . -
(v) Similarly by taking the forces a polar diagram and the corresponding
funicular polygon are drawn and the point 02 is obtained by assuming these
areas to act parallel to the x-axis. This represents the horizontal centroidal
axis (Resultant R2) and the distance of the line of action of R2 from x-axis
gives y
(vi) R1 and R2 intersect at point G, which is the centroid with coordinates
y)•

1.5 CENTROIDS OF REGULAR AREAS

(a) Rectangle, square, parallelogram and rhombus The areas in the
shape of rectangle, square, parallelogram and rhombus have two axes of sym-
metry and their intersection point is the location of centroid.
(b) Triangle In a triangular plane figure, the centroid is the point of intersec-
h
tion of medians and it is situated at a distance of - h from vertex or -- from
3
base, where h is the height of the triangle.
(c) Trapezium To determine the centroid produce the top width by the
bottom width and the bottom width by the top width in opposite direction as
shown. The point of intersection of EF and KH bisecting the top and bottom
width, gives the centre of gravity of the trapezium.
4 Strength of Materials

Centroid
(a) (b)

/ 1
/ 1

11 \

Centroid
(c) (d)
Fig. 1.3 (a) Rectangle (b) Square (c) Parallelogram (d) Rhombus

Medians

Fig. 1.4 Triangle

Fig. 1.5 Trapezium

 Centre of Gravity 5

(d) Circle A circle is symmetrial about its diameters. The intersection of any
two diameters, i.e. the centre of the circle is the centroid.
(e) Semicircle A semicircle has one axis of symmetry OY as shown in Fig.
1.7. The centroid G lies at a distance of 4 r from its base, as shown in Fig. 1.7.
37r

2
Fig. 1.6 Circle Fig. 1.7 Semi-circle

1.6 PROCEDURE FOR LOCATING THE CENTROID

(i) First see by inspection whether the given area has any axis of symmetry
or not.
(ii) Divide the area into areas of regular shape whose centroids are known.
(iii) Find out the areas of each constituent broken up geometrical figure.
(iv) Chose suitable axes of reference OX and OY (where there is one axis of
symmetry, one of the axes chosen will coincide with the line of symmetry)
with respect to which the position of centroid of the given figure is to be
determined.
(v) Find the distances of the centroids of the figure from the axes of reference.
(vi) Take moments of the broken up areas about the axes of reference. This is
done by multiplying the areas with the respective perpendicular distances
of centroid from the axes of reference.
(vii) Divide the sum total of all the moments by the total area of the figure. The
distance of the centroid from the axis of reference will be obtained.
ax ay
= and y =
a a
(viii)i and y fixes the position of the centroid of the given area.

1.7 CENTRE OF GRAVITY OF REGULAR SOLIDS

The procedure of locating the centre of gravity of solids is the same as in the
case of centroids.
6 Strength of Materials

(a) Sphere A sphere is symmetrical about all diametrical plane. Its centre of
gravity lies at the centre of the sphere (Fig. 1.7 a).
A hemisphere is symmetrical about a vertical diameter. The centre of gravity
4r
is at — from the base (Fig. 1.7 b).
37r

Diametrical plane
of symmetry

I
,
/

(a) (b)

Fig. 1.7 (a) sphere (b) Hemisphere

(b) Cube The cube is symmetrical about

three mutually perpendicular planes. The inter-
section point of these three planes is the loca-
tion of centre of gravity. The intersection point
of the two body diagonals is also the location
of centre of gravity.
Body
(c) Cylinder The cylinder is symmetrical diagonals
about its longitudinal axis. It is also symmetri-
cal about a plane perpendicular to the longitu- (c)
dinal axis at its mid point. The intersection Fig. 1.7 Cube
point of the plane of symmetry and the longi-
tudinal axis is the location of centre of gravity.
(d) Cone The centre of gravity of a cone is at a
h
distance — from base.
4

1.8 LOCATION OF CENTRE OF GRAVITY

OF SOLIDS
(d)
The procedure of locating the centre of gravity of
solids is outlined below: Fig. 1.7
(i) First see whether the given solid has any axis of symmetry or not.
(ii) Then choose the coordinate axes.
(iii) Determine the weights of different parts of solids.
(iv) Let x , y and z be the coordinates of centre of gravity.
 Centre of Gravity 7

w1, w2 and w3 be the weights of the parts of the body and W is the weight
of body. (x1, Yi, zr), (x2, y2, z2) and (x3, y3, z3) be the coordinates of the centre
of gravity of individual parts respectively, then
Xi -I- W2 X2 + W3 X3 ± • • •
x =
+ W2 + W3 + • • •

1 1- W2 Y2 1- W3 Y3 + • • •
W Y1
=
wz '•'
w + W2 Z2 + W3 Z3 ÷ • • •
Z=
W1 + W2 + W3 + •
In cases where the solid is homogeneous, the weights of the above expres-
sions can be replaced by volumes as the density is a common factor and cancels
out.
VI + V2 X2 + V3 X3 + • • •
X. =
V1 + + v3 + • • •

V2 Y2 ÷ V3 Y3 + • • •
Y=
1/1 + V2 + V3 + • • •

VI Z1 V2 Z2 + V3 Z3 • • •
=
+ V2 + V3 + • • •

1.9 METHOD OF INTEGRATION TO LOCATE

THE CENTROID OR CENTRE OF GRAVITY
The coordinates of centroid or centre of gravity is determined by method of
integration by using the following formulae.
xdA _ yd A
= and Y= for centroid
fdA dA
xdw ydw zdw
and , Y= and z = for centre of gravity.
dw dw idw
f

1.10 CENTRE OF GRAVITY OF IRREGULAR BODIES

Centre of gravity of irregular bodies is determined by the principle of free
suspension of bodies. If a body is suspended vertically with the help of a string,
two forces act on it.
1. Weight of the body acting vertically downward through its centre of grav-
ity
2. Tension in the string
As there are only two forces acting on the body and it is in equilibrium, these
two forces must be equal, opposite and collinear. So for a suspended body the
8 Strength of Materials

vertical line passing through the point of suspen-

sion passes through its centre of gravity. To
locate the centre of gravity of the body it is cut
to a lamina shape of the body and suspended
vertically in two different positions separately by
passing a string through two holes vertical lines
drawn through two holes will intersect at the
centre of gravity, as shown in the Fig. 1.7 e.
Two vertical lines of suspension AD and BE
intersect at G which is the centre of gravity of
the body. If the body is vertically suspended
from any other hole C, the vertical line CF pass- (e)
ing through the hole will also pass through the
centre of gravity G. Fig. 1.7

1.11 CENTRE OF GRAVITY OF COMPOSITE SECTIONS

When two or more common geometrical sections such as rectangular, square,
circle, etc. are combined together the section so formed is called the composite
section.
For determining the centre of gravity of a composite section, the section is
split up into common geometrical forms and their centre of gravity is located
by inspection. Thereafter the method of moments is applied to locate the centre
of gravity of the composite section.

SOLVED PROBLEMS
Problem 1.1 Find the centroid of the 1-section shown in Fig. 1.8.

/1'
15 cm
2.5 cm

— 2.5 cm
O

E y= 8.88 cm
it)
30 cm

Fig. 1.8
 Centre of Gravity 9

Solution: The given figure is symmetrical about y-y-axis, therefore the cen-
tre of gravity of the section will lie on this axis and x = 0. Now divide the whole
figure into three rectangles, viz. 1, 2 and 3 as shown in Fig. 1.8. Choose the
x-x-axis from the bottom of the figure.
Let y = distance of centre of gravity of the whole section from the bottom
of the figure.
(i) Rectangle-1
2.5
al = 15 x 2.5 = 37.5 cm2, y = 5 + 20 + — = 26.25 cm
2
(ii) Rectangle-2
=5
a2 = 20 x 2.5 = 50 cm2, y2 4. 20 = 15 cm
(iii) Rectangle-3
_5
a3 = 30 x 5 = 150 cm2, y3 - 2 = 2.5 cm
By using the relation,
- a1 Yi a2 Y2 + a3 Y3
y= al + a 2 + a3
(37.5 x 26.25) + (50 x 15) + (150 x 2.5)
= 8.88 cm. Ans.
37.5+50 +150
Problem 1.2 Determine the centre of AH 2 cm
gravity of the section shown in Fig. 1.9.
Solution: Divide the whole section
into three areas as shown in Fig. 1.9. The
given figure has no axis of symmetry. So
we have to determine both the coordi-
nates x and y of the centre of gravity of
the section. The line AB and the line BC rn
are chosen as the two axes of reference.

Area-1 al = 6 x 1 = 6 cm2, x1 = 2
2 cm -Id 1
J
1
= 3 cm, y1= - = 0.5 cm. 1 cm
2
1
Area-2 a2 = - x 2 x 6 = 6 cm2,
B 6 cm
-1 CT
2 Fig. 1.9

x2 = 2 + 3 = 2.67 cm, y2 = 1 + 3 = 3 cm.

8
Area-3 a3 = 8 x 2 = 16 cm2, x3 = 2 = 1 cm, y3 = 1 + = 5 cm.
2
10 Strength of Materials

Using the relation

apci +a2 x2 +a3x3 _ 6x 3+6x 2.67 +16x1 =
— 1.786 cm
a1 +a2 +a3 6+6+16
at + a2 y2 + a3y3 = 6x 0.5+6 x 3+16 x5 =
= 3.607 cm Ans.
a1 +a2 +a3 6+6+16
Problem 1.3 Determine the position of the centre of gravity of the plane
figure shown in Fig. 1.10.

F.,-20 cm 20 cm -H
y
Fig. 1.10

Solution: The given figure is symmetrical about Y-Y axis. The centre of
gravity will lie on this axis. Therefore x = 0. Here it is required to determine
the value of y only. Divide the figure into four parts as shown in Fig. 1.10.
10 x 18.75 18.75
Area-1 = 93.75 cm2, y,. = 3 = 6.25 cm
2
Area-2 a2 = 93.75 cm2, y2 = 6.25 cm.
18.75 = 9.375 cm.
Area-3 a3 = 20 x 18.75 = 375 cm2, y3 =
irx0.5)2 2 43 15
Area-4 a4 = 353.43 cm , y4= = 6.366 cm.
2 ir
Using the relation
a2Y2 a3Y3 a4Y4
Y=
a1 + a2 + a3 — a4

—
93.75 x 6.25 + 93.75 x 6.25 + 375 x 9.375 — 353.43 x 6.366
= 11.658 cm.
93.75 + 93.75 + 375 — 353.43
Centre of gravity lies at a distance of 11.658 cm from the base line CD.
Problem 1.4 Find the centre of gravity of the shaded area shown in Fig.
1.11, obtained by cutting a semicircle of diameter 12 cm from the quadrant of
a circle.of radius 12 cm.
Solution: As the figure is not symmetrical about any axis, it is required to deter-
mine the value of x and y both. To calculate z, taking AC as the reference line.
 Centre of Gravity 11

al = area of the quadrant of a circle

ir x (12)2
= 36 7r CM2
4
4r 4 x 12 16
xi = = cm.
37r 37r ir
7r 2
a2 = area of the semicircle = x (6)
2
= 187r cm2, x2 =
2 = 6 cm.
L
Fig. 1.11
Using the relation
16
— a2 x2 _ 36n x- -18n x 6
ir = 4.186 cm
x_=
a2 367r-187r
To calculate y, taking AB as the reference line
16 4x68
Yi cm, Y2 = 37r = -- ir
1 -187r x- 8
a, y, — y" 367r x- 576 —144
r 7r = 7.639 cm.
= 1.4.1 a2 = 367r —187r 187r
Problem 1.5 A square hole is Y
punched out of a circular lamina as
shown in the Fig. 1.12. Find the
centre of gravity of the remainder.
Solution: As the section is sym-
metrical about X-X axis, the centre
of gravity will lie on this axis and y X-- --x
= 0. We have to determine x only.
Let us choose the Y-Y axis through
point A as shown in Fig. 1.12. Let
us divide the figure into two parts,
i.e. a circle and a square.
Circle-1 al = tr 1.2 = ir x (10)2
= 100 Ir cm2,
x1 = 10 cm Fig. 1.12

(Diagonal)2 (10)2 10 = 15 cm.

Square-2 a2 = = 50 cm2, = 10 +
2 2 2
Using the relation
ai — a2 x2 1007c x10 —50 x15
= 9.053 cm.
a1 —a2 1007r — 50
12 Strength of Materials

Problem 1.6 Locate the centroid of the shaded area as shown in Fig. 1.13.

80 mm±80 mm+-100 mm-d60 mm~—

E F G C

E
0
co

Fig. 1.13

Solution: As the given area is not symmetrical about any axis, it is required
to find out .Tc and y both. To calculate i and y let us take Y-axis along AD and
X-axis along AB. Divide the area into three parts as shown in Fig. 1.13.
Rectangle-1
0
al = 320 x 160 = 51200 mm2, xi = 32 = 160 mm, y = 80 mm
2
Triangle-2
8 320
a2 = —
2 x 80 x 160 = 6400 mm2, x2 = — 3 x 160 =
3 mm, = — mm
3
Semicircle-3
x (50)2 4 x 50)
a3 = 2

Using the relation,

= 1250 mm2, x3 = 210 mm, y3 =
(
160
3n
mm.

80
— a2 x2 — a3 x3
51200 x 160 — 6400 x —1250yr x 210
=
al — a2 — a3 51200 — 6400 —1250z
= 176.075 mm
_ at yi— a2 y2 — a3 y3
Y=
al — a2 — a3
32
51200 x 80 — 6400 x 0 1250x x (160 200)
3 3n
= 70.18 mm.
51200 6400 —1250n
Problem 1.7 Determine the coordinate of the centroid of a lamina in
the shape of a circular sector of radius r and subtended angle 2a as shown
in Fig. 1.14.
Solution: The figure is symmetrical about X-axis. Therefore y = 0. Choose
the Y-axis as shown in Fig. 1.14. Consider an elemental strip subtending an angle
d 0 at the centre. As de is very small, the elementary strip can be considered
to be a triangle.
 Centre of Gravity 13

= 2 r sin e

Fig. 1.14

r 2 x de
The area of the elementary strip = - x r x de =
2 r 2
a
+a 2
r x dO r2 x 0 r 2 x 2a 2
The area of the sector = =r a
2 2 2
-a -a
r2 2
Moment of the elementary strip about '0' = — • de • - r cos 0
2 3
r3
= • COS 0 • de
3
Applying the principle of moments, we get
+a 3
Area of the sector x ;
lc = 3-cos 0 • de
-a
+a 3
3
r2 • a • = f r3 cos 0 • de =3 • 2 sin a
-a

- r3 2 sin a= -2r sin a

X 3 a
3 r` • a
This is the location of centroid of any sector.
Problem 1.8 Determine the centroid of the area shown in Fig. 1.15 using
the result obtained from problem 1.7. [Part-1, 1999 W.B.

Solution: In the case of semicircle, 2a = 180° = 2 a =7r-

2
2 2 4r
= - • r• —
3 it 37c
The given area is symmetrical about Y-axis. Choose the X-axis as shown in
Fig. 1.15. Divide the area into two parts (1) a semicircle of radius 20 cm (2)
a semicircle of radius 16 cm.
M Strength of Materials

g ri
2 4
ri _ 2
a 1'2
A
94'2
x 2 3 21 x
3_, = a,. y,. - a.,, y...
L_ 2 2 3/r
374 _ -3- r1 - 1.2
a1 - a2 7C ri
2
nr22 / 62 _r2)
2 2
4 (r12 + rir2 + d) 4 (400 + 20 x 16 + 256)
= x = x = 11.5 cm Ans.
37r (ri + r2) 37r (20 +16)

JO
Fig. 1.15

Problem 1.9 Locate the centroid of the

area of a parabolic segment as shown in
Fig. 1.16.
Solution: Let us consider an elementary
strip of width dx at a distance x from 0 as
shown in Fig. 1.16. The area of the strip is
y • dx and the distance of its centroid from X
X
and Y axes are and x.
2 a
a a
ka3 Fig. 1.16
Area of the parabola = fydx=fkx2dx=
3
0 0
To calculate I-, we apply the principle of moments about 'o'
a a ka 4 3a
ka3 _ Ica 4 _ 3
x = f x • ydx = f kx3dx = x 3=
3 4 4 ka 3 4
0 0
To calculate yi , we take moments about `o' considering areas parallel to x-axis.
a k2 x 4 dx
ka 3 • k 2 a5
3 y = fo 3? (IX 2 37 = SO 2 - 10
_ k2 a5 3 3 x ka2
Y x =
10 ka 3 10
As b = Ka2
_ 3b
y= —
10
3a 3b
Therefore the centroid of the parabolic segment has coordinates — —
4 10'
 Centre of Gravity 15

Problem 1 in Locate the centroid

.....
of the area of a triangle shown in Fig.
1.17.
Solution: The X and Y axes are cho-
sen as shown in Fig. 1.17. Consider an
elementary strip of width x and thick-
ness dy at a distance y from base.
Area of the strip = x • dy.
Its moment about x-axis = x • dy • y.
From similar triangles ABC and ADE x
x_ h — y
x= (h — y)
b h
Moment of the strip = 3')
Ti (11 —
bh
Area of the triangle =
2
Let y be the distance of centroid from the base then,
bh
—xy=
i b
— (h — y) y • dy.
2 h
li
2 x b sh 2 hy2 y3
y = 1—
th- , (h_ y) y. dy —_
Tz h2 2 3
0

= 2 (h3 _ h3 = 2 x h3 = h
h2 2 3 h2 6 3
h
The centroid of the triangle is at a distance of — from base.
3
Problem 1.11 Prove that if the equa-
tion of the curve OA, referred to the co-
ordinate axes x and y taken along two
adjacent sides of a rectangle OCAB is y
= kx", then the coordinates x and y of
the centroid c of the shaded area OAB
are given by the formulas.
(n +1) (n +1) x dx B
= a, y = b.
(n + 2) (4n + 2) a
Solution: The equation of the curve Fig. 1.18
OA is y = . To determine the value of
k for the particular case represented in Fig. 1.18 we observe that when x = a,
y = b.
k=
a"
b
and the equation of the curve OA becomes y = — • x".
a"
16 Strength of Materials

Now let the shaded area OAB be divided into small elements each of height
y and width dx like the one shown in Fig. 1.18. The area dA of any such element
is ydx and the coordinates of its centroid are x and
2
ra a b 1 I xn+2 la
j xd A x • — • x" dx b fa xn+' dx
o
X = fa 0 an an 0 n+2 la
dA ja b • x" dx b f a x" dx
1 l n+tla
x
a7‘ a" 0 n+ 1 la
a"1-2 n+1 rn +1)
x a
n + 2 a"-E1 +2
ay
— dA
a b
x
nx_
b n
x dx b ra x2ncbc
J.
02 = j0 2a" a" 2a" 0
Y= jot,
dA o b • x"
fo at
dx j'x"
a dx
o
b x 1 I x20+ II'
2a" 2n +1 10 b n +1 a 2n+ 1 (n+1
x x
2a" 2n + 1 a" I 4n +2
1 lx"4.11°
n +1 0
Problem 1.12 A solid body con-
sists of a right circular cylinder of 8
cm diameter placed on a solid hemi-
sphere of the same diameter. Find the
height of the cylinder, so that centre
of gravity of the composite section
coincides with the plane of joining
the two sections. The density of the
material of hemisphere is twice that
of the material of cylinder.
Solution: As the body is sym-
metrical about Y-Y-axis, the centre of
gravity will lie on this axis. This line
cuts the plane joining the two sec-
tions at 0 as shown in Fig. 1.19. Therefore the centre of gravity of the section
is at a distance of 4 cm from A, i.e. the bottom of the hemisphere.
Let h = height of the cylinder.
(i) Right circular cylinder
7r
mi = x (8)2 x h x pi = 16 ir h pi gm, yi = 4 + — cm.
4 2
(ii) Hemisphere
27r 27r 2567r pi
tn2 = —3 x r3 x p, = — 3 x(4)3 x2 p1= gm,
3
3r 34
Y2 = 4 — — 8 =4 8 = 2.5 cm.
 Centre of Gravity 17

Using the relation,

2567cpi
16/atm x (4 +—
h)+
) x 2.5
y = miYi + m2Y2 _ 3
mi +m2 256/tpi
16rhpi+
3
201.06 h + 25.132 h2 + 670.206
50.265 h + 268.08
4 = 201.06 h + 25.132 h2 + 670206
50.265 h + 268.08
or 25.132 h2 = 402.114
h = 4 cm. Ans. Y
Problem 1.13 A body consisting
of a cone and a hemisphere of radius
r on the same base rests on a table,
the hemisphere being in contact with
the table (Fig. 1.20). Find the great-
est height of the cone, so that the
combined solid may stand upright.
Solution: Let h = Height of the
cone, V1 = volume of the cone V2 =
volume of the hemisphere. As the
body is symmetrical about Y-Y-axis,
the centre of gravity will lie on this
axis. Now for stable equilibrium the
common centre of gravity should be below the common face or at most lie on
it. Therefore centre of gravity of the body is at a distance r from A.
gr2h 2itr3 3r Sr
V1 = 3 , Y1 — ( r Y2 = (r — — ) =
3 3 8 8
Using the relation
vi yi + v2y2
y= vi + v2
irr 2 h ( h) + 2arr3 ( 3 / 1)
r+ r
3 3) 3 8
r=
Kr2 h 27tr3
+
3 3
3 Kr 2 h 2 5 70.4
or nr3/1 2irr4 = h+
3 4
irr2h2 37Tr4
or
3 4
h2 = 9r2-
or = 1.5 r Ans.
4
18 Strength of Materials

Problem 1.14 A square sheet of metal

has a square of one quarter of the original
area cut from one corner. Calculate the
position of the centre of gravity of the re-
maining portion of the sheet as shown in
Fig. 1.21. 2x
Solution: Let the square ABCD have a
side 2 x. Therefore each side of the cut
square is x. Take AB as reference line, to
calculate y. Take AD as reference line to
A. 2x
calculate 3e.
Let al = Area of square ABCD = 4x2 Fig. 1.21
a2 = Area of square CEFG = x2
2x x 3x x 3x
yi = — =x, xi = x, y2 = x + — _ x2 = x +
2 2 —2 2 2
Using the relation

a2x2 4X2 XX -X2 X 3±X 4x 3 - x2

x= 2 2 = 5 x = 5 x 2x
al — a2 4x2 — x2 3x2 6 12
5
— x side of the square ABCD
= 12
Using the relation

_ — a2y2 4X2 X X - X2 X 32X 4X2 - 3 2

5
2x = 5 x=—
Y= 2 x 2x
al — a2 4x2 — x2 3x 6 12

= x side of the square ABCD

12
Therefore the centre of gravity of the remaining portion of the square lies at
a distance of 5/12 of the side of the original square from each uncut side.

REVIEW EXERCISES
1.1 Fill in the blanks
Force of attraction between a body and the earth is known as
The point at which whole of a body is considered to be con-
centrated is known as
Centroid of a triangle is at the intersection of its
In the case of semicircle centre of gravity lies at a distance of
from its base.
The centre of gravity of a sphere lies at the of the sphere.

Problems
1.2 Determine the centroid of the cross-sectional area of an unequal I-sectimi
as shown in Fig. 1.22. [D.M.E. Part-1, 2000]
 Centre of Gravity 19

20 cm

5 cm

30cm

Fig. 1.22

[Ans. y = 9.92 cm from base]

1.3 Find the centroid of the shaded area as shown in Fig. 1.23.
[D.M.E. Part-1, 1995]

I 6 cm

1.5 cm

I
E
co
1-•

I
1.5 cm

I I- 6 cm --id
1 cm

Fig. 1.23
8 cm
_11.5 cm

'. T

1.4 A hollow cast iron column has 15 cm external diameter and 10 cm internal
diameter. In casting the bore got eccentric, such that the .thickness varies
from 2 cm on one side to 3 cm on the other. Find the position of the centre
of gravity of the section. [Ans. 7.9, cpri from YY]
1.5 Determine the centre of gravity of the plane uniform lamina as shown in
Fig. 1.24. [Ans. 7.11 cm, 3.22 cm]
1.6 Locate the centroid of a channel section shown in Fig. 1.25.
[Ans. 1.611 cm]
1.7 From a circular disc of diameter 100 mm, is cut out a circle whose
diameter is the radius of the disc as shown in Fig. 1.26. Find the centre
of gravity of the remaining portion. [Ans. 0.833 cm]
20 Strength of Materials

Fig. 1.24

1.8 Find the position of centre of gravity of 5 cm --0-1

the plane lamina in the form of a quarter
1 cm
of an ellipse as shown in Fig. 1.27.
4a _ 4b
[ Ans. -V = T , y =
I
ir 3 ir
1.9 A solid consists of a cylinder and a
hemisphere of equal radius, fixed base
to base. Find the ratio of the height to
O
the radius of the cylinder so that the
combined solid may stand in equilib-
rium with the hemisphere touching the 0
table as shown in Fig. 1.28.

Ans. —
h=
1 I
r 1 cm

1.10 Locate the centroid of the shaded area 5 cm I

as shown in Fig. 1.29 A, with respect Fig. 1.25
to the coordinate axes X and Y
[Ans. x = 3.99 m, y = 1.823 m]
1.11 A Tee-beam is made up of two plates and two angles as shown in Fig.
1.30. Find the centre of gravity of the section.
[Ans. 3.98 cm from top edge]
 Centre of Gravity 21

Fig. 1.26 Fig. 1.27

Fig. 1.28 Fig. 1.29

i 16 cm I
1 cm

E
CD

1 cm —'1 [—
Fig. 1.30
MOMEN 0 11 N ER 11 A
/

2.1 MOMENT OF INERTIA

Newton's first law of motion states that a body continues to be in its state of
rest or of uniform motion in a straight line except in so far it is compelled by
an external force to change that state. This means that the body offers resistance
to any change of its state. This property of matter of resisting any change of
its state of rest or of uniform motion in a straight line is known as inertia. For
bodies in linear motion, the force required to change its state of motion shall
depend upon the mass of the body.'For bodies in rotation about an axis, the force
required to change the state of motion shall depend on the mass of the body and
its distance from the axis around which it is rotating.

2.2 MOMENT OF INERTIA OF A LAMINA

Moment of inertia of an area about x- Y
x axis is written as I, and about y-y
axis as Ir. The moment of inertia of
an area about an axis passing 3 0 3

through its centroid is denoted by IG 2 --4-4 a2

or simply I. x al
Now let us find out the moment
of inertia of an irregular area A (Fig. Y2
2.1) about x-x and y-y axis. As be-
fore, assume the given area to be
composed of several elemental areas x X

al, a2, a3, a4..., etc. and their dis- Y

tances from the two axes as xi, x2,
Fig. 2.1
x3, x4..., etc. and yi, y2, y3, y4..., etc.
Then
Ixr = + a2 + a3 y 3 + + = Eay2
2 2 2
and Iyy = al + a24 + a3x3 + a4x4 + = Ea x
 Moment of Inertia 23

The above results may also be written as follows:

Ixr = da y2 and 45, = dax.

2.3 RADIUS OF GYRATION

The radius of gyration of a body rotating about an axis is the distance from the
axis where the whole mass of the body is assumed to be concentrated so that
the moment of inertia about the axis is unaltered.
Figure 2.2(a) shows an area which is divided into a number of elemental areas
each al, a2, a3..., etc. Let these elemental areas be at distances yi, y2, y3..., etc.
respectively from xx, the axis of reference. Then
irc = Ea' (i)
Now let us assume that the area is squeezed into a uniform narrow strip as
shown in Fig. 2.2(b). Each elemental area a will be then at the same uniform
distance k from the axis xx. The moment of inertia of this area is 4, = Zak2.

Area squeezed into a strip

X X

(a) (b)
Fig. 2.2

As k is uniform and constant

= k2 Ea = k2 A... (ii)
If the value of k is such that the moment of inertia given by Equation (i)
remains the same as given by equation (ii) then k is known as the radius of
gyration of the lamina about the axis xx.

= Ake or k = A

2.4 THEOREMS INVOLVING MOMENT OF INERTIA

OF PLANE FIGURES
2.4.1 Theorem of Parallel Axis
It states that "The moment of inertia of a lamina about any axis in the plane
of the lamina is equal to the sum of the moment of inertia of that lamina about
24 Strength of Materials

the centroidal axis parallel to the

given axis and the product of the area
of the lamina and square of the per-
pendicular distance between the two G1 G2
axes."
Suppose the moment of inertia of a
lamina of area A shown in Fig. 2.3 is
to be determined about the axis AB.
Let G be the centroid of the lamina. A
Draw a centroidal line G1G2 parallel to
AB. Then the moment of inertia of the Fig. 2.3
lamina about AB is IAB = IG AY2 where y is the distance between the
two axes.
Proof. Consider an elemental area 'a' at a distance 'h' from the line G1G2.
Moment of inertia of the area 'a' about AB is given by
IAB = a (h Y)2 = a (112 + y2 2hy) = ah2 + a y2 + 2ahy
The moment of inertia of the whole lamina about AB is given by
'AB = Eah2 + Eay2 + 2Eahy = IG + y2 Ea + 2yEah = Ay2
Eah = moment of the whole area about its centre of gravity = 0]

2.4.2 Theorem of Mutually Perpendicular Axis

According to this theorem. "The moment of inertia of a plane lamina about an
axis perpendicular to the lamina and passing through its centroid is equal to the
sum of its moment of inertia about
two mutually perpendicular centroidal
axes lying in the plane of the lamina."
Consider a plane lamina of area A.
Let two mutually perpendicular axes
ox and oy be in the plane of the lamina
6 and passing through the centroid o
as shown in Fig. 2.4.
Then the moment of inertia of the
area about an axis oz passing through
the centroid o and perpendicular to
the plane of the lamina will be the sum
of the moments of inertia of the area
about the x-axis and y-axis, i.e.
Iu =lxr + ljy Fig. 2.4
All the three axes ox, oy and oz are
mutually perpendicular to one another.
Proof. Consider an elemental area a, x, y and z be its perpendicular distances
from the y, x and z axes respectively as shown in Fig. 2.4.
 Moment of Inertia 25

Moment of inertia of the elementary area 'a' about z axis is

= az2 = a (x2 + y2)
[ x2 + y2 = z2}
Moment of inertia of the whole area A about that axis,
zz
= laz2 = Ea (x2 + y2)
i
= Eax2 Eay2 =

xr yy
The z axis through the centroid of the area and normal to its plane is called
the polar axis and the moment of inertia about it is called the polar moment of
inertia. It is generally represented by /p or J.
The moment of the elementary area 'a' about x-axis is ay. The moment of
this moment about x-axis is (ay) xy = aye = J. Therefore the moment of inertia
for any plane figure about any axis is also called the second moment of the area.

2.5 MOMENT OF INERTIA OF PLANE LAMINAS

2.5.1 Rectangle Y
Consider a rectangle of breadth b and
depth d as shown in Fig. 2.5. Let the axes
x-x and y-y pass through the centroid G.
Consider an elementary strip of width b
and thickness dy at a distance y from x-x
axis and parallel to it.
Area of the strip = b x dy
Moment of inertia of this elementary strip
about x-x axis = b x dy x y2
Moment of inertia of the whole rect-
angle about x-x axis (centroidal axis) is
Y
Ixx = 2d b x dy x y2
2 Fig. 2.5

h Y
312 d3 d31 bd 3
ICr = d = b [ 24 24 = 12
-2
db3
Similarly we can get Iyy =

12

Moment of inertia of the rectangle about its base AB will be obtained by

applying the theorem of parallel axis.
2
d) bd 3 bd 3 bd 3
1AB = +bxdxk
= 12 ÷ 4 = 3

2.5.2 Triangle
Consider a triangle ABC of base width b and height h. It is desired to find out
the moment of inertia about the base BC and about the axis x—x passing through
the centroid and parallel to the base as shown in the Fig. 2.6.
26 Strength of Materials

Consider an elementary strip of

thickness dy at a distance y below the t
y
vertex A. Triangle ABC and ADE are
E
similar.
, /RA dy

Aim
h
DE y
BC
BC x y by
or DE = - -
h b
by Fig. 2.6
Area of the strip = 7- x dy
1
Moment of inertia of the strip about the base = area x (distance)2
b
= - x ydy x (h - y)2 = — b
• y (h2 + y2 - 2hy) • dy

= - (hey + y3 — 2hy2) dy
b
Moment of inertia of the triangle about the base BC is given by
b [ h 2 .„2 v4 2hy 3 1/1
hb
IBC = f h- (hay + y3 - 2hy2 ) dy = +7
o h 2 4 3
L[0
h4 20 bh3
h 2 4 3 12
Moment of inertia of the triangle about an axis x-x passing through the centroid
and parallel to the base is found out as. follows:
Now from the theorem of parallel axis we have
bh x (h)2
IBC = _ 3

bh3 bh3 bh3 bh3

IG = IBC
18 12 18 36

2.5.3 Circle
Consider a circle of radius R as shown in Fig. 2.7.
Consider an elementary ring of thickness dr at a radius r from o.
Area of this ring = 2nr • dr
Moment of inertia of this ring about z axis passing through o and perpendicu-
lar to the plane of the given area = 2irr x r2dr
Moment of inertia of the whole area
4` R
r 1 rR4
izz 2xr3dr = Rr 3dr = 27r -4-
2
0
But /„ = /xx + I
yy
 Moment of Inertia 27

The given area is symmetrical about

xx as well as yy axis.
= lyy
/zz = 21„ = 2 lyy.

lz

or = iyy = 2z
X- - --x
4 4
_ gl? IrD
4 64
For a hollow circular area of external
diameter D and internal diameter d
irD4 Ird 4 (D4 — d4) Y
1-" = Y Y = 64 64 = 64 - Fig. 2.7

2.5.4 Hollow Rectangle

/,., for the hollow rectangle = BD3 bd 3

12 12

Similarly .1 = DB 3 d 6 3
)3. 12 12
3 DB3
Z = IXX I
YY = B1D
23 d1 2
b 12 d1b23
BD (B2 4. D2) bd ( d2)
— b2
12 12
Y

D- -X

Fig. 2.8
28 Strength of Materials

2.6 SECTION MODULUS

It is the ratio of the moment of inertia of the section about the axis passing
through the centroid and the distance of extreme fibre of the section from the
centroidal axis. It is denoted by the letter z. Every section has got two section
moduli. For rectangle shown in Fig. 2.5.
d
z.LC= / ,./— and z55'
=yy 12-
/ /2
2

2.7 MASS MOMENT OF INERTIA

If a body of mass M is taken to be composed of masses nil , n/2, n/3 , etc.

at distances r1, r2, r3 , etc. respectively from an axis of reference, then the
mass moment of inertia of that body about the axis of reference is the product
Emi ti, i.e.
Mass moment of inertia = + 1112/22 + 11/3/23 +

such that Em1 = M, the mass of the body.

2.8 POLAR MOMENT OF INERTIA

Polar moment of inertia of a body is the moment of inertia of the body about
its centroidal axis which is perpendicular to the plane of the body.

2.9 MASS MOMENT OF INERTIA AND RADIUS

OF GYRATION OF SIMPLE BODIES

(a) Uniform Rod of Mass M Y'

M1 2 Mi
2
I)) — A
1)5' = 12 3
I• C
b
k = • =
M
Y' Y
1,,,, Fig. 2.9
K,= =
"V M 21h
(b) Solid Sphere of Mass M

2MR2 2MR2 2 /
1„ = 5
= 5 R, K = = R
5 M 5
(c) Thing Ring of Mass M

I = MR2 K = =R
M
 Moment of Inertia 29

X- • -

Y
Fig. 2.10 Fig. 2.11

(d) Solid Cylinder or Disc of Mass M

MR 2 R
I K
2 VM
(e) Hollow Cylinder or Disc of Mass M
M(R2 + r2)
= K=
2 1M

X-• - -•- X

Y
Fig. 2.12 Fig. 2.13

SOLVED PROBLEMS
Problem 2.1 Find the moment of inertia of the section shown in Fig. 2.14
about the centroidal x-x axis, perpendicular to the web. •
Solution: As the section is symmetrical about y-y axis, the centre of gravity
will lie on this axis. Divide the section into three rectangles as shown in
Fig. 2.14.
30 Strength of Materials

J Hi--10.CM
2 cm
H L T
2 cm

7=5.5cm
D c-L
- I A.
0 2 cm

20 cm B T

Fig. 2.14

Let y? be the distance of centre of gravity of the section from the bottom line
AB.
(i) Rectangle-1
2
al = 20 x 2 = 40 cm2, y = = 1 cm.
(ii) Rectangle-2
0
a2 = 10 x 2 = 20 cm2, Y2= 2+ = 7 cm.
2
(iii) Rectangle-3
2
a3 = 10 X 2 = 20 cm2, Y3 = 2 + 10 + 2 = 13 cm.
Using the relation,

aIYI + a2y2 + a3 y3 40 x 1+ 20 x 7 + 20 x 13
Y= = 5.5 cm.
al + a2 + a3 40 + 20 + 20
Let = Moment of inertia of rectangle 1 about the centroidal x-x axis of
the section.
= Moment of inertia of rectangle 2 about the centroidal x-x axis of
the section
13 x-x = Moment of inertia of rectangle 3 about the centroidal x-x axis of
the section
= Moment of inertia of the section about the centroidal x-x axis.
lxx = /1 x-x + /2 x-x + 13 x-x
20 x 23
Now, /I x, + 40 x 4.5)2 = 823.333 cm4
= 12
 Moment of Inertia 31

2x103
+ 20 x (1.5)2 = 211.667 cm4
= 12
10x 23
13.,, — 12 + 20 x (7.5)2 = 1131.667 cm4
= 823.333 + 211.667 + 1131.667 = 2166.667 cm4
Problem 2.2 Determine the moment of inertia of the channel section about
the x-x axis as shown in Fig. 2.15.

2 cm 2 cm I-4—

E
0

6 cm

T
E E

7 4x
local

Fig. 2.15

Solution: As the figure is symmetrical about y-y axis, the centre of gravity
will lie on this axis and „T = 0. It is required to determine jj only. Divide the
channel section into three rectangles as shown in Fig. 2.15.
(i) Rectangle-1
12
a l = 2 x 12 = 24 cm2, y1 = 2 = 6 cm
(ii) Rectangle-2
a2 = 6 x 2 = 12 cm2, y2= = 1 cm
2
(iii) Rectangle-3
12
a3 = 2 x 12 = 24 cm2, y3 = — = 6 cm
2
32 Strength of Materials

Using the relation,

al y1 + a2 y2 + a3y3 = 24 x 6 + 12 x 1 + 24 x 6
Y= = 5 cm
al + a2 + a3 24 +12 + 24
Let /1 „, = Moment of inertia of rectangle 1 about x-x axis
/2 = Moment of inertia of rectangle 2 about x-x axis
= Moment of inertia of rectangle 3 about x-x axis
/A--t = Moment of inertia of the channel section about x-x axis
Irv= /1 „, +12 x_x -I- 13 v_,
1 ,
x 2 x 123 + 24 x (6)- + 1 x 6 x 23 + 12 x (1)2
= 12 2
1
+ x 2 x 123 + 24 x (6)2
12
= 1152 + 16 + 1152 = 2320 cm4
Problem 2.3 Find the moment of inertia of the lamina about the centroidal
x-x axis shown in Fig. 2.16.

1_14— 5 cm —1.1

0
I
2 cm
X X
. = 3.78 cm
V I
E

Al, 5 cm
5 cm BT
Fig. 2.16

Solution: Let y, = Distance of centroid from bottom edge AB.

Divide the given figure into three rectangles as shown in Fig. 2.16.
(i) Rectangle-1
2
al = 12 x 2 = 24 cm2, y, = — = 1 cm
(ii) Rectangle-2
a2 = 6 x 2 = 12 cm2, y2 = 2 + = 5 cm
(iii) Rectangle-3
2
a3 = 5 x 2 = 10 cm2, = 2 + 6 + — = 9 cm
2
 Moment of Inertia 33

Using the relation,

a l )), + a2y2 + a3y3 24 x 1+ 12 x 5 + 10 x 9
Y= =.3.78 cm
ai +a2 +a3 24 + 12 + 10
1ixx = Moment of inertia of rectangle 1 about x-x
12x-x = Moment of inertia of rectangle 2 about x-x
I3 x-x = Moment of inertia of rectangle 3 about x-x
= Moment of inertia of the lamina about the centroidal x-x axis
Ix--x = x-x x-x
12 x 233 2x6 , 5 x 3
+ 24 x (2.78)2 + + 12 x (1.22)- +
12 12 12
+ 10 x (5.22)2
= 193.48 + 53.86 + 275.187 = 522.527 cm4
Problem 2.4 Find the moment of inertia of the section shown in Fig. 2.17
about x-x axis.
Solution:
Let Il x x = Moment of inertia of the circle about x-x axis
12x, = Moment of inertia of the rectangle about x-x axis
/x x = Total moment of inertia of the section about x-x axis
Ix-x = Il x-x xx

= 7r-x (10)4 — [- x 4 x (4)3 +16 x (1)21

64 12
= 490.873 — 37.333 = 453.54 cm4
Problem 2.5 Determine the moment of inertia about the axis AB of the
lamina with a circular hole as shown in Fig. 2.18.

Fig. 2.17 Fig. 2.18

34 Strength of Materials

Solution:

(i) Moment of inertia of the triangle ABC about the axis AB =

8 x 83
— 341.33
12
cm4
84
(ii) Moment of inertia of the semicircle about the axis AB = X128 — 100.53
128
cm4
x 44
(iii) Moment of inertia of the circle about the axis AB = = 12.56 cm4
64
Moment of inertia of the shaded area about the axis AB
= 341.33 + 100.53 — 12.56 = 429.3 cm4 Ans.
Problem 2.6 A rectangular hole is
made in a triangular section as shown in
Fig. 2.19. Determine the moment of iner-
tia of the section about x-x axis passing
through its centre of gravity and about
the base BC.
Solution: Since the given triangular
section is symmetrical about y-y axis, the
centre of gravity will lie on this axis. Let
be the distance of centre of gravity
from the base BC. Divide the figure into
two parts as shown. Fig. 2.19
(i) Triangle ABC-1
10 x 9 9
al = = 45 cm2, 1 = 3 = 3 cm
2
(ii) Rectangular hole-2
a2 = 3 x 2 = 6 cm2, y2 = 3 + — 3
= 4.5 cm
2
Using the relation
_ — a2 y2 45 x 3 — 6 x 4.5
Y— = 2.77 cm.
a l — a2 45-6
Moment of inertia of the triangle ABC about x-x passing through the centre
of gravity of the section,
10 x 93
/, = 36 + 45 x (3 — 2.77)2 = 204.9 cm4
Moment of inertia of the rectangular hole about x-x passing through the
centre of gravity of the section,
3
/ 212 + 6 x (4.5 — 2.77)2 = 22.5 cm4
2=
 Moment of Inertia 35

Moment of inertia of the whole section about x-x axis passing through the
centre of gravity is given by.
/ = /1 — /, = 204.9 — 22.5 = 182.4 cm4

10 x 93
Moment of inertia of the triangle ABC about the base = — 607.5 cm4
12
Moment of inertia of the rectangular hole about the base BC
2 x 33
12 + 6 x (4.5)2 = 126 cm4

Moment of inertia of the whole section about base BC = 607.5 — 126 =

481.5 cm4
Problem 2.7 Calculate the moment of in-
ertia 1 of a right circular cone of uniform den-
sity, radius of base 'a' and altitude 'h' with
respect to its geometric axis.
ID.M.E. Part-1, W.B. 1999].
„ PRIMPFA
Solution: Let A be the vertex, BC its base
and AO its geometric axis.
AO = h, OB = OC = a B Ammk
Consider an elementary disc of thickness dx
at a distance x from A. Triangles APM and Fig. 2.20
ABO are similar
PM AM AM ax
= ... PM = BO x =
BO AO AO h
ga 22
X
•
.. Volume of PQ = dx
h2
If M be the mass of the cone, then mass per unit volume

=M-ga2h = 3M
3 ga 2h
2 2 3M
ga X
Mass of PQ = dx
h2 g.a 2h
Moment of inertia of PQ about
(Radius)2
AO = Mass x
2
ga2 x 2 3M a 2 X2 3Ma 2x4
dx x dx
h2 ga`h 2h2 2h5
Moment of inertia of the cone about
Is 3 Ma 2 x 4 3 Ma2 x h5 3 Ma2.
AO = fo dx = =—
2h5 2h5 5 10
36 Strength of Materials

Problem 2 From a right circular cylinder a Y

right circular cone of the same radius and altitude
is cut (Fig. 2.21). If the radius is 'a' and the
altitude is 'It', find the moment of inertia of the
remaining solid about the axis of the cylinder.
Solution: Let p be the density of the material of h
the cylinder.
Mass of the cylinder, nzi = ga 2hp
=2h,,
Mass of the cone, m2. = 3
a —.I
Mass of the remaining solid,
Y
2 2 hp
2 2
m = ml - m2 = ga h p - ga -
ga hp Fig. 2.21
3 3
Now moment of inertia of the cylinder about its axis,
4
1 1 ga h p
I, = -x mass x (radius)2 = — x ga2hp x =
22 2
Moment of inertia of the cone about its axis
7w2hp
mass x (radius)2 =
3
12 = 1- x x x a2 = Ka4hP
10 10 3 10
Moment of inertia of the remaining solid,
ra4 hp ira4 h-p 2 4
/ = /, - 2 ga h p
10 - 5
2 2 2
ga h p x a = M X a = m a2
=3 5 5 5
Problem 2.9 Determine the moment of inertia of the area of the circular
sector, shown in Fig. 2.22, of radius r about the x-axis and y-axis.
Solution:
f a sr 4 a 4
IY = dedr • r2 sine = --
r 1 sin 2 Od0 = r (a - sin a cos a)
La 0 4 .-a 4
4 sin 2a
= — (a
4 2
4 a 4
fo
iy = La rrde • dr • r2 cost 0 =
a 4 -a
cos2 ode = 4 (a + sin a cos a)

r4 sin2a)
— ra +
=4 2 )
Problem 2.10 Show that the moment of inertia of the circumference of a
2
tnr
circle of radius r about the diameter xx is
2
 Moment of Inertia 37

- -x

Fig. 2.22 Fig. 2.23

Solution: Referring to Fig. 2.23, consider an elementary area rd0. Its mass
= rd0p. Its distance from the diameter xx = r sin O. Its moment of inertia about
the diameter = rdOp (r sin 9)2
Moment of inertia of the circumference of the circle about the diameter
2r (1— cos 20)
= r3p f sin2 0 dO = 4r3pf 2 sine 0 dO = 4r3p f 2 d0
2
g
41.3n r2 ( cos2o)
de = 4r3p
sm 20]2 , 3 pr
= 4r p sin
J0 2 2 2 4 0 . 4 4
2
= lrr3 p = Mr as in = 27rrp
2
Problem 2.11 Show that the moment of inertia of a solid sphere of radius
2 Mr2
r and mass M, about its diameter is
5
Solution: A solid sphere is generated by
the revolution of the semicircular area
about its bounding diameter. Consider an
elementary area xdOdx at a distance x from
the centre o.
This element when revolved about the 0
diameter AB, generates a circular ring of
Fig. 2.24
radius x sin 0 and cross-section xdOdx
Mass of the elementary ring = 27rx sin 0 • xdO • dx • p
Distance of its every point from AB = x sin 0
Moment of inertia of the elementary ring about AB
= (27r x sin 0 • xr/0 • dx • p) (x sin 0)2 = 2irpx4 sin3 0 dO dx
Moment of inertia of the sphere about the diameter AB
rz
= 27rp f rr X4 sin3 0 de dx = 4np If 2 x4 sin3 0 de dx
00 00
38 Strength of Materials

x51
= 47rp [—
3 cos 0 + cos 3011 = 4rp
• [-- r5 2
5 0 4 12 0 • 5 •3
4 3 2 2 2 Mr2
= -3- ICrpx 5 r =
5
Problem 2.12 Find the moment of inertia
of a hollow section shown in Fig. 2.25 about an
axis passing through its centre of gravity and
parallel to x-x axis..
Solution: As the section is symmetrical about
y-y axis, the centre of gravity of the section will
lie on this axis. Let jj be the distance of centre X x
of gravity from the bottom face AB. Divide the Al.-- 20 cm --I
figure into two parts (1) Rectangle (2) Circle.
Rectangle Fig. 2.25

al = 30 x 20 = 600 cm2, yi =2
= 15 cm
0
Circle
a2 _4 x 152 = 176.7 cm2, y2 = 30 — 10 = 20 cm
Using the relation
a2y2 600 x-15 — 176.7 x 20
y= = 12.9 cm
al —a2 600 — 176.7
Moment of inertia of the rectangle about its centre of gravity and parallel to
x-x axis
= 12 x 20 x 303 = 45000 cm4
1
Moment of inertia of the rectangle about x—x axis = 45000 + 600 x (2.1)2 =
47646 cm4
Moment of inertia of circular section about x—x axis
= ±
7 x 154 + 176.7 x (7.1)2 = 11392 cm4
64
Moment of inertia of the whole section about x—x axis,
Ix x = 47646 — 11392 = 36254 cm4
Problem 2.13 Calculate the moment of inertia and radius of gyration of
a grindstone 90 cm in diameter and 10 cm thick with respect to its axis of
rotation. Stone weighs 0.0026 kg/cm3.
Solution:
Let M = mass of the grindstone = Volume x density.
= Area x thickness x density
— (90)2 x 10 x 0.0026 = 56.25 it kg.
=4
 Moment of Inertia 39

MR2
Moment of inertia of the grindstone =
2

= 52.65 x ( C1)2 x = 16.75 kg m2

2 2
2
MR2
Again, = Mk2 or k2 = R
2 2
R 90
k= = = 31.82 cm.
2,/2
Therefore radius of gyration, k = 31.82 cm.

REVIEW EXERCISES
2.1 Fill in the blanks:
(i) Unit of moment of inertia is
(ii) Unit of radius of gyration is
I
(iii) The ratio is called
(iv) Unit of section modulus is
(v) Every section has got section moduli.
(vi) Polar moment of inertia of a circular section is times the mo-
ment of inertia about an axis passing through centre of gravity and in
the plane of the section.
(vii) Alternate name of moment of inertia of a plane figure is

Problems
2.2 Calculate the moment of inertia of a T-section about the horizontal and
vertical axes passing through the centre of gravity of the section as shown
in Fig. 2.26. [Ans. I = 2260.4 cm4' = 1510.4 cm4]

15 cm
E
S
T
I

E
5 cm U)

Fig. 2.26
40 Strength of Materials

2.3 Calculate the moment of inertia of the area shown in Fig. 2.27 about
x—x axis. [Ans. l = 125788 cm4]

I
5 cm
_..._._
__ _._._._ 17.5 cm
7.5 cm

;0

-•-•- -•- -•-•-•- -

7.5 cm
5 cm
15 cm T
Fig. 2.27

2.4 Find the moment of inertia of the area shown shaded in Fig. 2.28 about
the edge AB. [Ans. 2064.99 cm4]
2.5 Find the moment of inertia of the section shown in Fig. 2.29 about x-x axis
passing through the centre of gravity of the section.
[Ans. ITS = 9553.8 cm4]

_Lk— 12 cm .
2 cm
T

UE
to
C
E

2 cm
1-*-- 12 cm
Fig. 2.28 Fig. 2.29

2.6 Find the mass moment of inertia of a thin rod about an axis through one
extremity perpendicular to the rod as shown in Fig. 2.30.

[Ans. m12 1
3
 Moment of Inertia 41

2.7 Prove that the mass moment of inertia Y

of a solid cone about an axis x—x pass-
ing through the vertex parallel to the 0 IP
3m L "I
base is — (r + 4h2) where r = radius
20
of base, h = height of cone, in = mass Fig. 2.30
of cone.
2.8 Find the moment of inertia of a right circular cylinder about (i) its axis (ii)
a straight line through its centre of gravity perpendicular to its axis.
Mr 2 M 2 h2
[Ans. (i) — r +—
2 4
2.9 Show that the moment of inertia of a rectangle of mass M and sides 2a,
2M ( a2b2
2b about a diagonal is
3 a 2 + b2 •
2.10 Show that the moment of inertia of a hollow sphere about its diameter is
2 Mr 2
3
2.11 Find the moment of inertia of an equilateral triangle about its base, the
mass and height of the triangle being M and d respectively
Md2]
[Ans.
6
2.12 A built-up section consists of two channel sections 33 cm x 10 cm, placed
back to back at a distance of 15 cm apart and a plate section 40 cm x 2
cm welded to the top flanges of the channel as shown in the Fig. 2.31.
The properties of the channel section are: area 42.11 cm2, I,x = 6048 cm4,
I)}, = 232 cm4, distance of centre of gravity from back of channel = 2 cm.
Find the moment of inertia of the built-up section about xx and yy axis.
[Ans. 1,, = 22625 cm4, 18734 cm4]
Iyy =

40 cm
k ZMMI tIliklaM 2 cm
Wir

I..— 10 cm
Fig. 2.31
STRESSES AND ST

3.1 LOADS AND FORCES

External forces acting on a rigid body are termed as loads. These loads may
arise due to dead loads of members, live loads, wind loads, earthquake effects,
fluid pressures, support settlements, frictional resistance, etc. Basically there are
three types of loads or forces as shown in Fig. 3.1. A force which points away
from its point of application is called tensile force. It is also called pull.
(Refer to Fig. 3.1(a))
P P
+EL
,
(a) Tensile force (b) Compressive force

Sheared surface

r AM/ A
\HI&
(c) Shear force

Fig. 3.1

A member under the action of these forces is said to be under tension. The
force which points towards its point of application is called the compressive
force. It is also called push. (Refer to Fig. 3.1(b))
The tensile and compressive forces are called direct forces and they act
normally to the planes carrying them.
The force which acts tangentially or parallel to the surface under consider-
ation is called the shear force. (Refer to Fig. 3.1(c))

3.2 STRESS (a)

All externally applied loads deform an elastic material. This deformation is called
strain. While undergoing deformation, the body sets up internal resistance
 Stresses and Strains 43

against deformation. The resistance increases as the deformation increase only

up to a certain limit beyond which any increase in applied loads will continue
the process of deformation to the stage of failure. This internal resisting force
per unit area is called `stress'.
Thus, stress is defined as the resistance offered by a body per unit area of
resisting section, against the loads producing deformation.
Then by definition: stress
R P
= a= — = —
A A
The unit of stress is N/m2.
There are only two kinds of basic
stresses which are (i) normal stresses,
which always act normal to the C
stressed surface under consideration
and (ii) shearing stresses, which are
parallel to the stressed surface. Nor-
mal stresses are either tensile or com-
pressive stress.
P R (Resistance)
A
3.2.1 Tensile Stress (at )
When equal and opposite forces are
applied to a body, and the resistance
offered by a section of the body is (Resistance) R P
against the increase in length, the sec-
tion is said to offer a tensile stress.
The stress offered by the section xx of
the rod in Fig. 3.2 is a tensile stress.
The intensity of the tensile stress is
given by C R R 0 B 'P

R P (d)
6r = A =
Fig. 3.2

3.2.2 Compressive Stress (ae )

When equal and opposite forces are applied to a body, and the resistance offered
by a section of the body is against the decrease in length the section is said to
offer a compressive stress. The stress offered by the section xx of the rod in
Fig. 3.3 is a compressive stress.
The intensity of the compressive stress is given by
R P
° = =
44 Strength of Materials

C D P
A B

X
(a)

R (Resistance)

X
(b)

XI

(Resistance) R P

(c)

C R R D

(d)

Fig. 3.3

3.2.3 Shear Stress (r) Aik

When equal and opposite forces
=ME////
act tangentially on any cross-sec- 111
1
tional plane of a body, tending to mor
slide its one part over the other at (a)

that plane, the body is said to be in

a state of shear. The corresponding
stress induced in it is called shear Er A
stress. In Fig. 3.4 a rivet of cross-
sectional area A connecting two CM& OOH
plates tends to shear off at section 1 111
(b)
xx, producing shear stress in the
cross-section of the rivet. The re- Fig. 3.4
sistance R along the section xx is called the shear resistance.
R P
The intensity of the shear stress is given by r = — = —
A A

3.3 STRAIN (e)

Strain is a measure of the deformation produced in a member by the loads.
Therefore strain in a member is defined as the deformation produced by the
application of load per unit length of the member.
 Stresses and Strains 45

It is denoted by E. It is a ratio between change in dimension and original

dimension, and as such it has no unit.
Change in dimension
Strain (E) =
Original dimension

3.3.1 Tensile Strain (e,)

In Fig. 3.5(a) the length 1 of the bar increases by an amount 31 under the action
of the load P.
Increase in length N.
Tensile strain, E, = =
Original length

.5/

(b)

Fig. 3.5

3.3.2 Compressive Strain (Ed

In Fig. 3.5(b), the length 1 of the bar decreases by an amount Si under the action
of the load P.
Decrease in length = SI
Compressive strain, ec =
Original length

3.3.3 Shear Strain (Es )

It is a measure of the angle through which a body is deformed by the applied

force. In Fig. 3.6 the rectangular block ABCD fixed at the bottom face AB is
distorted through an angle by the force P applied as shown. The face CD
moves to the new position C'D'. As the movement of the end C is very small
and it is assumed as an arc of radius BC with B as centre. Then,
46 Strength of Materials

CC
Shear strain, = — = tan radian [ angle 0 is very small]
es CB'
P D

P
Fig. 3.6

3.3.4 Volumetric Strain (

The ratio between the change in volume and the original volume is known as
volumetric strain. It is denoted by e,,.
Change in volume ov
Volumetric strain, ev =
Original volume

3.4 ELASTICITY AND ELASTIC LIMIT

A material is said to be perfectly elastic if the deformation produced due to the
application of external load disappears completely with the removal of the load.
This property of the material is called elasticity.
If loading is increased, a limiting value of the load will be reached up to which
the deformation totally disappears on the removal of that load. The stress
corresponding to this limiting value of load is called the elastic limit of that
material. In case the material is loaded beyond this limit, the deformation so
produced will not disappear completely on removal of the load. In such a case
some residual strain or deformation, known as permanent set will remain even
after the complete removal of the load.

3.5 HOOKE'S LAW

Hooke's law states that within an elastic limit stress is proportional to strain.
stress a strain
stress
or = a constant
strain
This constant is known as coefficient of elasticity or Modulus of elasticity.
The ratio between tensile stress and tensile strain or compressive stress and
compressive strain is called Young's Modulus' of Elasticity and is denoted by E.

,or 6c. = E
 Stresses and Strains 47

The ratio between shear stress and shear strain is called Shear Modulus or
Modulus of Rigidity. It is denoted by G.
—G
es
The ratio between the normal stress and the volumetric strain is called Bulk
modulus of elasticity and is denoted by K.

3.6 STRESS-STRAIN CURVE FOR MILD STEEL

A stress-strain curve for mild steel is shown in Fig. 3.7. The portion OA of the
graph is a straight line, which obeys Hooke's law, i.e. stress being prriportional
to strain. The point A corresponds to the limit of proportionality. Mild steel
remains elastic a little beyond A, so that the limit of proportionality and elastic
limit are not the same. But in the case of all other materials these two limits
coincide.
Y

X
Strain
Fig. 3.7

At B mild steel begins to yield, i.e. strain goes on increasing without the
addition of load of any appreciable amount. Point B is called the yield point and
the corresponding stress is called yield stress. The yielding continues up to C and
the portion BC is nearly parallel to OX. From C to D the material is ductile and
there is a general reduction of the area of cross-section of the test specimen.
At point E the stress is the maximum and is knowh as ultimate stress. Beyond
E the bar elongates even the stress decreases and the specimen fractures at
point F.

3.7 FACTOR OF SAFETY

The maximum load to which a member is likely to be subjected during its
working period is called the working load, and the maximum allowable stress
in the material during working is called working stress or permissible stress. The
working stress has to be much smaller than the ultimate stress of the material
so as to have a sufficient margin of safety.
48 Strength of Materials

The ratio of the ultimate stress and the working stress for a material is called
factor of safety.

Factor of safety = Ultimate stress

Working stress
The factor of safety depends on many considerations as follows:
(i) the nature of loading
(ii) the homogeneity of the materials used
(iii) the accuracy with which stresses in members and external forces can be
evaluated
(iv) the degree of safety required
(v) the degree of economy desired.
When the material is subjected to varying stresses, the factor of safety is
high. For most engineering structures a factor of safety between 2 and 6 is
suitable.

3.8 POISSON'S RATIO (1)

Stress of one nature, tensile or compressive in longitudinal axis produces strains

of same nature in that axis known as the longitudinal strain but produces strains
of opposite nature in the other two mutually perpendicular axes, which are
known as lateral strains. A rectangular bar under longitudinal tension extends
along its length but at the same time there will be a shortening of its breadth as
well as thickness.
The ratio between the lateral strain and the longitudinal strain is called
1
Poisson's ratio and is denoted by it or(— .
m
Lateral strain
Poisson's ratio, µ or 1=
tn. Longitudinal strain
1
For most metals, — lies between 0.33 and 0.25.

3.9 CHANGE IN DIMENSIONS OF A BAR

Consider a bar of length `1', width 'b' and thickness 't'. It will get changed to
1+ Sl, b + Sb and t + St respectively after being stressed longitudinally. The sign
of Sl, Sb and St can be either positive or negative depending upon the type of
stress.
For a tensile stress a1, Sl will be positive representing an increase in length,
while Sb and St will be negative. If a. is applied along the length 1, then,
SI
Longitudinal strain, Et = - 51 = 1
 Stresses and Strains 49

3b 8t 1
And lateral strain, — = — = — — x Sb = x
b t m in

and 8,=--x E,

The final dimensions of the bar will be,

b
1+ 31=1+2,1=1(1+4b+8b=b- - = b (1—
m

and t + St = t — — x E, = t 1- El
m
For a round bar of length '1' and diameter 'd' due to the application of
longitudinal stress ai, the changed dimensions will be,
d
1+ 81= 1 (1 + d + 3d = d — x et = d (1-1

3.10 CHANGE IN VOLUME

Consider a bar of length '1' width 'b' and thickness 't' subjected to an axial
stress a, along the length of the bar.
The volume of the bar, v = lxbxt (i)
The volume of the bar after being stressed, v + Sv = (1 + 61) (b + Sb) (t + St)
Change in volume, Sv = (1 + 31) (b + Sb) (t + St) — l x b x t
3v= (1-b•t• + Sl•b•t+ Sb•1•t+ St•l•b)— l•b•t
[Neglecting small quantities]
= 81•b•t+ Sb•l•t+ 6t•l•b
From Equations (i) and (ii)
Sv 31.b.t + Sb•l•t + St .1.b 61 Sb dt
_ = = — +— +—
v l•b•t 1 b t

= 1X
+ (-- Et)+(-1 X E
in t)
Sv , 2 )
=E, (.1 — —
v

3.11 ELONGATIONS OF BARS OF

VARYING CROSS-SECTIONS
Consider a bar of varying three sections of lengths L1, L2
and L3 having respective areas of cross-sections A1, A2
and A3 subjected to an axial pull P. Let 3L1, 3L2 and 3L3
be the changes in length of the respective three sections
of the bar then we have
PLI PL2 PL3 Fig. 3.8
=• 81,2 = BL3 =
AE A2E' A3 E
50 Strength of Materials

Now the total elongation of the bar,

SL = + SL2 + 31,3 = PLI + /3/-2+PL3 = P + 4+4

Ai E A2 E A3 E E 1 A2 A3

3.12 ELONGATION OF UNIFORMLY TAPERING ROD

Consider a bar of length L, whose diameter reduces
uniformly from D at one end to d at the other end.
The bar is subjected to an axial pull P. Considering
an elementary length dx of the bar at a distance x
from the smaller end and denoting the diameter at
this distance as di .
x
d1 = d+(D—d)x —

Area of cross-section at a distance x,

(D d) x]2
A= [d +
x 4

Diameter of the rod over a length dx is constant

and its elongation above the plane AB is
Px dx 4 Pdx
A, • E (D — d)xl
Zc[d + xE

rL 4Pdx
Total elongation of the rod l
(D — d) x
+

D— d
Let =K
L
L
SI, =
L 4 Pdx
=
4P (_ o
L ir [d ± K42 x E n EK d + Kxio

1 —4P 1 1]
= —4P 1
n EK[ d + KL d + K (0)] irEK[d +(D — d) d
—4PL [1 1 x (d — D) 4PL
= . —4PL =
KE (D — d)LD di KE (D— d) Dx d irEDd

3.13 EXTENSION OF A BAR UNDER ITS OWN WEIGHT

Consider a bar of uniform cross-section of area A and length L.
Consider an elementary strip of this bar of length dx at a distance x from the
bottom of the bar as shown in Fig. 3.10. The downward force acting on this
 Stresses and Strains 51

strip is due to the weight of the bar that lies below this
element and is equal to v • A • x.
Elongation in the length dx caused by this weight =
vAx•dx vxdx
. Total elongation of the bar due to self
AE = E
weight.
Lvxdx x2 vL2
45L =
E = E
v [2 0 2E

Total weight of the bar, W = vAL or v =

AL
SL = WL
2 AE Fig. 3.10

3.14 COMPOSITE BAR UNDER TENSION OR COMPRESSION

A tensile or compressive member which consists of more than one bar or tube
in parallel, generally of different materials, is called a composite bar.
Consider a composite bar consisting of a central copper rod, surrounded by
a brass tube and their both ends firmly connected together as shown in Fig.
3.11. Let the bar be subjected to an axial tensile load P as show in Fig. 3.11.

Brass tube

\MMIWM %WI&

Brass tube .\
L

Fig. 3.11 .GE OF

.
C-3
Let L = Common length of both the bars
Ab = Cross-sectional area of the brass tube,'
A, = Cross-sectional area of the copper rod
Ph = Load shared by brass tube
Pc = Load shared by copper rod
Eh = Young's modulus for brass tube
E, = Young's modulus for copper rod
For equilibrium we have P = Ph + Pc
Since both the tube and the rod are held together firmly at their ends, their
elongation and hence the strains will be the same.
52 Strength of Materials

Pb Pc•
E_
ith • Eh Ac • Ec
= Ac • Ec • Ph
or
k • Eh
Substitute for Pc in Equation (i)
p = p A • E • Pb _
C C
k • Eh + k • Ec )
b
Pb
Ah • Eh ith • Eh
P • Ab • Eb
or Pb = Ab • Eb A,. • E,
P • Ac • Ec
Similarly P=
c ith • Eh ± Ac • Ec
P Ab • Eh
Strain, E = Pb =
Ah • Eh (Oh • Eh + Ac • Ec )x Ab • E) k • Eh + Ac • E,
Change in length of the composite bar is given by
PL
SL= E • L =
ith • Eh -I- k • Ec

3.15 TEMPERATURE STRESS AND STRAIN

When a structural member undergoes changes in temperature, it tries to expand
or contract. No stresses are set up by it if this expansion or contraction is
allowed to take place freely. But if this expansion or contraction is prevented,
stresses are developed in the member. This stress is called temperature stress.
(a) Single bar restrained at ends Let a bar of length L and coefficient
of linear expansion a be heated through t
°C. If the expansion is allowed free, the
increase in length = L a t and there will be
no stress or strain in the bar. The ends of
the bar are fixed to rigid supports as
shown in Fig. 3.12, so that this expansion
is prevented, then compressive strain (ec) Fig. 3.12
will be produced in the bar.
Lat
Ec = — = at and the corresponding stress ac = Esc = E a t.
If the supports yield by an amount 8, then the expansion prevented = L at
— 3 so that
Lat — 8 3
sc= L = at— —

and stress ac = E Cat —

 Stresses and Strains 53

(b) Composite bar A composite bar is made of two bars—steel and copper—
having same length rigidly connected at their free ends (Fig. 3.13).
Let L = Length of both the rods
A, = Cross-sectional area of steel bar
Ae = Cross-sectional area of copper bar
ot, = Coefficient of linear expansion of steel bar
ac = Coefficient of linear expansion of copper bar
t = Rise in temperature

B
A
Steel ►p

Copper P
A
L ,B F D
Fig. 3.13

As ac is more than as, the copper bar will expand more than the steel rod.
If both the rods are free to expand then let the copper bar expand to D and the
steel bar to C. As the ends of both the bars are rigidly connected together so
the composite bar will expand up to F. In attaining the position F the copper bar
pulls forward the steel bar with a force P and brings it from C to F, whereas
the steel bar pushes back the copper bar with a force P from D to F.
The steel bar thus shall be subjected to a tensile force P and the copper bar
to a compressive force P.
Let e = Common strain in the two bars
ES = Strain in steel bar if it was free to expand
ee = Strain in copper bar if it was free to expand
Es = Modulus of elasticity for steel bar
Ee = Modulus of elasticity for copper bar.

Now, E = BF
L
BC BF — CF BF CF P
s= L = L
=
L
= E
L As • Es
(i)

BD BF + FD BF FD P
Similarly, Cc = = -I- L = (ii)
L L L E+ k E.
•
Subtract Equation (i) from Equation (ii)
p p P(As • Es + A, • E,)
Ec — Es = Ac • E,+As • Es A, • E, • As • Es
But ec = ac • t and es = a, • t
P(its • Es + A, • E,)
.*. t (a,— as) =
'lc • Ec • As • Es
t(ot e — a s ) Ac • Ec • As • Es
or P=
As • Es + A, • E,
54 Strength of Materials

From Equation (i) E3= E

As • Es
P
or as • t = E
As Es
t (a,— as ) Ac E,
P =
C as • t As • Es —st As Es + A,E,
as • t • As • Es + ast • Ac • Ec + ac • t Ac • E,— as • t Ac • E,
=
AsEs + A,E,
5L Oa., As • Es + ac • Ac • E,)
or
As • Es + Ac • E,
s • As • Es + ac • Ac •
SL= Lt(a
As • Es + Ac • Ec

SOLVED PROBLEMS
Problem 3.1 A civil engineer's steel tape 30 m long has a cross-section of
6 mm by 1 mm. Determine the elongation when the entire tape is stretched and
held taut by a force of 40 N. Take E = 200 GN/m2.
Solution:
PL 40 x 30 x 103
Elongation SL = = = 1 mm. Ans.
AE 6x 1 x 200 x 109 x 10—
Problem 3.2 A short hollow cast iron cylinder of wall thickness 1 cm is to cany
a compressive load of 600 kN. Determine its outside diameter if the ultimate
crushing stress for the material is 540 MN/m2. Use a factor of safety of 6.
Solution:
Let Do = Outside diameter of the cylinder in cm.
The wall thickness of the cylinder = 1 cm
Inside diameter of the cylinder = (Do — 2) cm.
Area of cross-section = 4 {D2o — (Do — 2)2) (4D, — 4)
4
= tc (Do — 1) cm2
Crushing load for the column = 1t (Do — 1) x 10-4 x 540 x 106 N.
= tr (D,— 1) x 54000 N.
Factor of safety = 6
= Crushing load
Safe load = 600 x 103
Factor of safety
(Do -1) x 54000
600 x 103 =
6
600 x103 x 6
Do = + 1 = 22.22 cm. Ans.
tc x 54000
 Stresses and Strains 55

Problem 3.3 A steel wire 10 mm in diameter is used for hoisting purposes

in building construction. If 150 m of the wire is hanging vertically, and a load
of 800 N is being lifted at the lower end of the wire, determine the total
elongation of the wire. The weight density of steel is 7.8 x 104 N/m3 and E =
200 GN/m2.
Solution: The total elongation of the wire is partially due to the applied force
of 800 N and partially due to the weight of the wire.
The elongation due to the 800 N load is
PL 800 x 150
=—= = 7.643 mm.
AE
4 x (0.01)2 x 200 x 109
The elongation due to the weight of the wire is
i. X (0.01)2 x 150 x 7.8 x 104 x 150
WL =
= 4.387 mm
51'2= 2AE x (0.01)2 x 200 x 109
2x
4
Total elongation of the wire, SL = SLI + 8L2 = 7.643 + 4.387 = 12.03 mm Ans.
Problem 3.4 Calculate the force required for punching a hole of 10 mm
diameter through a mild steel plate 4 mm thick. Take maximum shear strength
of mild steel as 320 N/mm2. Also find the compressive stress on the punch.
Solution: Let d be the diameter of the hole to be punched, t be the thickness
of the plate and r be the maximum shear stress.
Force required for punching the hole = Shear stress x Area
= T X wit = 320 x x 10 x 4
= 40192 N.
Area of the punch in contact with the plate surface, A = 4 d2
P
Compressive stress on the punch, o-. = — = 40192= 512 1\l/mm'".
A ir
— x (10)2
4
Problem 3.5 Two parts of a tie bar of diameter D are connected in such a
way that the end of one part fits into the forked end of the other part and a pin
of diameter d passes through the two. The pin is in double shear. If p and q be
the tensile and shear stresses in the rod and the pin respectively show that for
uniform resistance.
d=
D 2q
Solution:
p = Tensile stress in the rod
q = Shear stress in the pin
Pull in the tie bar, P = p X - D2
4
56 Strength of Materials

With these forces, the pin tends to shear at two sections AA and BB as shown
in Fig. 3.14 and the pin is said to be under double shear.
Pin

/ F Rod
A

11,1;A
Fork

Fig. 3.14

Strength of the pin against shearing = 2 x q x d2

As the resistances offered by the rod and the pin are equal
p X g D2 = 2xqx 2
4 4d
d2 p
D2 2q
d = p
D 2q
Problem 3.6 Find the total elongation of a steel bar as shown in Fig. 3.15,
subjected to an axial load of 200 kN. Take E = 200 GPa.

10 cm 8 cm 6 cm
200 kN 200 kN

I
10 CM 16 cm 12 cm
0

Fig. 3.15

Solution:
Let 8L1 = Elongation for the portion AB of the bar.
5L2 = Elongation for the portion BC of the bar.
SL3 = Elongation for the portion CD of the bar.
SL = Total elongation of the steel bar.
 Stresses and Strains 57

Li, L2 and L3 be the lengths of the portions AB, BC and CD respectively.

The load P = 200 kN = 200 x 103 N.
PL1 200 x 103 x 0.10
Now = 0.0127 mm.
61"1 = A E
---
7 x (0.1)2 x 200 x 109
4
= PL2 = 200 x 103 x 0.16
= 0.0318 mm
A2E 71 x (0.08)2 X 200 x 109
4
PL3 200 x 103 x 0.12
(5L3 = = 0.0424 mm
A E
3 x (0.06)2 x 200 x 109
4
Total elongation, 81, = 8L1 + 5L2 + 8L3 = 0.0127 + 0.0318 + 0.0424
= 0.0869 mm.. Ans.
Problem 3.7 A steel bar of 20 mm diameter is loaded as shown in Fig. 3.16.
Determine the stresses in each part and the total elongation. Take E = 210 GPa.

20 kN
50 kN 30 kN 40 kN

-0-- 40 cm —0+4— 30 cm
20 cm
Fig. 3.16
Solution: The fi>ee body diagram for each portion is shown in Fig. 3.17.

50 kN

Fig. 3.17

Area of cross-section, A = x (0.02)2 x 10-4 m2

50 x 1000
(7AB = 159.23 x 106 N/m2
gX10-4
20 x 1000
°BC = 63.69 x 106 N/m2
x 10-4
40 x 1000
CD= 127.38 x 106 N/m2
x 10-4
58 Strength of Materials

Total elongation, SL = Pi4+ P24+ P31-3

AE
50x10 3 x0.4+20x10 3 x0.3+40x10 3 x0.2
x 10-4 x 210 x109
= 0.5156 mm
Problem 3.8 A prismatic bar as shown in Fig. 3.18(a) carries an axial load
of 25 kN. Calculate the reaction at the supports assuming them rigid.

(a)
Fig. 3.18

Solution: Let RA and Rc be the reactions at the supports A and C respectively.

For equilibrium of the bar the reactions will act towards the left.
RA + Rc = 25 1c1•1 (i)
The free body diagrams for the portions AB and BC are shown in Fig.
3.18(b). The elongation of the portion AB,
_ RAxA x LAB = RA x 2
""-'AB E AxE

-1.- RA Rc
1
A
(b)
Fig. 3.18

The compression of the portion BC,

x LBC Rc x 3
SLBC=
"`-'8C AxE AxE
Since the supports are rigid, the elongation of AB must be equal to the
compression of BC.
RA x 2 Rc x 3
AxE Ax E

RA = 2 RC (ii)
 Stresses and Strains 59

From Equations (i) and (ii) we have

3
-2 Rc + Rc = 25

or, -
5 R - 25
2 c
Rc = 10 kN.
RA = 25 - Rc = 25 - 10 = 15 IN.
Problem 3.9 A bar ABC shown in Fig. 3.19 consists of two parts AB and
BC having areas of cross-section of 3 cm2 and 4 cm2 respectively. It is rigidly
fixed at the end A, and end C is at a distance of 1 mm from the other rigid
support. A load of 100 kN is applied vertically downward at B. Determine (i)
the reactions produced by the rigid horizontal support (ii) the stresses in parts
AB and BC of the bar.
Take E = 200 GPa.

IC
1 mm

C
P

Fig. 3.19
Solution: The portion AB of the bar would elongate in the absence of hori-
zontal rigid support by an amount equal to,
PL 100 x103 x 1.5 x 103
SL = = = 2.5 mm
AE 3 x 10-4 x 200 x 109
Portion BC of the bar has no change in its length as it is not subjected to any
force. The presence of horizontal rigid support just 1 mm below end C of the
60 Strength of Materials

bar ABC will resist the total elongation from exceeding 1 mm. Therefore, the
bar is subjected to an upward reaction. Let the upward reaction be P in kN. The
force in the bar BC is equal to P which is compressive in nature, whereas the
force in AB is 100 - P and tensile in nature.
Total elongation of the bar
(100 - P)x 103 x 1.5 P x103 x 1.5
3 x 10-4 x 200 x 109 4 x 10-4 x 200 x 109
= 0.25 x le (100 P) - 0.1875 x P = (25 - 0.4375 P) x 10-4 m.
The total elongation is limited to 1 mm
• (25 - 0.4375 P) x 10-4 = 1 x 10-3
. P = 34.285 kN.
Force in BC = 34.285 kN
Force in AB = 65.715 kN
65.715 x 103
Stress in AB, CYAB = 3 x 10-4 = 219.05 MPa (tensile)

34.285 x 103
Stress in BC, aBc = =.85.71 MPa (compressive)
4 x 10-4
Problem 3.10 If a tension bar is found to taper uniformly from (D - a) cm
diameter to (D + a) cm, prove that the error involved in using the mean diameter
2
10a
to calculate Young's modulus is — percent.

Solution: We know that the elongation of a tapering rod is

SL= 4PL
irEDd
Here D = (D + a) and d = (D - a)
3L =
4 PL 4PL
IrE (D + a) (D - a) irE (D2 - a2)
4PL
or E=
ir • 3L • (D2 - a2)
It is the actual value of Young's modulus.
Let E1 be the Young's modulus calculated by taking mean diameter.
(D + a) + (D - a)
Mean diameter = =D
2
E=
4 PL P.• d =
it& D2
4PL 4PL
E - E1 x 7r8L(D2 - a2) 71.5. L D2
Percentage error - 100 = x 100
4 PL
Jr6L(D2 - a2)
 Stresses and Strains 61

1 1
D 2— a2 D2 z_
x 100 = (1 D` x100
1 D
D -a 2
2

100 a2 (10a' 2
— Proved.
D2 D
Mroblem 3.11 A rod of square section of side
D at one end tapers to a square section of side d
at the other end. The rod is of length L and is
subjected to an axial pull P. Find the increase in
length of the rod.
Solution: Consider a section AB at a distance x
from the smaller end.
D—d
AB = d + x
L
D— d 1
Cross-sectional area at AB = [ d+ x
L
The elongation in length dx P
P • dx
Fig. 3.20
2
[d + D d x1 X E

The increase in length of the rod,

L

rL Pdx P —L 1
SL= J
° D —d 2 E D—d) D—d
+ x) xE d+ xi
L
P )( 1 1) = PL
E 0—c/ ) 0 d ) EDd Ans.
Problem 3.12 A reinforced concrete column has a square cross-section. It
is reinforced with 4 steel rods of diameter 20 mm at each cornet: The column
carries an axial compressive load of 500 kN. Find the required size of the
column so that the stress in the concrete does not exceed 4 N/mm2. Find also the

load carried by steel and the stress induced in it. Assume modular ratio —
E
Es
Ec
Solution: Given
Safe load, P = 500 kN, steel rod diameter, d = 20 mm.
Number of steel rods = 4, stress in the concrete, ac = 4 N/mm2
Area of steel rods As = 4 x 4 x (20)2 = 1256 mm2
62 Strength of Materials

Let the side of the column be = X

Area of the concrete = Ac
E a as
Now, = or,
= 15 = 15 a,
Ec ac
Here ac = 4 N/mm2
as = 15 x 4 = 60 Nimm2
.. Safe load, P = Ps + Pc = as • As + ac • Ac
500 x 103 = 60 x 1256 + 4 x Ac
A c = 106160 mm2
Now, Total cross-sectional area,
X2 = As + Ac = 1256 + 106160
= 104904 mm2 Steel
rods
X = 323.88 mm
Load carried by steel = As x as = 1256 x 60
= 75360 N = 75.36 kN.
Size of the column = 324 mm x 324 mm.
Problem 3.13 A steel bolt having a cross-sectional area of 500 mm2 is
passed through a hollow aluminium tube of 1000 mm2 sectional area and 500
mm length as shown in Fig. 3.22. Over the threaded end of the bolt, nuts are
turned till they just touch the aluminium tube. If one of the nuts is forcibly
1
tightened further through — of a turn, find the stresses produced in the bolt and
4
the tube, if the pitch of bolt threads = 2 mm. Take Es = 200 kN/mm2, Ea! = 80
kN/mm2.
Nut Nut

1310,
Wirrif 1\ MID
I .4

500 mm
Steel bolt Aluminimum tube
500 mm2 1000 mm2
Fig. 3.22

Solution: When the nut is forcibly tightened, the aluminium tube will get
compressed with a force Pat while the bolt will be under a tensile force of Ps.
For equilibrium Ps — Pal = 0 or Ps = P„1. The tube gets compressed through oat
while the bolt gets elongated through 8L5 due to these forces. Thus the nut
moves through a distance, 51, = (54,1 + 8L5
1 1
Here 6L, = — of a turn = — x 2 = mm [As pitch = 2 mm)
4 4 2
 Stresses and Strains 63

and writing Pa/ = Ps = P and L„1 = Ls = 500 mm

6L„i + 6Ls = 8L
Pal X L„i + Ps X Ls = 1
or
Aai X Ea! As X Es 2
1 1 1
or P x 500
[Aid + Ea! A,X Es 2
1 [As • Es • Aai • Ed
P=
1000 As • Es + Aai • Eat _I
1 [500x 200000 x 1000 x 80000]
= 1000 500 x 200000+ 1000x 80000
= 44444.4 N
Ps 4 114.4
Tensile stress in steel bolt, a, = = 88.888 Nimm2
As 500
Compressive stress in Aluminium tube,
Pal _ 44/1/11 .4
44.444 Nimm2
Aa, — 1000
Problem 3.14 A metal bar 40 mtnx 40 mm section, is subjected to an axial
compressive load of 480 kN. The contraction of a 200 mm gauge length is found
to be 0.4 nun and the increase in thickness 0.04 nun. Find the value of Young's
modulus and Poisson's ratio.
Solution:
Area of the bar, A = 40 x 40 = 1600 mm2
Load, P = 480 kN = 480 x 103 N, contraction, 8L = 0.4 mm
81, 0.4
Linear strain = 200 = 0.002
L=
= 480 x 103 x 200
We know 61, = PL or E = PL = 150 x 103 N/mm2
AE A•& 1600 x 0.4
Again we know
Lateral strain = 1 x Linear strain
or 1
x 0.002
t m
0.04 1
or x 0.002
40
m = 2.
Problem 3.15 A solid steel bar 50 cm long and 7 cm in diameter is placed
inside an aluminium tube having 7.5 cm inside diameter and 10 cm outside
diameter. The aluminium tube is 0.015 cm longer than the steel bar. An axial
load of 600 kN is applied to the bar and tube through rigid cover plates as
64 Strength of Materials

shown in Fig. 3.23. Find the stresses developed in the steel bar and aluminium
tube. E for steel = 220 GPa, E for aluminium = 70 GPa.

600 kN

I
0.015

I E

O
O

I 600 kN

Fig. 3.23

Solution:
As = (0.07)2 = 0.003848 m2

Aai = 4 [(0.1)2 — (0.075)2] = 0.003436 m2

Let the aluminium tube be compressed by 8Lai and steel bar by 8L5
SLai = x Lai, (5Ls = as XL
Ea, Es
6s
Gal X Lai — x Ls = 0.00015
Eat Es
crai as
or x 0.50015 0 x 0.5 = 0.00015
70 x 109 220x109
or CY al — Cr S = 300000 (i)
70 220
aai • Aai + as • As = 600 x 103 (ii)
or Gal x 0.003436 + as x 0.003848 = 600 x 103
or Gal = 17462.165 x 104 — 1.1199 as
Substituting the value of Gal in Equation (i)
17462.165 x 104 —1.1199 as as
300000
70 220 .
as = 106.82 MN/m2
(Tat = 54.99 MN/rn2
Problem 3.16 Two, parallel walls 6 m apart are stayed together by a steel
rod 2.5 cm diameter.at a temperature of 80°C passing through washers and nuts
at each encl.,Calculate the pull exerted by the rod when it has cooled to 22°C;
 Stresses and Strains 65

(a) If the walls do not yield and

(b) if the total yield together at the two ends is 1.5 min.
E = 200 GN/m2, a = 11 x 10-6/°C. [D.M.E. Part-H, 1997]
Solution:
(a) Fall in temperature, t = 80 - 22 = 58°C.
Strain, E = at = 11 x 10-6 x 58 = 638 x le
Stress, a = EE = 200 x 109 x 638 x le = 127.6 MN/m2
Pull exerted P = aA = 127.6 x 106 x lr x 6.25 x = 62.635 kN
4
(b) Length at 22°C is = L (1 - at) = 6(1 - 11 x x 58) = 5.996172 m
Decrease in length = 6 - 5.996172 = 0.003828 m
As the walls yielded by 1.5 mm, the actual decrease in length is
= 0.003828 - 0.0015 = 0.002328 m
0.002328
Strain 8= = 388 x 10--6
6
Pull exerted, P= E• E•A
= 200 x 109 x 388 x 10-6 x (2.5)2 x 10-1
4
= 38.092 101.
Problem 3.17 A steel tube of 4.5 cm external diameter and 3 mm thickness
encloses centrally a solid copper bar of 3 cm diameter. The bar and the tube are
rigidly connected together at the ends at a temperature of 30°C. Find the stress
in each metal when heated to 180°C. Also find the increase in length if the
original length of the assembly is 30 cm.
Take as = 1.08 x 10-5/ °C, ac = 1.7 x 10-5/ °C, Es = 210 GPa, Ec = 110 GPa.
Solution: As the coefficient of expansion for copper is greater than that of
steel, the free expansion of copper bar is greater than the steel tube. As both are
rigidly connected at the ends, actual expansion of steel = actual expansion of
copper.
Hence steel is in tension and copper bar is in compression. For equilibrium
of the system
Total tension in steel = Total compression in copper.
as As = ac Ac
1r
x (3)2 x ac
Ac 7
1.
as= x ac= = 1.785 ac
As 4 x (4.52 - 3.92)
Actual expansion of steel = Actual expansion of copper '
asTL + as x L = acTL ac x L
Es Ec
as ac [Here T = 180 - 30 = 150°C]
asT + 'T
s
= acT Ec
66 Strength of Materials

or, ac
1.08 x x 150 + u = 1.7 x x 150
210 x 10' 110x109
1620 x 10-6 1.7 85 1cc
+ 2550 x 105 — 47C
2. 1.1
1620 x 105 + 0.85 ac = 2550 x 105 — 0.9091 ac
1.7591 o-c = 930 x 105
930 x 105
ac = 1.7591 52.88 MN/m2 (Compressive)
as = 1.785 x 52.88 = 94.39 MN/m2 (tensile)
Increase in length of either component

= as TL Es x L = (a sT + a ) L
Es
x 150 + 94.39 x 106
= [1.08 x 10-5 u x 0.3 = 0.062 cm.
210 x 10'
Problem 3.18 A steel bar is placed between two copper bars each having
the same area and length as the steel bar at 15°C. At this stage they are rigidly
connected together at both the ends. When the temperature is raised to 315°C,
the length of the bars increases by 0.15 cm. Determine the original length and
the final stresses in the bars.
Take Es = 210 GPa, as = 12 x 10-6/°C [A.M.I.E. Summer 1978]
Ec = 100 GPa, ac = 17.2 x 10-6/°C.

L LacT

Copper

Steel

Copper
LaST
= 0.15 cm1-4—

Fig. 3.24

Solution:
Let A = Area of steel bar
2A = Area of copper bar
Free expansion of steel bar = LasT
Free expansion of copper bar = Lag'
Actual expansion of each bar = SL
Las T < 3L < Lac T
Steel bar is in tension and copper bar is in compression.
For equilibrium of the system
 Stresses and Strains 67

Tension in steel bar = Compression in copper bar

asA = ac (2A)
as =2 ac
Actual expansion of steel = Actual expansion of copper
Las T + as x L = Lac T ac x L
Es Ec

asT + as = acT ac
Es Ec
Here T= 315 — 15 = 300°C
2a, ac
12 x x 300 + = 17.5 x 10-6 x 300
210 x 10' loo x to9
12 x 300 x 10- + 221 = 17.5 x 300 x 105 — ac
1.9524 ac = 1650 x 105
cc = 84.511 MN/m2
as = 169.022 MN/m2

Actual expansion of steel bar = L as T + as x L = 0.15 x 10-2

Es

169.022 x 106 )
L (12 x 10-6 x 300 + = 0.15 x 10-2
210 x 109
L x 0.0044048 = 0.15 x 10-2
L = 0.3405 m = 34.05 cm. Ans.
/ /
Problem 3.19 The piston of a deep well
pump is operated by a vertical prismatic steel noo /
rod 100 m long attached to a crank at its
upper end as shown in Fig. 3.25 having a
cross-sectional area of 2 cm2. Determine the
extreme values of tensile and compressive
stresses in the rod, if the resistance on the pis-
ton during the downstroke is 1 kN and during
the upstroke is 10 kN. Assume density of steel
is 80 kN/cu.m. [D.C.E. Part-11 1996]
2 sq cm
Solution: Weight of rod = 2 x 10 x 100
x 80 = 1.6 kN
The rod experiences maximum tensile
stress when it is at the top performing
upstroke and is equal to 10 + 1.6 = 11.6 kN. Fig. 3.25
11.6 x 103
The corresponding stress at this moment = — 58 N/mm2
200
The rod experiences maximum compressive stress at its lower end, free of
its own weight and is equal to 1 kN.
68 Strength of Materials

1 x 103
The corresponding stress at this moment = = 5 N/rnm2.
200
Problem 3.20 A short timber post of rectangular section has one side of the
section twice the other: When the post is loaded with 150 kN, it contracts by
0.012 mm per unit (mm) length of the post. If E for timber is 1.4 x 104 N/mm2,
calculate the sectional dimensions of the post. [D.C.E. Part—II, 1999]
6L
Solution: Strain experienced by the timber post, — = 0.012 where SI, =
L
contraction and L = original length of the post.
P = total load acting on the post = 150 kN
Let b be the width of the post in mm.
2b is the longer dimension of the post in mm.
P
We know
L AE
150 x 103
0.012 =
bx2bx1.4x104
b = 21.13 mm (shorter side)
2b = 42.26 mm (Longer side)

REVIEW EXERCISES
Multiple-Choice Questions
3.1 Indicate the correct answer from the given alternatives:
1. Stress may be defined as
(a) the internal resisting force per unit area
(b) the load per unit area
(c) the internal resistance offered, by the material per unit area
(d) the internal force acting on the material per unit area
2. In the SI system of units, the unit of stress is
(a) Pa (b) N/m2 (c) kgf/mm2 (d) kg/mm2
3. Conventional strain may be defined as
(a) the change in length per unit final length
(b) the change in length per unit original length
(c) the change in length per unit instantaneous length
(d) none of the above
4. Hooke's law holds good up to
(a) yield point (b) elastic limit (c) plastic limit (d) breaking point
5. The ratio of linear stress to the linear strain is called
(a) modulus of rigidity (b) modulus of elasticity
(c) bulk modulus (d) Poisson's ratio
 Stresses and Strains 69

6. The change in length due to a tensile or compressive force action on a body

is given by
PL LPA AE
(b) (c) (d)
(a) --AE PLA PL
7. Young's modulus may be defined as the ratio of
(a) linear stress to lateral strain (b) lateral strain to linear strain
(c) linear stress to linear strain (d) shear stress to shear strain
8. The deformation of a bar under its own weight is—the deformation, if the
same body is subjected to a direct load.
(a) equal to (b) half (c) double (d) quadruple
9. The ratio of the lateral strain to the linear strain is called
(a) modulus of elasticity (b) modulus of rigidity
(c) bulk modulus (d) Poisson's ratio
10. Shear modulus is the ratio of
(a) linear stress to linear strain (b) shear stress to shear strain
(c) linear stress to lateral strain (d) volumetric strain to linear stress
11. Modular ratio of the two materials is the ratio of
(a) linear stress to lateral strain (b) shear stress to shear strain
(c) their modulus of elasticities (d) their modulus of rigidities
12. The extension of a circular bar tapering uniformly from diameter di at one
end to diameter d2 at the other end, and subjected to an axial pull of P is
given by—
4PEd2 (b) 6 4PL
(a) SL
7LL4 L IrEdid2
4PLE 47rLdl•
(c) 61, = (c1) 51, =
irdid2 PEd1
13. The unit of strain is
(a) kg/cm (b) kg/cm2 (c) mm, (d) no unit
14. Strain is equal to
L
(a) — (b) L
S (c) 8L -L (d) none of these.
15. When a change in length takes place, the strain is known as
(a) linear strain (b) lateral strain
(c) shear strain (d) volumetric strain
16. A bar of length L metres extends by 1 mm under a tensile force of P kg.
The strain produced in the bar is
(a) 0.01 x 1/L (b) 0.1 x 1/L (c) 0.001 x 1/L (d) 1/L
70 Strength of Materials

17. Whenever a material is loaded within elastic limit, stress is—strain.

(a) equal to
(b) directly proportional to
(c) inversely proportional to
18. When a bar is subjected to a change of temperature and its deformation is
prevented, the stress induced in the bar is
(a) tensile stress (b) compressive stress
(c) shear stress (d) thermal stress
19. Poisson's ratio for steel varies from
(a) 0.23 to 0.27 (b) 0.25 to 0.33
(c) 0.31 to 0.34 (d) 0.32 to 0.42
20. The deformation of a bar per unit length in the direction of force is known
as
(a) linear strain (b) lateral strain
(c) shear strain (d) volumetric strain
21. When a rectangular bar of length L breadth b and thickness t is subjected
to an axial pull of P, then linear strain is given by
btE
E bt PE
(a) = (b) E = (c) E = PE (d) E =
P btE bt
22. Modulus of rigidity may be defined as the ratio of
(a) shear stress to shear strain
(b) shear stress to longitudinal strain
(c) longitudinal stress to shear strain
(d) shear stress to lateral strain.
23. Within elastic limit Hooke's law states that
(a) stress is proportional to strain
(b) strain is proportional to stress
(c) stress is inversely proportional to strain
(d) none of the above
Ans: 1.—a, 2.—a, b, 3.—b, 4.—b, 5.—b, 6.—a, 7.—c, 8.—b, 9.—d, 10.—b, 11.—c, 12.—
b, 13.—d, 14.—b, 15.—a, 16.—c, 17.—b, 18.—d, 19.—a, 20.—a, 21.—b, 22.—a,
23.—b.

True or False Questions

3.2 State whether the following statements are true (t) or false (f)
1. The unit of stress is the same with the unit of modulus of elasticity.
2. Hooke's law holds good up to the yield point for mild steel.
3. Poisson's ratio is not a constant for a given material within its elastic limit.
4. If there is a fall in the temperature of a composite body, then a member
having greater coefficient of linear expansion will be subjected to com-
pressive stress.
 Stresses and Strains 71

5. An isotropic material exhibits the same strength on both longitudinal and

transverse directions.
6. If a copper strip and a steel strip of same dimensions are fixed together
rigidly and the same is heated at higher temperature, the composite will
not bend from its original shape.
7. Strength of materials may be regarded as the statics of deformable or
elastic bodies.
8. Poisson's ratio is a relation between linear strain to longitudinal strain.
9. A structural member will return to its original shape if stretched to its
plastic limit.
10. When elongation of a bar due to rise in temperature is prevented, the
stress developed in the bar will be tensile.
11. If there is a rise in temperature of a composite body then the component
material having lesser coefficient of linear expansion will be subjected
to a tensile stress.
12. In statics the members of a structure were treated as elastic body.
13. Poisson's ratio is constant for a given material within its range of elastic
behaviour.
14. Yield point of mild steel indicates the limit of operation of Hooke's law.
15. Breaking load of a mild steel sample is more than ultimate load.
PL
16. Simple strain of any structural member is — with usual notations.
AE
17. In a composite member subject to weathering, coefficient of linear expan-
sion of the components of composition does not have any important role.
Ans: 1.—T, 2.—T, 3.—F, 4.—F, 5.—T, 6.—F, 7.—T, 8.—F, 9.- T, 10.—F, 11.—T, 12.—
T, 13.—T, 14.—T, 15.—F, 16.—F, 17.—F.

Problems
3.3 A wooden tie is 6 cm wide, 12 cm deep and 1.5 metres long. It is subjected
to an axial pull of 36 kN. The stretch in the member is found to be 0.6
mm. Find Young's modulus for the tie material. [Ans. 12.5 GN/m2]
3.4 A hollow steel column of external diameter 200 mm has to support an axial
load of 2400 kN. If the ultimate stress for the steel column is 480 N/mm2,
find the internal diameter of the column allowing a factor of safety of 4.
[Ans. 120.5 mm]
3.5 A member formed by connecting a steel bar to an aluminium bar is shown
in Fig. 3.26. Assuming that the bars are prevented from buckling side-
ways, calculate the magnitude of the force P that will cause the total length
of the member to decrease by 0.025 cm. E for steel and aluminium, are
210 GPa and 70 GPa respectively. What is the total work done by the
force P? [Ans. 224.359 kN, 2.8044 kN. cm]
72 Strength of Materials

I
5 cm x 5 cm
steel bar co

10 cm x 10 cm
aluminium bar co
co

Fig. 3.26

3.6 A steel rod of stepped sections is loaded as shown in Fig. 3.27. The loads
are all assumed to act along the centre line of the rod. Estimate the
displacement of D relative to A. Assume E = 220 GPa.
[Ans. 0.000341 cm]

10 cm + 20 cm 10 cm —4-1

8000 N 2000 N
4000 N 10000 N
2 cm square 2 cm square

4 cm square

Fig. 3.27

3.7 In testing a 1 cm diameter mild steel rod intension it was found that a load
of 10 kN caused an extension of 0.012 cm on a length of 20 cm. The
maximum load was 26 kN and the load beyond which stress-strain was
not proportional was 11 kN. The extension of the 20 cm length was 6.15
cm and the diameter at fracture was 0.57 cm. Find (a) the, limit of
proportionality (b) Young's modulus (c) percentage elongation and (d)
percentage contraction of area at fracture.
[Ans. (a) 140.6 MN/m2, (b) 212.2 GPa (c) 30.75% (d) 67.5%]
3.8 Two vertical rods, one of steel and the other of copper, are each rigidly
fixed at the top and 50 cm apart. Diameters and lengths of each rod are
2 cm and 4 cm respectively. A cross bar fixed to the rods at the lower ends
carries a load of 5 kN such that the cross bar remains horizontal even after
loading (Fig. 3.28). Find the stress in each rod and the position of the load
on the bar. Take Es = 200 GPa and Ec = 100 GPa.
[Ans. 10.61 MN/m2, 5.305 MN/m2, 33.33 cm]
 Stresses and Strains 73

3.9 A reinforced concrete column 300 mm

x 300 mm has four reinforcement bars
of steel each of 20 mm diameter. Calcu- 2 cm dia Copper
late the safe load for the column if the E 2 cm dia
allowable stress in concrete is 4 N/
2
MM . [D.C.E. Part-II, 1997] I I Crossbar
[Ans. 430 kN]
3.10 A steel rod of sectional area 300 sq.
mm connects two parallel walls 6
metres apart. When the rod is heated to 5 kN
100°C, the nuts at the ends are tight-
Fig. 3.28
ened up without inducing any force on
the walls. Calculate the pull exerted by the bar on cooling to atmospheric
temperature of 20°C if (i) the ends do not yield (ii) the ends yield by 2 mm.
Take as = 12 x 1 erc, Es = 2.1 x 105 N/mm2.
[Ans. 60.48 kN, 39.48 kN]
3.11 Three long parallel wires equal in
length and in the same vertical
plane, jointly support a load of 15 Brass Brass
kN (Fig. 3.29). The middle wire
is steel, the two outer ones are
brass and each 2 cm2 in section.
After the wire lengths have been
so adjusted as to carry one third
of the load, a further load of 25
Fig. 3.29
IN is added. Find the stresses in
each wire and the fraction of the whole load carried by the steel wire. Take
Es = 200 GPa, Eb = 80 GPa.
[Ans. as = 94.444 MN/m2, ab = 52.777 MN/m2 0.47222]
3.12 A weight of 100 N falls freely through 3 m and is then suddenly checked
by the reaction of a bar of steel 2 cm in diameter and 9 m long. Find the
maximum stress and strain induced in the bar. Take E = 210 GPa.
[Ans: as = 211.1 MN/m2, E = 100.52 x 10-5]
3.13 A steel wire of 2.5 mm diameter is firmly held in a clamp from which it
hangs vertically. An anvil, the weight of which may be neglected is se-
cured to the wire 1.8 m below the clamp. The wire is to be tested allowing
a weight bored to slide over the wire to drop freely from 1 m above the
anvil. Calculate the weight required to stress the wire to 1000 N/mm2,
assuming the wire to be elastic up to this stress. Take E = 210 GPa.
[Ans. 20.86 N]
3.14 A thin steel ring is heated to a temperature of 95°C. At this temperature
it just fits over a steel cylinder which has a diameter of 10 cm at 20°C.
If the system is allowed to cool until the temperature of both the ring and
74 Strength of Materials

the cylinder is 20°C, what will be the stress in the ring? Assume the
cylinder does not change its diameter.
Take E = 210 GPa, a = 12 x 10-6/°C. [Ans: a = 189 MN/m2]
3.15 Define the terms stress, strain and modulus of elasticity.
3.16 State Hooke's law and define the terms 'elasticity' and Poisson's ratio.
3.17 What do you understand by the term modular ratio? What is its value for
steel?
3.18 Explain the terms temperature stress and temperature strain.
SHEARING FORCE AND
BENDING MOMENT

4.1 BEAM
A beam is a piece of structure which can take forces or couples acting at right
angles to its longitudinal axis.

4.2 CLASSIFICATION OF BEAMS

Beams are classified as follows:
(a) Cantilever beam (b) Simply supported beam (c) Overhanging beam (d) Fixed
beam (e) Continuous beam.

4.2.1 Cantilever Beam

A beam which is fixed at one of its end and
the other end is free is called a cantilever
beam. Figure 4.1 shows a cantilever beam
with one end B rigidly fixed and the other
end A free. The distance between A and B
is called the length of the beam. Fig. 4.1 Cantilever beam

4.2.2 Simply Supported Beam

A beam which is freely supported at both ends is called a simply supported
beam. The term 'freely supported' implies that the end supports exerts only the
forces upon the bar but not the moments. Therefore there is no restraint offered
to the angular rotation of the ends of the bar at the supports as the bar deflects
under the loads. The beam is shown in Fig. 4.2.
76 Strength of Materials

N/m Wi
B A
C
7/ L2 -.I
RB RA
L

Fig. 4.2 Simply supported beam

4.2.3 Overhanging Beam

The beam freely supported at any
two points and having one or both
ends projected beyond these sup-
ports is called an overhanging
beam. In Fig. 4.3 A and B are sup-
ports and both the ends C and E of ,
the beam are overhanging beyond Fig. 4.3 Overhanging beam
the supports.

4.2.4 Statically Determinate Beams

The reactions of the supports of all the beams considered above may be deter-
mined by the use of equations of static equilibrium. The values of these reactions
are independent of the deformations of the beam. Such beams are said to be
statically determinate.

4.2.5 Fixed Beam

A beam having its both ends rigidly fixed or built into its supporting walls as
shown in Fig. 4.4 is called a fixed beam.

(a) (b)
Fig. 4.4 Fixed beam

4.2.6 Continuous Beam

A beam supported on more than two supports as shown in Fig. 4.5 is called a
continuous beam.

4.2.7 Statically Indeterminate Beams

The reactions of the supports of all the beams considered in Art. 4.2.5 and 4.2.6
cannot be determined by equations of static equilibrium alone. The static equa-
 Shearing Force and Bending Moment 77

tions must be supplemented by yy co N/m

equations based upon the deforma- tetotittotintota
tions of the beam. Then these A A
beams are said to be statically E
indeterminate. RD RA

Fig. 4.5 Continuous beam

4.3 TYPES OF LOADING

Beams are commonly loaded with the following four types of loads:
(a) Concentrated or point load (b) Uniformly distrib-
uted load (c) Uniformly varying load (d) Loaded by
one or more couples.
D C
(a) Concentrated or point load The load act- (a)
ing at a point on a beam, i.e. at points C and D as
Fig. 4.6 Concentrated
shown in Fig. 4.6 (a) is called a concentrated or point
or point load
load.
(b) Uniformly distributed load The load
spreading over the entire length of the beam or part
there of at a uniform rate is called a uniformly dis-
tributed load, as shown in Fig. 4.6 (b). (b)

(c) Uniformly varying load The load spread- Fig. 4.6 Uniformly distri-
buted load
ing over the entire length of the beam or part there
of at a non-uniform rate as shown in Fig. 4.6 (c), or with a combination of unifor-
mly distributed load as shown in Fig. 4.6 (d), is called a uniformly varying load.

(02Nim

11111111111111111111 col N/m

4 T

(c)
(d)
Fig. 4.6 Fig. 4.6

4.4 SHEAR FORCE

Consider a simply supported beam carrying two point loads 60 N and 100 N as
shown in Fig. 4.7. The span of the beam is 10 m.
The reactions at the supports are RA = 60 N and RB = 100 N.
Consider a section at E at a distance x from the right-hand support A. The
resultant of the forces on the right side of the section is equal to 60 N (upwards).
Since the section is in equilibrium and in order that I V = 0, the resultant of the
forces to the left side of the section must be equal to 60 N (downwards) and
it is actually 60 N as verified.
100 (t) — 100 (I) — 60 (I) = — 60 N (downwards)
78 Strength of Materials

Therefore at point E at a distance x from right-hand support equal and opposite

forces of magnitude 60 N acts as shown by dotted lines in the figure. These
equal and opposite forces have the tendency to shear the beam at section x-x,
i.e. at point E. Therefore it may be said that the shear force at point E is 60 N.
Therefore, shear force at any cross-section of a beam is the algebraic sum
of all the vertical components of the forces acting on either side of the beam
section.

4.5 BENDING MOMENT

Two equal and opposite forces one each on either side of section x-x produced
will form a couple or moment and these moments have the tendency to bend
the beam at the section considered.
The bending moment at any point on a loaded beam is the algebraic sum of
the moments of all the vertical forces acting on one side of the point about the
point. In Fig. 4.7, the bending moment at section x-x is M1 = RA x x = 60 x Nm
(anti-clockwise). Considering the forces acting on the left side of the beam, the
bending moment at section x-x is M2 = RB x (10 — x ) — 100 (7 — x) — 60 (5
— x) (clockwise). For equilibrium M1 = M2

100N 60N x

_A
x
f 5m RA
10 m
x
Fig. 4.7

4.6 SIGN CONVENTION

In drawing the shear force and bending moment diagram it is necessary to
follow a sign convention. The following conventions have been adopted in this
book but the readers may follow any sign convention convenient to them.
(a) Always start from the right-hand end of the beam. Consider a section at
suitable distance from the right-hand end.
(b) An upward force acting on the right side of the section is taken as positive.
(c) A downward force acting on the right side of the section is taken as
negative.
(d) An anti-clockwise moment on the right of the section is taken as positive.
(e) A Clockwise moment on the right side of the section is taken as negative.
If it is started from the left-hand side of the beam then the reverse of the
above conventions should be remembered.
The +ve bending moments considered above which tend to bend down a
beam are known as "sagging" bending moment and —ve bending moments
which tend to bend up the beam are known as "hogging" bending moments.
 Shearing Force and Bending Moment 79

(a) (b)

(c)

+ye
r +ve +ve +ve

_vet

-ye
-ye -ye
(e)
Fig. 4.8 (a) Positive S.F. (b) Negative S.F. (c) Positive B.M. (d) Negative B.M.

4.7 CALCULATION OF SHEAR FORCE AT ANY SECTION

(a) Choose either the right or left-hand portion of the beam from the section.
(b) Find the algebraic sum of all the forces on the chosen portion of the beam
(c) Then the algebraic sum of the forces will be the shear force at that section.

4.8 CALCULATION OF BENDING MOMENT AT ANY SECTION

(a) Choose either the right or left-hand portion of the beam from the section.
(b) Find the algebraic sum of the moments of all the forces acting on the
chosen portion of the beam about the section.
(c) The algebraic sum of the moments is the required bending moment of the
beam at the considered section.

4.9 SHEAR FORCE AND BENDING MOMENT DIAGRAMS

Graphical representation of the variation of shear force along the length of the
beam is known as Shear force diagram and that of the bending moment is
known as bending moment diagram.
The various values of S.F. (and B.M.) are plotted as the ordinates to some
suitable scale against their respective cross-sections keeping in view the sign
convention taking +ve values above and —ve values below the beam axis. Now
the points thus obtained are joined by a straight line or by a smooth curve
depending upon the powers of x. Then indicate on the diagrams drawn the
values of shear force and bending moment on all load points. The maximum
value of bending moment and the point where it occurs should also be shown
if it does not occur under any load.
80 Strength of Materials

4.10 CANTILEVER BEAM WITH A CONCENTRATED

LOAD AT THE FREE END
Consider a cantilever beam AB car-
rying a concentrated load W at the B
free end as shown in Fig. 4.9(a).
Shear Force
Consider any section x-x at a dis- X
(a)
tance x from the free end [Fig. 4.9
(a)] B
S. Fat xx: =—W
The shear force is independent of
distance x
MTN (b)

FA = FB = — W
By plotting the constant S.F. (—W)
below the zero line, we get the S.F. WL
FFliff/ ""--
diagram as shown in Fig. 4.9(b).
I (c)
Bending moment
Fig. 4.9 (a) Loaded cantilever
Bending moment at xx: Mx = W x x
(b) S.F. diagram (c) B.M. diagram
(—ve) (i)
Bending moment at the free end A where x = 0, MA = 0
Bending moment at the fixed end B where x = L,. MB = WL (—ve)
As the Equation (i) is a first degree equation it represents a straight line. Thus
the bending moment changes from zero at A to — WL at B linearly [Fig. 4.9(c)].

4.11 CANTILEVER BEAM WITH NUMBER OF

CONCENTRATED LOADS
Consider a beam with three concentrated loads W, Wi and W2 acting at points
A, B and C respectively as shown in Fig. 4.10(a).
(i) Consider any section between A and B as shown in Fig. 4.10(a). Shear
force at the section is W (—ve).
The B.M. at the section is — W x x where x is the distance of the section
under consideration from A.
Putting x = 0 the B.M. at A, MA = 0
Putting x = (L — L1) the B.M. at B, MB = — W (L — L1)
(ii) Consider any section between B and C.
S.F. at the section is — (W + W1)
The B.M. at the section is — [Wx1 + W1 [xi — (L — L1))]
where x1 is the distance of the section under consideration from A.
Putting x1 = (L — L1) the B.M. at B, MB = — W (L — L1)
Putting x1 = (L — L2) the B.M. at C, Mc
= — [W (L — L2) + {(L — L2) — (L — L1))]
= — [W (L — L2) + W1 (L1 — L2)]
 Shearing Force and Bending Moment 81

w2 w1 w
X2

D A
C
—L2
L1

D A

/ /Tv
Hve

(b)

(c)
Fig. 4.10 (a) Loaded cantilever (b) S.F. diagram (c) B.M. diagram

Consider any section between C and D.

S.F. at the section is — (W1 + W2 + W3)
B.M. at the section is — [Wx2 + W1 {x2 — (L — L1)} + W2 {X2 — (L — L2)}1
Putting x2 = (L — L2) the B.M. at C,
Mc = — [W (L — L2) + W {(L — L2) — (L — Li)}
+W2 {(L — L2) — (L — L2)1]
= — [W (L — L2) + W1 (Li — L2)]
Putting x2 = L the B.M. at D,
Mo =—[WL+W1{1, — (L — L1)} + W2 {L — (L — L2)}]
= —[WL+ WiLi + W2L2]
Both the shear force and bending moment values are negative throughout
the length of the cantilever beam and as such both the diagrams are drawn
below the zero S.F. and B.M. Lines.

4.12 CANTILEVER BEAM WITH u.d.l. OVER THE ENTIRE SPAN

A cantilever beam with u.d.l. of w N/m over the entire span is shown in
Fig. 4.11(a).
82 Strength of Materials

N/m

ttitottettetettetititillitsti it%
-4- X -11,-
L

(a)

Fig. 4.11 (a) Loaded cantilever (b) S.F. diagram (c) B.M. diagram

Consider a section at a distance x from A [Fig. 4.11(a)]

S.F. at the section, F, =— wx
Putting x = 0 for S.F. at A, FA = 0
Putting x = L for S.F. at B, FB = — wL
The equation FT = — wx is a first degree equation, therefore the variation of S.F.
from zero at A to —wL at B is represented by a straight line [Fig. 4.11 (b)].
The bending moment at the section is,
2
WX
=—wxxx = 2
2
Putting x = 0 the B.M. at A, MA = 0
14,L2
Putting x = L the B.M. at B, MB = 2
The bending moment equation is of second degree, therefore the variation of
wL2
B.M. from zero at A to at B is a parabolic curve [Fig. 4.11(c)].

4.13 SIMPLY SUPPORTED BEAM WITH

A CONCENTRATED LOAD AT THE MID-SPAN

A simply supported beam with a concentrated load at the mid-span is shown in

Fig. 4.12(a). Let RA and RB be the support reactions. By the symmetry of
loading both the support reactions RA and RB are equal.
W.
RA = RB =
2
 Shearing Force and Bending Moment 83

L
:Al 2 2
(a)

,r7 0/+ /

A
// ve .7/ /
12
B
W
2 H v7
(b)

Fig. 4.12 (a) Loaded beam (b) S.F. diagram (c) B.M. diagram

Considering section between B and C the S.F. is + 2

Considering section between C and A the S.F. is +

W —W=—
2 2
At point C the S.F. changes from + to —
2 2
Considering section between B and C at a distance x from B.

B.M. at a distance x from B in BC is M, =

Wx
2
B.M. at B where x = 0, MB = 0
L
B.M. at C where x = —2 , Mc = W4
Considering section between C and A at a distance x from B.

B.M. at a distance x from B in CA is M,=Wx — W (x-

2 2
L
B.M. at C where x = 2 , Mc =

WL WL =0
B.M at A where x L, M A = +
2 2
The shear force and bending moment diagrams are shown in Figs. 4.12(b)
and (c).

4.14 SIMPLY SUPPORTED BEAM WITH A u.d.l.

OVER THE ENTIRE SPAN
A simply supported beam AB with a u.d.l. of w Isi/m over the entire span is
shown in Fig. 4.13(a).
84 Strength of Materials

8
z

C
(c)
Fig. 4.13 (a) Loaded beam (b) S.F. diagram (c) B.M. diagram

Let RA and RB be the reactions at the supports A and B respectively.

Total load = wL, RA RB = wL
vL
Taking moment about A, RB x L = wL x 1 "- RB =
2 '2
wL
Putting the value of RB in Equation (i) we have RA =
2
Consider a section at a distance x from B.
wL
S.F. at the section, Fi — wx
2
S.F. at B where x = 0, FB =
2
_ L F _ wL wL
S.F. at mid-span C where x 4. =0
—2 —2 2
S.F. at A where x = L, FA = + wi" — wL = — wL
2
The bending moment at section at a distance x from B,
wL wx 2
= 2 2
B.M. at B where x = 0, MB = 0
We — WL2
B.M. at A where x = L, MA= =0
2
dM
For the B.M. to be maximum put • for Equation (i) equal to zero.
dx
 Shearing Force and Bending Moment 85

d M, wL
. =+ — —tivx =0
dx 2
L
x= —
2
At the mid-span the B.M. is maximum (the S.F. is zero at this point)
Maximum bending moment at C, (mid-span)
WLL wL x r L) = wL2
Mmax — -4-
2 2 2 4 8
The shear force and B.M. diagrams are shown in Figs. 4.13 (b) and (c)

4.15 SIMPLY SUPPORTED BEAM OF SPAN L WHICH

CARRIES OVER ITS FULL SPAN A LOAD VARYING
UNIFORMLY FROM ZERO AT EITHER ENDS TO
w N/M AT MID-SPAN
The beam of span L carrying the varying uniform load is shown in Fig. 4.14(a).
L
Total load on the beam = — x w
2

(b)

Fig. 4.14 (a) Loaded beam (b) S.F. diagram (c) B.M. diagram

Since the load on the beam is symmetrical, the reactions at the supports RA and
RB are equal.
86 Strength of Materials

wL
RA '= 'RB =
4
Consider a section at a distance x from B. Rate of loading at the section is
EF DC
BF BC
EF = DC x BF wx x 2 wx
BC
2
wL 2ivx x wL2
S.F. at the section is, F, = + X =
4 L 2
wL
S.F. at B where x = 0 is FB =
4
2
L wL L w X (L
S.F. at C where x = — is Fc = + — ) =0
2 4 2
wL wL wL
S.F. at A, FA =+ =—
4 2 4
The equation for S.F. is a second degree equation which represents a parabola.
So the S.F. diagram is parabolic. The S.F. diagram is shown in Fig. 4.14(b).
Bending moment at the section is,
wL 1
Mx = 4 xx xxx 2wx x x=wIff wx3
2 L 3 4 3L
B.M. at B where x = 0, MB = 0
B.M. at A, MA = 0 [As the beam is simply supported]
For maximum bending moment
d MY wL, wx2
— =0 x=
dx 4 2
The maximum bending moment accurs at the mid-span.
The maximum bending moment
wL L w (L 141,2
Mm = - X - - - X - = (+) ye.
4 2 3L 23 12

4.16 BEAMS WITH OBLIQUE LOADING

A Simply supported beam AB with two oblique loads W1 and W2 acting at C and
D respectively is shown in Fig. 4.15(a).
Resolving both the loads along the axis of the beam and at right angles to it,
we get the respective horizontal components as WH1 and WH2 and vertical
components as Wvi and Wv2 respectively [Fig. 4.15(b)]. The effect of horizontal
components is to cause a thrust in the beam equal to WH2 — WH1. It causes no
shear or bending in the beam. The vertical components of the loads W1,1 and Wye
cause bending and shear and are treated as usual vertical loads on a beam.
 Shearing Force and Bending Moment 87

W2 vvl
Aei
fr , 5
,77 /7
L
(a)
v2 W
D
Wli C
A /3
ffi797/7
WN2 W
L
(b)

Fig. 4.15 (a) Loaded beam (b) Beam carrying equivalent load

4.17 OVERHANGING BEAMS

(a) Beams with equal overhangs and carrying concentrated loads

at ends Consider a beam of length (1 + 2a) with equal overhangs of length
a carrying concentrated loads of magnitude W each at the free ends.

B
D1W
A
C
1-4— a L a -3 ,
RA RB
(a)

A 'C
T
Wa

(c)

Fig. 4.16 (a) Loaded beam (b) S.F. diagram (c) B.M. diagram

Let RA and RB be the reactions at the supports A and B respectively. As the

loading is symmetrical the support reactions RA and RB are equal.
RA = RB = W
88 Strength of Materials

S.F. just to the left of C = — W and is constant up to B

S.F. just to the left of B = — W + W = 0 and is constant up to A
S.F. just to the left of A = (—W + W + W) = + W and is constant up to D
B.M at B, MB = — Wa
B.M. at A, MA = — W (a + L) + WL = — Wa
The S.F. and B.M. diagrams are shown in Figs 4.16 (b) and (c) respectively.
(b) Beams with equal overhangs and carrying u.d.l. over the entire
span Consider a beam of length (L + 2a) with equal overhangs of length 'a'
caning u.d.1. of w N/m is shown in Fig. 4.17(a).

a N/m

taltlititititittitifettititotititititttlittfite1
E
L a
x
RA RB

(a)

-L2 2
2 4 a
- -
1

/i

f -wwig
—)ve

Point of
(c) contraflexure

1
Fig. 4.17 (a) Loaded beam (b) S.F. diagram (c) B.M. diagram when a < —
2
Let RA and RB be the reactions at the supports A and B respectively. As the
loading on the beam is symmetrical the support reactions RA and RB are equal.
w(L + 2a)
RA = RB =
2
S.F. just to the right of B = — wa
+ 2a)
S.F. just to the left of B = — vva
a + w(L =+K
2 2
+2a) = wL
S.F. just to the right of A = — w (L + a) + w(L —
2 2
w(L + 2a)
S.F. just to the left of A = — w (L + a) + 2 x = + Iva
2
 Shearing Force and Bending Moment 89

wL
S.F. is + — at B and — at A so it will be zero at the mid-point E of A and
2 2
B.
Let S.F. be zero at a distance x from B. (i.e. E)
w(L +2a)
S.F. at E = — wx + =0
2
L +2a
x— i.e. at the middle of the beam. The S.F. diagram is shown in
2
Fig. 4.17(b)
wag
B.M. at B =
2
L + 2a
Bending moment at the point of zero shear, i.e. at a distance from C
2
is the maximum.
w ( L + 2a )2 (L+ 2a) L] _ w (L2 _ a2)
x2
Mm" =
[ 2 2 J +14) 2 — 2 4

When a < — the maximum bending moment is (+)ve as shown in Fig. 4.17(c).
2
Let B.M. be zero at a distance y from either end then B.M. at F or G
wy2 —w (L 22a
x (y — a) = 0
2 )
(L +2a)± JL2 — 4a2
y= 2
L
when a = — the maximum bending moment will be zero.
L
when a > — the maximum bending moment will be (—) ve.
The point at which the B.M. changes its sign (or is zero) is called the 'point of
contraflexure' or the 'point of inflexion'.

SOLVED PROBLEMS

Problem 4.1 Draw the S.F. and B.M. diagrams for a cantilever beam loaded
as shown in Fig. 4.18(a)
Solution S.F. at B = 10 kN (—)ve
S.F. at C = 10 + 5 x 2 = 20 IcIsT (—) ve
S.F. at D = 10 + 5 x 2 + 20 = 40 Ids1 (—) ve
S.F. at E = 40 kN (—) ye
S.F. at A = 10 + 5 x 2 + 20 + 40 x 3 = 160 lcN (—) ve
90 Strength of Materials

20 kN 10 kN
40 kN/m 5 kN/m
B
E D
3 2 m-id 12m*
1m
(a)
E DC
B
(—)ve 10 kN
S.F. 20 kN
40 kN

160 kN
(b)
E DC
Au B
(—)ve 30 kNm
B.M.
Parabolic
50 kNm curve
Parabolic
curve
(c)

Fig. 4.18 (a) Loaded beam (b) S.F. diagram (c) B.M. diagram
The S.F. diagram is shown in Fig. 4.18 (b)
B.M. at B = 0
B.M. at C = 10 x 2 + 5 x 2 x 2 = 30 k N.m (-) ve
2
B.M. at D = 10 x 3 + 5 x 2 x (2 +1) = 50 k N.m (-) ve

+20x2
C2
= 130 k N.m (-) ve
3
B.M. at A = 10 x 8 + 5 x 2 x + + 20 x 5 + 40 x 3 x
2 2
= 430 k N.m (-) ve
The B.M. diagram is shown in Fig. 4.18(e).
Problem 4.2 Draw bending moment and shear force diagram of a cantilever
beam AB 4 metres long having its fixed end at A and loaded with a uniformly
distributed load of 1 kN/m up to 2 metres from B and with a concentrated load
of 2 kN at 1 metre from A.
[D.C.E. Part-H, 1998]
Solution
S.F. at B = 0
S.F. just to the right of C = 1 x 2 = 2 kN (-) ye
 Shearing Force and Bending Moment 91

2 kN
4 kN 4 kN
(b)

2 kNm
4 kNm Parabolic
curve
8 kNm
(c)

Fig. 4.19 (a) Loaded beam (b) S.F. diagram (c) B.M. diagram
S.F. just to the left of C = 2 kN (—) ye
S.F. just to the right of D = 2 kN (—) ye
S.F. at D = 1 x 2 + 2 = 4 kN (—) ve
S.F. at A =1 x 2 + 2 = 4 kN (—) ve
The S.F. diagram is shown in Fig. 4.19 (b).
B.M. at B = 0
B.M. at C = — 1 x 2 x 2 = — 2 kN.m

B.M. at D = —1 x2 x + 1) = — 4 kN.m
2

B.M. at A = — 1 x2 x I + 2) —2 x 1 = — 8 kN.m
The B.M. diagram is shown in Fig. 4.19(c).
Problem 4.3 Draw the S.F. and B.M. diagrams for a cantilever beam loaded
as shown in Fig. 4.20(a).
Solution Consider a section at a distance x from B. The rate of loading DE
at the section is obtained by considering similar triangles ABC and BDE.
DE DB DB x AC 5000 x
DE = = 1250 x
AC AB AB 4
S.F. at the section considered, F,=— x DB x DE = — x x x 1250 x = —
2 2
625 x2
S.F. at B where x = 0, FB = 0
S.F. at A where x = 4, FA = — 625 x 42 = —10000 N = — 10 kN
92 Strength of Materials

5000 N/m
E

CH— x —.113
4m
(a)

TA B
z
I Parabolic curve

(b)

Cubic parabola

(c)
Fig. 4.20 (a) Loaded cantilever (b) S.F. diagram (c) B.M. diagram
The equation F, = — 625 x2 is of second degree, so the S.F. diagram is a
parabolic curve. It is shown in Fig. 4.20(b).
B.M. at the section considered,
M. = -1 X DB x DE x DB 1 x x x 1250x x = 625x 3
2 3 2 3 3
625 x 43 40000 40
B.M. at A where x = 4, MA = — =— Nm. = — — kN.m
3 3 3
The equation for B.M. at any section is of third degree. The B.M. diagram will
be a cubic parabola. It is shown in Fig. 4.20(c).
Problem 4.4 A cantilever beam 5 m long carries concentrated loads of 30,
30 and 30 kN at distances of 1.5, 3 and 4.5 metres from the fixed end. In
addition to this the beam carries a uniformly distributed load of 10 kN/m over
the entire length of the beam. Draw the S.F. and B.M. diagrams.
Solution
The loaded beam is shown in Fig. 4.21(a)
S.F. at B = 0
S.F. at C = — (10 x 0.5 + 30) = — 35 kN
S.F. at D = — (10 x 2 + 30 + 30) = — 80 lcN
S.F. at E = — (10 x 3.5 + 30 + 30 + 30) = — 125 IcN
S.F. at A = — (10 x 5 + 30 + 30 + 30) = — 140 IcN.
The S.F. diagram is shown in Fig. 4.21 (b)
B.M. at B = 0
B.M. at C = — 10 x 0.5 x .5 = — 1.25 kN.m
2
 Shearing Force and Bending Moment 93

30 kN 30 kN 30 kN
10 kN/m

1.5 m-1- E C
5 m.
3m
4.5 m
(a)
D

35 kN

80 kN

125 kN

140 kN
(b)
C
B
1.25 kNm
65 kNm

196.25 kNm

395 kNm (c)

Fig. 4.21 (a) Loaded cantilever (b) S.F. diagram (c) B.M. diagram

2
B.M. at D = - 10 x 2 x — - 30 x 1.5 = - 65 kN.m
3.5
B.M. at E = - 10 x 3.5 x - 30 x 3 - 30 x 1.5
2
= - 196.25 kN.m
B.M. at A = - 10 x 5 x 5 - 30 x 4.5 - 30 x 3 - 30 x 1.5
2
= - 395 kN.m
The B.M. diagram is shown in Fig. 4.21(c).
Problem 4.5 A simply supported beam is loaded as shown in Fig. 4.22(a).
Draw the S.F. and B.M. diagrams and find the value of maximum bending
moment.
Solution Let RA and RB be the reactions at the supports A and B respectively.
RA RB = 30 x 2+ 120 + 50 x 4 = 380 kN (i)
94 Strength of Materials

120 kN
50 kN/m 30 kN/m
A LidstitslibLL1 LIM& B
E D C
RA 4 m -H*1+2 m4-14- 2 m R6
x
(a)
192.5 kN'

12.5 kN

D C
H— 4.25 m
(b)
187.5 kN
351.5625 kNm
350 kNm
325 kNm

E D
(c)

Fig. 4.22 (a) Loaded beam (b) S.F. diagram (c) B.M. diagram
Taking moment about A
4
RB x 8 = 30 x 2 x ( + + 120 x 6 + 50 x 4 x — = 1540
2 2
1540
R8 = 8 = 192.5 kN.
Putting the value of R8 in Equation (i) we get RA = 380 — 192.5 = 187.5 kN
S.F. at B= 192.5 IcN (+) ye
S.F. at C = 192.5 — 30 x 2 — 120 = 12.5 kN (+) ye
S.F. at D = 12.5 kN (+) ye
S.F. at A= 187.5 IcN (+) ye
The S.F. diagram is shown in Fig. 4.22 (b). There is a point between A and D
where S.F. is zero. Let the point be E and BE = x
Now S.F. at E = 192.5 — 30 x 2 — 120 — 50 (x — 4)
0= 12.5 — 50 x + 200
or 50 x = 212.5
x = 4.25 m
B.M. at A = 0
B.M. at B = 0
B.M. at C = 192.5 x 2 — 30 x2 x 2 = 325 kN.m
2
2
B.M. at D = 192.5 x 4 — x 2 x (- + — 120 x 2 = 350 kN.m
2
 Shearing Force and Bending Moment 95

B.M. at E = 192.5 x 4.25 — 30 x 2 x (4.25 — 1) — 120 x 2.25

0.25
— 50 x 0.25 x — = 351.5625 kN.m
Therefore the maximum bending moment is at E and is equal to 351.5625 kN.m.
The B.M. diagram is shown in Fig. 4.22 (c).
Problem 4.6 A simply supported beam is loaded as shown in Fig. 4.23(a).
Draw the S.F. and B.M. diagram indicating the position of maximum bending
moment and determine its value.
50 kN 100 kN

20 kN/m
A B
E IF C
RA m RB

2.625 m
(a)
112.5 kN

FC
1-2.625
27.5 kN

77.5 kN
(b)

228.9 kNm
210 kNm 225 kNen
155 kNm

D F C
(C)

Fig. 4.23 (a) Loaded beam (b) S.F. diagram (c) B.M. diagram

Solution Let RA and RB be the reactions at the supports A and B respectively.

RA + RB = 100 + 20 x 2 + 50 = 190 (i)
Taking moment about A
RB x 8 = 100 x 6 + 20 x 2 x 50 x 2 = 900
R = 900 = 112.5 kN.
B
Putting the value of RB in Equation (i) we get RA = 190 — 112.5 = 77.5 kN
S.F. at B = 112.5 kN (+) ye, S.F. at C = 112.5 — 100
= 12.5 Icl‘l (+) ye
S.F. at D = 112.5 — 100 — 20 x 2 = — 27.5 kN
96 Strength of Materials

S.F. at E = 112.5 — 100 — 20 x 2 — 50 = — 77.5 kN

S.F. at A = — 77.5 kN
The S.F. diagram is shown in Fig. 4.23 (b). There is a point between C and D
where S.F. is zero. Let the point be F and BF = x.
S.F. at F = 112.5 — 100 — 20 (x — 2)
0 = 12.5 — 20x + 40 or, 20x = 52.5
x = 2.625 m
B.M. at A = 0, B.M. at B = 0, B.M.
at C = 112.5 x 2 = 225 kN.m (+) ye
B.M. at D = 112.5 x 4 — 100 x 2 — 20 x2 x 2
2
= 210 kN.m (+) ve
B.M. at E = 112.5 x 6 — 100 x 4 — 20 x 2 x 3
= 155 kN.m (+) ve
Maximum bending moment at F
= 112.5 x 2.625 — 100 x 0.625 — 20 x 0.625 x 0.625
2
= 228.9 kN.m (+) ye
The B.M. diagram is shown in Fig. 4.23 (c)
Problem 4.7 A simply supported beam is loaded as shown in Fig. 4.24(a).
Draw the S.F. and B.M. diagrams for the beam and determine the value of
maximum bending moment. -
Solution The force 50 kN acting at D has two components. The vertical
4 = 40 kN and the horizontal component of
component of the force is 50 x —
5
3
the force is 50 x — = 30 kN. But the horizontal component causes no shear or
5
bending. Only the vertical component causes shear and bending.
Let RA and RB be the reactions at the supports A and B respectively.
RA RB = 20 x 5 + 40 = 140 (i)
Taking moment about A.
RB X 10 = 20 x 5 x 7.5 + 40 x 2 = 830
RB = 83 IN •
Putting the value of RB in Equation (i) we get RA = 140 —.83 = 57 kN.
S.F. at B = 83 kN (+) ye, S.F.
at C = 83 — 20 x 5 = — 17 IN -
S.F. at D = 83 — 20 x 5— 40 = —57 kN, S.F.
at A = — 57 kN.
The S.F. diagram is shown in Fig: 4.24 (c). There is a point between B and C
where S.F. is zero. Let the point be E and BE = x
 Shearing Force and Bending Moment 97

20 kN/m

x= 4.15 m Re
83 kN

172.225 kNm
165 kNm
114 kNm

C E
(d)

Fig. 4.24 (a) Loaded beam (b) Beam carrying equivalent load
(c) S.F. diagram (d) B.M. diagram

S.F. at E = 83 — 20 x x

0 = 83 — 20x x= =4.15m
B.M. at A = 0, B.M. at B = 0, B.M.
at C = 83 x 5 — 20 x 5 x 2.5 = 165 kN.m (+) ye
B.M. at D = 83 x 8 — 20 x5 (2.5 + 3) = 114 1c1\1.m (+) ye

B.M. at E = 83 x 4.15 — 20 x 4.15 x 4.15

= 172.225 kN.m (+) ye
The value of maximum bending moment = 172.225 kN.m
The B.M. diagram is shown in Fig. 4.24 (d).
Problem 4.8 Compute the values of maximum and minimum B.M. and S.F.
for the simply supported beam loaded as shown in Fig. 4.25(a). Draw the S.F.
and B.M. diagrams indicating the significant values along the beam.
98 Strength of Materials

300 kN 150 kN

B
t
A 3r I ir-41-1T..
n1 RB
X --el
(a)
275 kN

175 kN
(b)
442.32 kNm

400 kNm
275 kNm

(c)

Fig. 4.25 (a) Loaded beam (b) S.F. diagram (c) B.M. diagram

Solution Let RA and RB be the reactions at the supports A and B respectively.

RA RB = 150 + 300 = 450 (i)
Taking moment about A
2
RB x 6 = 150 x 5 + 300 0- x 3 + 1 = 1650
3 )
.•. RB = 275 kN.
Putting the value of RB in Equation (i) we get, RA = 450 — 275 = 175 N
S.F. at B = 275 kN (+) ve,
S.F. at C = 275 — 150 = 125 kN (+) ye
S.F. at D = 125 kN (+) ve,
S.F. at E = 275 — 150 — 300 = — 175 kN
S.F. at A = — 175 kN.
The S.F. diagram is shown in Fig. 4.25 (b). There is a point between D and E
where S.F. is zero. Let the point be F and the rate of loading at D is w.
wx3
Then = 300 w = 200 kN/m
2
200x
Let EF = x, then rate of loading at a distance x from E is
3
Starting from left side,
200x x
S.F. at F = —175 + x — = — 175 + 100x2 =0
2
 Shearing Force and Bending Moment 99

or 100 x2 = 175 x 3 x = 2.29 m

B.M. at A and at B = 0, B.M. at C = 275 x 1 = 275 kN.m (+) ye
B.M. at D = 275 x 2 — 150 x 1 = 400 kN.m (+) ye
B.M. at E = 175 x 1 = 175 kN.m (+) ye
200 x 2.29 2.29 2.29
Maximum B.M. at F= 175 x 3.29 X X
3 2 3
= 442.32 kN.m (+) ye
The B.M. diagram is shown in Fig. 4.25 (c).
Problem 4.9 A beam 10 m long and simply supported at each end has a
u.d.l. of 20 kN/m extending from the left end to a point 4 m away. There is also
a clockwise couple of 40 kN.m applied at the centre of the beam. Draw the S.F.
and B.M. diagrams for the beam and determine the value of maximum bending
moment. Neglect the weight of the beam.
20 kN/m
A in 0 40 kNm t8
E ' DV C
RA .1-- 4 m 1-4.1.1-0.1.1-- 5 m —31 RB
'EN x- 7 m
(a)
20 kN

60 kN
90 kNm 80 100 kNm
kNm

60 kNm
(+)ve
B.M.
A EDC B
Fig. 4.26 (a) Loaded beam (b) S.F. diagram (c) B.M. diagram

Solution Let RA and RB be the reactions at the supports A and B respectively.

RA RB = 20 x 4 = 80 (i)
Taking moment about A
RB X 10 = 40 + 20 x4 x 2 = 200 RB = 20 IN
Putting the value of RB in Equation (i) we get RA = 80 — 20 = 60 kN.
S.F. at B = 20 kN (+) ye, S.F. remains the same up to point D.
S.F. at C = 20 kN (+) ve, S.F. at A = — 60 kN
The S.F. diagram is shown in Fig. 4.26 (b). There is a point between A and D
where S.F. is zero. Let the point be E and BE = x.
100 Strength of Materials

S.F. at E = 20 — 20 (x — 6)
0 = 20 — 20x + 120 or 20x = 140 x =7m
B.M. at A = 0, B.M. at B = 0
B.M. just before C = 20 x 5 = 100 kN.m,
B.M. just after C = 100 — 40 = 60 kN.m
B.M. at D = 20 x 6 — 40 = 80 kN.m,
B.M. at E = 20 x 7 — 40 — 20 x 1 x0.5 = 90 kN.m
The maximum bending moment will be at just before c and is 100 kN.m.
The B.M. diagram is shown in Fig. 4.26(c).
Problem 4.10 Draw the shearing force and bending moment diagrams for
the beam shown in Fig. 4.27(a).

(—)ve
S.F. 10 kN

30 kN

70 kN
(b)
220 kNm

Fig. 4.27 (a) Loaded beam (b) S.F. diagram (c) B.M. diagram

Solution Let RA and RB be the reactions at the supports A and B respectively.

RA + RB = 20 + 10 x 4 = 60 (i)
Taking moment about A,

RB x 8 + 240 = 20 x 4 + 10 x 4 x = 160
2
or 8 RB = — 80 RB = —10 kN
Putting the value of RB in Equation (i) we get RA = 60 + 10 = 70 kN.
S.F. at B = — 10 kN, S.F. at C = —10 IN,
 Shearing Force and Bending Moment 101

S.F. at D = —10 — 20 = —30 IN

S.F. at A = — 70 kN.
The S.F. diagram is shown in Fig. 4.27 (b).
B.M. at A = 0, B.M. at B = 0,
B.M. just before C = — 10 x 2 = — 20 kN.m.
B.M. just after C = —20 + 240 = 220 kN.m (+) ve,
B.M. at D = — 10 x 4 + 240 = 200 kN.m (+) ve
The B.M. diagram is shown in Fig. 4.27 (c).
Problem 4.11 Draw the bending moment and shear force diagrams for the
overhanging beam carrying loads as shown in Fig. 4.28(a). Mark the values of
the principal ordinates and locate the point of contraflexure.
5 kN
2 kN/m
A ititeltatitita
E
RA 6m 3m
RB
x= 1 m

2 kN

11 kN
(b)

Point of contraflexure
1 kNm
'8

24 kNm
(c)

Fig. 4.28 (a) Loaded beam (b) S.F. diagram (c) B.M. diagram

Solution Let RA and RB be the reactions at the supports A and B respectively.

Taking moments of all the forces about A and equating anti-clockwise and
clockwise moments,

RB x 6 =5 x 9+2 x 9 x 2 or RB = 21 IN
Again RA RB = 5 + 2 x 9 = 23 RA = 2 IN
S.F. at C = 5 IN (—) ve
102 Strength of Materials

S.F. at B, just to its right = 5 + 2 x 3 = 11 kN (—) ve

S.F. at B, just to its left = — 11 + 21 = + 10
S.F. at A = 2kN (—) ye.
The S.F. diagram is shown in Fig. 4.28(b). There is a point between B and A
where S.F. is zero. Let the point be D and AD = x.
S.F. at D = — 2 + 2 x x
0 = — 2 + 2x x=1m
B.M. at C = 0, B.M. at A = 0
3
B.M. at B=-5 x3-2 x3 x — = — 24 kN.m.
2
Let the point of contraflexure occur at a distance y metre from B towards left.
Taking moment of the forces about this point and equating to zero.
(Y + 3)2
—5 (y + 3) — 2 x + 21y = 0
2
or y2 + 6y + 9 — 21y + 5y + 15 =0
or y2 - lOy + 24 = 0
10± )1102 —4 xlx 24
or Y= — 4 m.
2
The B.M. diagram is shown in Fig. 4.28 (c).
Problem 4.12 An overhanging beam ABC (AB = 4 m, BC = 1.25 m) loaded
as shown in Fig. 4.29 (a) may be analysed for the following:
(i) Reactions at supports A and B.
(ii) Draw the shear force and bending moment diagrams showing their maxi-
mum values.
Solution Let RA and RB be the reactions at the supports A and B respectively.
RA + RD = 5 + 4 + 2 x 3 = 15 (i)
Taking moments of the forces about A and equating anti-clockwise and clock-
wise moments.
3
Rip< 4 =+5 x 5.25 + 4 x 3 +2 x3 x
2
or RD = 11.8 IN
Putting the value of RB in Equation (i) RA = 3.2 kN.
S.F. at C = 5 IN (—) ye
S.F. at B just to its right = 5 kN (—) ye
S.F. at B just to its left = — 5 + 11.8 = 6.8 kN
S.F. at D just to its right = 6.8 kN
S.F. at D just to its left = 6.8 — 4 = 2.8 kN
S.F. at A = — 3.2 IcN
The S.F. diagram is shown in Fig. 4.29(b). There is a point between D and A
where S.F. is zero. Let the point be E and BE = x.
 Shearing Force and Bending Moment 103

4 kN 5 kN

litsMotittstaita
• E D i A

6.8 kN
(+)ve
2.8 kN S.F.
(-)ve
B (—)ve
3.2 kN S.F.
5 kN
1-0—x=2.4 m-1-
(b)

2.51I kNm
Point of
contraflexure
C
(—)ve
B.M.
1-4— 6.25 kNm
Y=
0.08 m
(c)

Fig. 4.29 (a) Loaded beam (b) S.F. diagram (c) B.M. diagram

S.F. at E = - 5 + 11.8 - 4 - 2 (x - 1)
= 2.8 - 2x + 2 or 2x = 4.8 x = 2.4 in
B.M. at C = 0, B.M. at A = 0
B.M. at B = - 5 x 1.25 = - 6.25 kN.m
B.M. at D = - 5 x 2.25 + 11.8 x 1 = 0.55 kN.m
B.M. at E (Maximum bending moment)
14
= - 5 x 3.65 + 11.8 x 2.4 - 4 x 1.4 - 2 x 1.4 x = 2.51 kN.m
2
The point of contraflexure from D towards right,
y = 0.55 + (6.25 + 0.55) = 0.08 m
The B.M. diagram is shown in Fig. 4.29 (c).
Problem 4.13 Draw the shear force and bending moment diagrams for the
beam loaded as shown in Fig. 4.30(a) indicating the important numerical values.
Also find the value of maximum bending moment and the point at which it
occurs.
Solution Let RA and RD be the reactions at the supports A and D respectively.
RA + RD = 20 + 30 x4.5 + 30 + 60 = 245 (i)
104 Strength of Materials

60 kN 30 kN 20 kN

BF C Gi
2.5 m
1.5 m 1.5 m 1.5 m
.4-y= 2.95 m-.1
x— 5.453 m
(a)

E
20 kN

106.4 kN (b)

125.85 125.87 kNm

kNm
94.5 kNm
Point of
(+)ve contraflexure
B.M.
BF C G D(—)ve

50 kNm
(c)

Fig. 4.30 (a) Loaded beam (b) S.F. diagram (c) B.M. diagram
Taking moments of all the forces about A and equating anti-clockwise moment
to clockwise moment
4.5
RD x 4.5 = 20 x 7 + 30 x 4.5 x + 30 x 3 + 60 x 1.5
2
RD = 138.6 kN
Putting the value of RD in Equation (i) we get RA = 106.4 kN.
S.F. at E = — 20 kN, S.F. at D = — 20 + 138.6 = 118.6 kN
S.F at C = — 20 + 138.6 — 30 x 1.5 — 30 = 43.6 kN
S.F. at B = — 20 + 138.6 — 30 x 3 — 30 — 60 = — 61.4 kN
S.F. at A = — 106.4 kN.
The shear force diagram is shown in Fig. 4.30(b). There is a point between B
and C where S.F. is zero. Let the point be F and EF = x
S.F. at F = —20 + 138.6 — 30 (x — 2.5) — 30
0 = 88.6 — 30 x + 75 x = 5.453 m.
B.M. at A and at E = 0, B.M. at D = — 20 x 2.5 = — 50 kNin
 Shearing Force and Bending Moment 105

B.M. at C = - 20 x 4 + 138.6x 1.5 - 30 x 1.5 x =94.15 kN.m

2
B.M. at F will be maximum and is
= -20 x 5.453 + 138.6 (5.453 - 2.5) - 30
45 3 - 2.5
(5.453 - 2.5) x 5. - 30 x 1.453
2
= 125.87 kN.m
15
B.M. at B = 106.4 x 1.5 - 30 x 1.5 x - = 125.85 kN.m
The B.M. diagram is shown in Fig. 4.30(c). There is a point between C and D
where B.M. is zero. Let the point be G and GE = y.

B.M. at G = - 20 x y + 138.6 (y - 2.5) - 30 x (y-2'5)2

2
0 = - 20y + 138.6y - 346.5 - 15y2 + 75y - 93.75
or y2 - 12.9y + 29.35 = 0
12.9 ± I(12.9)2 - 4 x 29.35
Y= - 2.95 m.
2
Problem 4.14 Draw the shear force and bending moment diagrams for the
beam loaded as shown in Fig. 4.31(a) indicating the important numerical values.
Solution Let RA and RD be the reactions at the supports A and D respectively.
RA + RD = 16 x 2.5 + 80 + 80 + 10 x 5 = 250 (i)
Taking moment of all the forces about A and equating anti-clockwise moment
to clockwise moment
RD x 12.5 = 16 x 2.5 x 13.75 + 80 x 7.5 + 80 x 5 + 10 x5 x 2.5
RD = 134 kN
Putting the value of RD in Equation (i) we get, RA = 116 kN.
S.F. at E = 0, S.F. at D = -16 x 2.5 + 134 = 94 kN
S.F. at C = - 16 x 2.5 + 134 - 80 = 14 kN
S.F. at B = - 16 x 2.5 + 134 - 80 - 80 = - 66 IcN
The S.F. diagram is shown in Fig. 4.31(b)
2.5
B.M. at A and at E = 0, B.M. D = - 16 x 2.5 x - = - 50 kN.m
2
B.M. at C = - 16 x 2.5 x 6.25 +134 x 5 = 420 kN.m
B.M. at B = - 16 x 2.5 x 8.75 +134 x 7.5 - 80 x 2.5 = 455 lcN.m
The B.M. diagram is shown in Fig. 4.31(c). There is a point between C and D
where B.M. is zero. Let the point be F and EF = x
B.M. at F = - 16 x 2.5 x (x - 2.5) + 134 (x - 2.5)
0 = - 40x + 50 + 134x - 335
or 94x = 285 x = 3.03 m
Problem 4.15 A horizontal beam AB 8 metres long, carries a u.d.l. of 300
kN. The beam is supported at A and at a point C distant x from B [Fig. 4.32(a)].
106 Strength of Materials

80 kN 80 kN

10 kN/m 16 kN/m
E

(a)

40 kN

(b)

455 kNm 420

kNm
Point of
contrafle ure
E
C F
(—)ve
(c)
50 kNm
Fig. 4.31 (a) Loaded beam (b) S.F. diagram (c) S.M. diagram

Determine the value of x if the mid-point of the beam is to be a point of inflexion

and draw the shear force and bending moment diagrams indicating the principal
numerical values.
Solution Let RA and Rc be the reactions at the supports A and C respectively.
RA + Rc = 300 (i)
Taking moments of all the forces about A and equating the anti-clockwise
moments to the clockwise moments.
8 1200
Rc (8 — x) = 300 x — = 1200 R =
2 c 8— x
Putting the value of Rc in Equation (i) we get
2400-300x-1200 1200 — 300x
RA = 300 1200
8—x 8—x 8— x
B.M. at D (mid-point of the beam) = RA x 4 — 150 x 2 = 0
(1200 — 300x) 1200 — 300x
4x — 300 = 0 or 75 = 0
(8 — x) 8— x
 Shearing Force and Bending Moment 107

Total 300 kN

(b)

(c)

Fig. 4.32 (a) Loaded beam (b) S.F. diagram (c) B.M. diagram

or 1200 — 300x = 600 — 75x

or 225x = 600
600
x = = 2.67 m
225
1200 = 225.14 kN,
Rc =
8 — 2.67
1200 — 300 x 2.67
RA = = 74.86 kN.
8 — 2.67
The S.F. diagram is shown in Fig. 4.32(b). There is a point between A and D
where S.F. is zero. Let the point be E and BE = y.
S.F. at E = — 37.5y + 225.14
0 = — 37.5y + 225.14
y = 6 In.
Problem 4.16 Construct the bending moment and shear force diagrams for
the beam shown in Fig. 4.33(a) and indicate the position of point of
contraflexure.
Solution Let RA and RB be the reactions at the supports A and B respectively.
RA RB = 250 + 50 x 4 = 450 (i)
108 Strength of Materials

250 kN
50 kN/m 120 kNm
A tititititititstitititi1
:E F RB
RA
4m 2m 2m
x= 7.4 m
k— y= 6.8 m
(a)

280 kNm 500 kNm

(c)

Fig. 4.33 (a) Loaded beam (b) S.F. diagram (c) B.M. diagram
Taking moment of all the forces about A and equating anti-clockwise moments
to clockwise moments
RB x 6 =250 x 8 + 120 + 50 x4 x2
RB = 420 kN.
Putting the value of RB Equation (i) we get RA = 450 — 420 = 30 kN
in
S.F. at C = — 250 kN, S.F. at B = — 250 + 420 = 170 kN
S.F. at D = 170 kN, S.F. at A = — 30 kN.
The shear force diagram is shown in Fig. 4.33(b). There is a point between A
and D where S.F. is zero. Let the point be E and CE = x.
S.F. at E = — 250 + 420 — 50 (x — 4)
0 = 170 — 50x + 200 x = 7.4 m
B.M. at A and at C = 0, B.M. at B = — 250 x 2 = — 500 kN.m
B.M. just before D = — 250 x 4 + 420 x 2 = — 160 kN.m
B.M. just after D = — 160 — 120 = — 280 kN.m
B.M. at E = — 250 x 7.4 + 420 x 5.4 — 120 — 50 x 3.4 x 1.7
= 9 kN.m
The B.M. diagram is shown in Fig. 4.33(c).
Bending moment is at F. Let CF = y.
2
B.M. at F = — 250 x y + 420 (y — 2) — 120 — 50 x (y —4)
2
0 = — 250y + 420y — 840 — 120 — 25y2 + 200y — 400
 Shearing Force and Bending Moment 109

or 0 = 370y — 25y2 — 1360

or y2 -- 14.8y + 54.4 =0
14.8 ± J(14.8)2 — 4 x 54.4
y= = 6.8 m
2
The point of contraflexure is at a distance of 6.8 m from C.

REVIEW EXERCISES
Multiple-Choice Questions:
4.1 Indicate the correct answer from the given alternatives:
1. The bending moment at the free end of a cantilever beam is
(a) zero (b) maximum (c) minimum
2. The shear force diagram of a cantilever beam of length L and carrying a
u.d.l. of iv per unit length will be
(a) a right angled triangle (b) an isosceles triangle
(c) an equilateral triangle (d) a rectangle
(e) none of the above
3. The shear force diagram for a cantilever beam of length L and carrying a
gradually varying load from zero at the free end and w per unit length at
the fixed end is a
(a) horizontal straight line (b) vertical straight line
(c) inclined line (d) parabolic curve
(e) none of the above.
4. The maximum bending moment of a simply supported beam of span L and
carrying a point load W at the centre of the beam is

(a)
wL (b) wL (c) wL (d)
wL2
4
(e)
wL2 (f) wL2
5. The bending moment diagram for a simply supported beam loaded in its
centre is
(a) a right angled triangle (b) an isosceles triangle
(c) an equilateral triangle (d) a rectangle
(e) none of the above
6. The bending moment at the centre of a simply supported beam carrying a
u.d.l. of w per unit length is
2
wL2
(a) zero (b) w2L (c) " (d)
2 4
(e) wL2
8
110 Strength of Materials

7. The bending moment diagram for a simply supported beam carrying a

u.d.l. of w per unit length will be
(a) a horizontal line (b) a vertical line
(c) an inclined line (d) a parabolic curve
(e) none of the above
8. The point of contraflexure is a point where
(a) shear force changes sign (b) bending moment changes sign
(c) shear force is maximum (d) bending moment is maximum
(e) none of the above
9. When there is a sudden increase or decrease in shear force diagram be-
tween any two points, it indicates that there is a
(a) point load at the two points
(b) no loading between the two points
(c) u.d.l. between the two points
(d) uniformly varying load between the two points
(e) none of the above.
10. The point of contraflexure occurs in
(a) cantilever beams (b) simply supported beams
(c) overhanging beams (d) fixed beams
(e) all the above
11. A beam which is fixed at one end and free at the other end is called
(a) a simply supported beam (b) a overhanging beam
(c) a fixed beam (d) a cantilever beam
12. A cantilever beam is one which is
(a) fixed at both ends
(b) fixed at one end and free at the other end
(c) supported at its ends
(d) supported on more than two supports
13. A concentrated load is one which
(a) acts at a point on a beam
(b) spreads non-uniformly over the whole length of the beam
(c) spreads uniformly over the whole length of the beam
(d) varies uniformly over the whole length of the beam
14. The bending moment on a section is maximum where shear force is
(a) minimum (b) zero
(c) maximum (d) changing sign
(e) none of the above
15. The maximum bending moment of a simply supported beam of span L and
carrying a point load w at the centre of beam is
 Shearing Force and Bending Moment 1 1 1

wL wL2
(a) —
4
2
(b)
2 (c) wL (d)

(e) wL
2
2
16. The bending moment diagram for a simply supported beam loaded in its
centre is
(a) a right angled triangle (b) an isosceles triangle
(c) an equilateral triangle (d) a rectangle
17. The shear force at the centre of a simply supported beam carrying a u.d.l.
of w per unit length is
(c) wL2 wL2
(a) zero

w
(b)
2 2
(d)

(e) wL2
8
18. The shear force at the ends of a simply supported beam carrying a u.d.l.
of w per unit length is
(a) zero at its both ends
(b) wL at one end and —wL at the other end
wL wL
(c) at one end and at the other end
2 2
(d) none of the above
19. The shear force diagram for a simply supported beam carrying a u.d.l. of
w per unit length consists of
(a) one right angled triangle (b) two right angled triangles
(c) one equilateral triangle (d) two equilateral triangles
(e) none of the above
20. The shear force at the centre of a simply supported beam with a gradually
varying load from zero at both-ends to w per metre at the centre, is
wL
(a) (b) wL (c) zero (d) w2L2
4
wL2
(e)
4
21. In a simply supported beam carrying.a u.d.l. of w per unit length, the point
of contraflexure
(a) lies at the centre of the beam
(b) lies at the ends of the beam
(c) depends upon the length of the beam
(d) does not exist.
22. When the shear force diagram is a parabolic curve between two points, it
indicates that there is
112 Strength of Materials

(a) a point load at the two points

(b) no loading between the two points
(c) a u.d.l. between the two points
(d) a uniformly varying load between the two points
(e) none of the above '
Ans. 1 — b, 2 — a, 3 — d, 4 — a, 5 — b, 6 — e, 7 — d, 8 -- b, 9 — a, 10 — c, 11
—d, 12 — b, 13 — a, 14 — d, 15 — a, 16 — b, 17 — a, 18 — c, 19 — b, 20 —
c, 21 — d, 22 — d.

True or False Questions

4.2 State whether the following statements are true (tj or false (f)
1. The maximum bending moment of a cantilever beam of length L and
carrying a u.d.l. of w per unit length lies at the rit;ddle of the length.
2. The bending moment of a cantilever beam of length L and carrying a
u.d.l. of w per unit length is zero at the free end.
3. The bending moment of a cantilever beam of length L and carrying a
wL
u.d.l. of w per unit length is at the fixed end.
2
4. When shear force at a point is zero then bending moment is minimum
at that point.
5. A beam supported at its both ends is a simply supported beam.
6. A load which acts at a point on a beam is not called uniformly distrib-
uted load.
7. A load which is spread over a beam in such a manner that it varies uni-
formly over the whole length of the beam is called uniformly varying
load.
8. The shear at a certain point on a beam changes sign from +ve value to
a —ve value or vice versa. The bending moment at that point will be zero.
9. The bending moments at the ends of a simply supported beam will be
zero.
10. The bending moment diagram for a cantilever beam of length L and
carrying a gradually varying load from zero at the free end and w per
unit length at the fixed end is a parabolic curve.
11. The shear force of a cantilever beam of length L and carrying a gradu-
ally varying load from zero at the free end and w per unit length at the
wL2
fixed end is at the fixed end.
6
12. The bending moment of a cantilever beam of length L and carrying a
gradually varying load from zero at the free end and w per unit length
WL2
at the fixed end is at the fixed end.
6
 Shearing Force and Bending Moment 1 13

13. The maximum bending moment of a simply supported beam with cen-
tral point load lies at the point of loading.
14. The shear force of a simply supported beam carrying a central point
load changes sign at its mid-point.
15. When the shear force diagram between any two points is an inclined
straight line, it indicates that there is a uniformly varying load between
the two points.
16. The shape of B.M. diagram of a simply supported beam with point load
at centre will be "an isosceles triangle".
17. The maximum bending moment in a simply supported beam of length

L and loaded with u.d.l. of 14' per unit length is trig2

8
18. The maximum bending moment in a simply supported beam of length
PL
L and loaded with a concentrated load P at the centre is — — .
8
19. For a cantilever of length L and carrying a u.d.l. of w per unit length

over entire span will be subjected to moment of

iv e at its fixed end.
8
20. Bending moment diagram of a simply supported beam with point load
is a square parabola.
Ans. 1 — F, 2 — T, 3 — F, 4 — F, 5 — T, 6 — T, 7 — T, 8 — F, 9 — T, 10 — T, 11
—F, 12 — T, 13 — T, 14 — T, 15 — F, 16 — T, 17 — T, 18 — F, 19 — F, 20
F

Problems

4.3 Define the terms bending moment and shear force.

4.4 Explain with a neat sketch what is pure bending.
4.5 Define point of contraflexure of a loaded beam.
4.6 A cantilever beam is loaded as shown in Fig. 4.34. Draw the S.F. and B.M.
diagrams for the beam.
20 kN
10 kN/m 15 kN/m
A (-n-ronn nrnms-r
-4-2m-P-14-2m--044-2m-44-2mH

Fig. 4.34

4.7 A cantilever beam 6 metres long carries a point load of 25 kN at the free
end and a u.d.l. of 15 kN/m over a length of 4 m from the free end. Draw
the S.F. and B.M. diagrams.
114 Strength of Materials

4.8 A cantilever beam is loaded as shown in Fig. 4.35. Draw the shear force
and bending moment diagrams for the beam.
30 kN 50 kN
30 kN/m
20 kN/m
A I
D C
4m 2m 1.14 3m ---

Fig. 4.35

4.9 Draw the S.F. and B.M. diagrams for a cantilever loaded as shown in
Fig. 4.36.

15 kN/m

A I
8m

Fig. 4.36

4.10 A simply supported beam is loaded as shown in Fig. 4.37. Draw the S.F.
and B.M. diagrams for the beam and state the values of maximum bending
moment and maximum shear.
30 kN 40 kN
20 kN/m

D C
6m
7.5 m
8m

Fig. 4.37

[Ans. 140 kN, 202.5 lcNm]

4.11 A simply supported beam is loaded as shown in Fig. 4.38. Draw the S.F.
and B.M. diagrams for the beam and state their values.
20 kN 40 kN 30 kN
20 kN/m
11
E D C
5m I" 2.5m 1m
1.5 m

Fig. 4.38
 Shearing Force and Bending Moment 115

4.12 The intensity of loading in a 20 kN

to kN/m 240 kNm
simply supported beam of 6 m
span varies gradually from 30
kN/m at one end to 90 kN/m
at the other end. Draw the
S.F. and B.M. diagrams.
Fig. 4.39
4.13 Draw the shearing force and
bending moment diagrams for the beam loaded as shown in Fig. 4.39.
4.14 Draw the S.F. and B.M. diagrams for the been loaded as shown in Fig. 4.40.
140 kNm 100 kNm
30 kN/m

Fig. 4.40

4.15 An overhanging beam is loaded as 10 kN

shown in Fig. 4.41. Draw the S.F. 20 kN/m
and B.M. diagrams for the beam and
indicate the maximum bending mo-
ment and point of contraflexure.
[Ans. 1.25 m from right end C] Fig. 4.41
4.16 An overhanging beam is loaded as shown in Fig. 4.42. Draw the S.F. and
B.M. diagrams for the beam indicating the significant values. Locate the
point of contraflexure, if any.

Fig. 4.42

4.17 Draw the shear force and bending moment diagram for the beam loaded
as shown in Fig. 4.43.

15 kN
Total 80 kN
C
D B
3m -+- 3 m 2 m -01

Fig. 4.43

4.18 An overhanging beam is loaded as shown in Fig. 4.44. Draw the S.F. and
B.M. diagrams for the beam. Locate the point of contraflexure, if any.
116 Strength of Materials

20 kN 40 kN
9 kN/m
ititetattit tetittatita
E C
6m "4- 2.5 m
1.5 m
3 m —01
Fig. 4.44

4.19 Construct the shear force and bending moment diagram for the beam
loaded as shown in Fig. 4.45.

60 kN I 60 kN
120 kNm
E
C DI _ B
[4-- 2 m
4m :
•141 m.-1

Fig. 4.45

4.20 A beam of negligible weight carries a uniformly varying load as shown in

the Fig. 4.46. Draw the S.F. and B.M. diagrams for the beam and deter-
mine the maximum positive and negative bending moment.

Fig. 4.46

4.21 Shear force diagram for the loaded beam is shown in Fig. 4.47. Determine
the loading and the nature of the beam and sketch it neatly. Draw the B.M.
diagram indicating the points of contraflexure.
80 kN

20 kN

20 kN

70 kN 70 kN
14-2 m .14 6m 4m

Fig. 4.47

4.22 A simply supported beam 10 m long is acted upon by a anti-clockwise

couple of 20 kN.m at right support and 15 kNm clockwise at left support.
Draw S.F. and B.M. diagrams for the beam.
BENDING STRESSES IN BEAMS

5.1 SIMPLE BENDING

Initially if a straight beam of length '1' is subjected to a couple M — M at its ends

as shown in Fig. 5.1 (b), it will be under the action of constant bending moment
M at every cross-section with no shear force. In such a case the beam is said
to be in a state of pure bending or simple bending.

A B

(a)
Fig. 5.1 (a) Beam before bending (b) Beam after bending

In simple bending the plane of transverse loads and the centroidal plane coincide.
The theory of simple bending was developed by Galelio, Bernoulli and St.
Venant. Sometimes this theory is called Bernoulli's theory of simple bending.

5.2 ASSUMPTIONS IN THEORY OF SIMPLE BENDING

The following assumptions are made in the theory of simple bending:

1. The material of the beam is homogeneous and isotropic and follows
Hooke's law.
2. The transverse section of the beam which is plane before bending, will
remain plane after bending.
3. Young's modulus for the material is same for tension and compression.
4. Each layer is free to expand or contract independently without the effect
of the layers above or below it.
5. The beam is initially straight and of constant cross-section.
1 18 Strength of Materials

6. The radius of curvature after bending is large as compared to the dimen-

sions of the cross-section.
7. The plane of loading contains the principal axis of the beam cross-section
and the loads act perpendicular to the axis of the beam.
The above assumptions are made in deriving the formula
M a E
I y R

5.3 BENDING EQUATION

5.3.1 Derivation
Consider a small portion ABCD of the beam between the planes AB and CD
subjected to simple bending as shown in Fig. 5.2(a)
In the unstrained state let GH be a portion of a fibre at a distance y from the
centroidal axis PQ. With the nature of bending moments as shown, the upper
layers above EF get compressed and the lower layers below EF get elongated.
After bending, the new positions of the plane AB and CD are A1/31 and C1D1
respectively. There is a layer EF, which is the neutral layer for which the new
length E1F1 remains unchanged after bending, i.e. EF = E1F1. In the strip
A IBICIDI shown in Fig. 5.2(b) the length A1D1, B1C1, E1F1, etc. being very
small, they can be considered as arcs of concentric circles having their centre
at 0, which is the intersection of A1D1 and B1C1 when produced. Then 0 is
called the centre of curvature and OE or OF is called the radius of curvature
R. Let the angle subtended by the arc E1F1 at the centre 0 be Q. Then the radius
of the surface G1H1 is (R + y). The length of the arc G1H1 = (R + y) Q and the

A D
Mf
I-
iQ
B C
(a) (c) (d)
0

(b)
Fig. 5.2 (a) Before bending (b) After bending (c) Cross-section
(d) Stress distribution
 Bending Stresses in Beams 1 19

length of the arc EiFi = RQ.

But GH = EF = E1F1 = RQ
Strain 'e' of the layer GH is given by
Final length — Original length
e=
Original length
— — GH (R+ y)Q— RQ
GH RQ

e= (i)
Thus the strain of any layer is proportional to its distance from the neutral layer
E1F1, as R, the radius of curvature up to neutral layer is constant for a given
section. The strain is tensile or compressive depending upon the nature of the
applied bending moment. In this case as shown in Fig. 5.2, the layers above the
neutral layer are compressed and those below it are elongated. The magnitude
of elongation or compression increases as the distance of the layer increases
from the neutral layer. Let a be the intensity of stress in the fibres, then
= E.e

or a= E x
R
a E
or —= 7 ?
y
a is proportional to y as E and R are constants, i.e. a varies linearly with y. The
tensile stress increases from zero at the neutral axis to a, at the bottom at a
maximum distance y, from the neutral axis. The compressive stress increases
from zero at the neutral axis to ac at the top at a distance y, from the neutral
axis.
The distribution of bending stress a across a section is shown in Fig. 5.2(d).
E• E x y,
Thus the equation, a = E X gives, o-, = y, and CT, =

5.3.2 Position of Neutral Axis

Figure 5.2(c) shows the cross-section of the beam. Consider an elementary area
dA at a distance y from N.A. The force on the elementary area is = dF = ax dA.
a ai
But —= — .*. a = a,x 1'-
Y Yr yt
dF =ax—x dA
I Yr
The total tensile force on the transverse section below the centroidal axis PQ
is

F, = at x-2-
i xdA = at y • dA
Yr Yr
120 Strength of Materials

If the elementary area is chosen above PQ then the total compressive force on
the transverse section above the centroidal axis will be
a
Fc = --s- L y•dA
Yc
For equilibrium of the beam, Ft =
6r = (lc
Yr Yc
As there is no resultant force across any transverse cross-section, therefore,
y•dA = 0. This is possible only if the neutral axis passes through the
centroidal axis. Thus the neutral axis always passes through the centroid of the
section of the beam.

5.3.3 Moment of Resistance

It has been observed above that the section of the beam above the neutral axis
develops a compressive force F, and the section below neutral axis develops a
tensile force Ft. For equilibrium these two forces must be equal in magnitude.
These internal forces produce moments about the neutral axis and for equilib-
rium the algebraic sum of these moments must be equal and opposite to the B.M.
at the section of the beam.
The algebraic sum of the moment about neutral axis of the internal forces
developed in a beam due to bending is called the moment of resistance.
The moment of the force acting on the elementary area dA about the neutral
axis is
2
dM = Xy dA
Yr
a
Total moment or moment of resistance, M = L y2 dA
Yr

But y2 dA = I, the moment of inertia of the cross-section of the beam about

the neutral axis.
M a E
M= XI T = -a But — =
Yr Yr Y
M a E
y R
The above relation is known as the bending equation.
Also M = a x I = 6 z where z = I is called the section modulus.
Y Y
M = aZ
 Bending Stresses in Beams 121

5.4 POLAR MODULUS

Polar modulus of a section is a measure of the strength of shaft in torsion. Let
T be the moment of torsional resistance of the section of a shaft of radius R and
I the polar moment of inertia of the shaft section. The maximum shear stress
as occurs at the greatest radius R.
I„
CT = — X R or T= X Cs = Zp X 0:s,
S I
p
I Polar moment of inertia of the shaft section
where Z = P =
P R Maximum radius
This ratio is called polar modulus of the shaft section.
Problem 5.1 A timber joist of 100 mm width and 200 mm depth is used as
a cantilever beam of 3 metres length and loaded with a concentrated load at its
free end in addition to its self-weight, so that the bending stress does not exceed
7 N/mm2. Find out the maximum value of the applied load. Unit weight of timber
is 5 kN/m3. [E.D.C.E Part II, 1997]

cst = 7 MPa

w N/m

,4

[4-100 mm-,-]
= 7 MPa
(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 5.3

Solution Let W (N) be the concentrated load that can be placed safely at the
free end of the cantilever under the given conditions of the problem. w = self-
weight of the joist per metre run.
= 0.1 x 0.2 x 1 x 5 = 0.1 kN/m = 100 N/m.
/xx = Moment of inertia of the section about N.A.
1
= — x 100 x 2003 = — 2 x 108 mm
12 3
M = Maximum bending moment which will occur at the fixed end.
wL2
WL +
2
122 Strength of Materials

100x 3 x3
=Wx3+ Nm = (3W + 450) x 103 Nmm
2
y = Distance of extreme fibre from N.A. = 200 = 100 mm.
2
o- = Bending stress = 7 N/mm2
M a
Using the relation T = — and substituting the values
y
(3W + 450) x 103 x 3 7
2 x 108 100
or 3W + 450 = 4666.666
W = 1405.555 N.
Problem 5.2 A cast iron T-beam has the following dimensions:
Overall depth = 160 mm
Width of flange = 150 mm
Flanage thickness = 40 mm
Web thickness = 50 mm
The beam is simply supported over a span of 2.5 metres placed in the inverted
T-position (i.e. flange at the bottom). If the maximum allowable tensile stress
in the flange and compressive stress in the web are limited to 20 N/mm2 and
75 N/mm2 respectively, find the maximum central load that the beam can safely
carry. [D.C.E. Part-II, 1998]
Solution As the figure is symmetrical about Y— Y axis, the centre of gravity
will lie on this axis. Let 5-) be the distance of centre of gravity from the bottom
of flange. Divide the figure into two rectangles as shown in Fig. 5.4 (a)

50 mm

E
E IT
BMW
WHEW
MIMI/
infr/
I
0 .100mm
o E E
- o E w
4.. A ;LI 8 ._._ _. __._. _._._._._
N -
20 mm I 1 4.
Yt = 60 mm
Y= 60 mm

X I I_
Y 'TX a1
150 mm ---jd 40 mm
(a) (b)
Fig. 5.4

Rectangle 1

al = 150 x 40 = 6000 mm2, yi = 20 = 20 mm

 Bending Stresses in Beams 123

Rectangle 2

a2 = 120 x 50 = 6000 mm2, y2 = 40 + 120 = 100 mm

2
= al )), + a2 y2 = 6000 x 20 + 6000 x 100
60 mm
a l + a2 6000 + 6000
Moment of inertia of the section about N.A.
1 , 1
= x 150 x 403 + 150 x 40 x (60 — 20)- + — x 50 x 1203
12 12
+ 50 x 120 x (100 — 60)2
= 272 x 105 mm4
cr, = Permissible tensile stress at the bottom most face of flange = 20 N/mm2,
at a distance of y, = 60 mm from neutral axis.
o-, = Permissible compressive stress at the top most face of web = 75 N/mm2,
at a distance of yc = 100 mm from neutral axis.
20 c 75
— = 60 = 0.333; c = = 0.75
y, v 100

al being the least, is to be taken into consideration. Let W N be the concen-

Yr
trated load that can be safely carried under the given condition of the problem.
L W x 2.5
Maximum bending moment at the centre, M = W Nm.
4 4
M
Using the relation, — = —± and substituting the values
/ Yr
W x 2.5 x 1000
= 0.333
4 x 272 x 105
W = 14505.216 N
Problem 5.3 A 4 metres long beam with rectangular section of 10 cm width
and 20 cm depth is simply supported at the ends. If it is loaded with a u.d.l. of
4 kN/m throughout the span and a concentrated load P = 2 kN placed at a
distance of 1.5 m from one end (Fig. 5.5), determine the maximum bending
stress in the beam.

2 kN 4 kN/m

1111111611ittittititeltstitifiteltitititittatita
1.5 m D
x
4m

Fig. 5.5
124 Strength of Materials

Solution Let RA and RB be the reactions at A and B respectively. Taking

moment of all the forces about A
4
RB x 4 - 4 x 4 x - 2 x 1.5 = 0 RB = 8.75 k.N.
2
But RA RB = 4 x 4 + 2 = 18
RA = 18 - 8.75 = 9.25 kN.
Let us consider a section at a distance x from A.
M, = 9.25x - 2 (x - 1.5) - 4 • x • 2 =7.25x+3-2x2
M, is maximum when
(7.25x + 3 - 2x2) = 0
dx
or 7.25 - 4x = 0 x = 1.81 m
Maximum bending moment, M = 7.25 x 1.81 + 3 - 2 x (1.81)2 = 9.5703 kN.m
10 x (20)3
Moment of inertia of the section, / - = 6666.666 cm4
12
M 9.5703 x10 x108
Maximum bending stress, a = x y=
6666.666 x 100
= 14355.45 kN/m2.
Problem 5.4 A floor has to carry a load of 5000 N/sq.m. It is supported
by joists 15 cm x 30 cm over a span of 5 m (Fig. 5.6). How far apart may the
joists be placed so that the bending stress does not exceed 8 N/mm2?

5m

(a) (b)

Fig. 5.6
Solution Let x be the centre-to-centre spacing of the joists. The area of the
floor between any two joists = 5 x x m2.
The total load supported by one interior joist = 5x x 5000 = 25000 N.
= 25000x x 5 Nm.
Maximum bending moment, M =
8 8
0.15 x ( 0.30)3 =
Moment of inertia of the joist, I = bd3 = 3.375 x 10-4 m4
12 12
 Bending Stresses in Beams 125

3.375 x 10-4 x 8 x 106

We know, M — — X 6=
y 0.15
= 18000 Nm
Equating this to the maximum bending moment
25000x x 5
= 18000 x = 1.152 m
8
Problem F3.5 Compare the weights of two equally strong beams of circu-
lar sections made of the same material, one being of solid section and the other
2
of hollow section with inside diameter — of the external diameter.
5
Solution For solid section let the diameter be D1
For hollow section: Let D= Outside diameter
d= Inside diameter
d 2
D= 5
/a)3
For solid section, Zs. = 1
32
(D4 _ c t ) irD3 609 irD3
For hollow section, ZH =
32D 32
[1 (25 )41 = 32 x 625
As both the beams are equally strong, Z, = ZH
_ 609 irD3 D3 625
or
32 — 32 x 625 D3 609
D
= 1.00868
D1
Both the beams are made of same material. Therefore ps = PH = P
Let Ws = Weight of solid shaft = volume x density
g D,2 xLxp
= -
4 "
WH = Weight of hollow shaft = volume x density

D2 — (-
[ 2 D)2 Lxp
4 5

-7r-- DxLxp D,2

ws 4 I
ir[D2
Wil
— (2 )2 xLxp 5

W — 25 D? 25 1
— = x = 1.17
WH 21 D2 21 (1.00868)2
Therefore the weight of solid shaft is 1.17 times the weight of the hollow shaft.
126 Strength of Materials

Problem 5.6 A rectangular beam is to

be cut from a circular log of wood of diam-
eter D. Find the dimensions of the strongest
section in bending.
Solution We know, Al = az
For a given value of maximum stress o,
the beam will be strongest (i.e. it will have
the maximum moment of resistance Al) if Z
is maximum.
Let b be the width and d be the depth of b
a rectangular beam which is cut out from Fig. 5.7
a circular log of wood of diameter D.
bd 2
For a rectangular beam, the section modulus is, z =
6

But b2 + d2 = D2 Z— b b2)
(D26—
dZ 1
Z is maximum when = 0 or — (D2 — 3b2) = 0
db 6
or 3b2 = D2 b= D

But d2 = D2 - b2
2 = 2D2 d2 2 d 2
d2 = D2 D3 3 or = 3
D2 D 3

d =D and b=
3 v3
Problem 5.7 A cantilever wooden mast 12 m 10 cm dia
high tapers linearly from 20 cm diameter at the base
to 10 cm diameter at the top. At what point will the T O
x
mast break under a horizontal load at the top? If the
ultimate strength of the material of the mast is 35 E F A
MN/m2, calculate the magnitude of the load which
will cause failure.
Solution: Consider a section at a distance x cm
below the top of the mast. Let y be the diameter at D C
this section. 20Icm
dia
OAB and ODC are similar.
Fig. 5.8
AB 5x
AB =
DC 1200 or 1200
10x
or 2AB =
1200 120
 Bending Stresses in Beams 127

x
EB = y = 10 + x = 120 (y — 10)
120
ir v 4 3
Iv y
Section modulus, Z = 64 '
y 32
2
Bending moment at that section is given by
M = P.x = 120P (y — 10)
Now M = az
M 120P (y — 10) 3840P [ 1 10
6=
Z = 7r 3
Xy
ir y2 y
3
32
a will be maximum when —d—
a
=0
dy
2
or — + y4 =0
Y
or y = 15 cm x = 120 (15 — 10) = 600 cm = 6 m Ans.
3840P (y — 10)
A gain a= iv 3
y
3840P (15 —10)
3500 = P = 1932.815 N Ans.
x (15)3
Problem 5.8 A cantilever beam 3 m long is made with 20 mm thick steel
plates welded in the form of a hollow rectangular box section. The overall depth
and width of the section are 200 mm and 140 mm respectively. Determine the
maximum concentrated load at the free end if the bending stress is not to exceed
100 N/mm2 (the beam is placed with the 200 mm side vertical). Take specific
weight of steel as 77 kN/m3 and E = 200 kN/mm2. Determine the shearing force
at half length.
Solution
Weight of the beam = volume x specific weight
= (0.2 x 0.14 — 0.16 x 0.1) x3 x 77 = 2.772 kN
Moment of inertia of the beam section is given by,
140 x (200)3 —100 x (160)3
I= = 59.2 x 106 mm4
12
M a
Now using the relation, — =
/ Yy
-a 59.2 x 106 x 100 x 2
M= — 59.2 x 106 N mm.
y 200
Let W be the concentrated load at the free end of the cantilever.
128 Strength of Materials

1 20 mm
:,

20 mm
20 mm

20 mm

F.- 140 mm —01

(a)

Total 2.772 kN
A/
3 mm
(b)

Fig. 5.9

Then, M = 3000 W + 2772 x 3000

2
59.2 x 106 = 3000 W + 2772 x 1500
W= 18.347 x 103 N = 18.347 kN
.77 2 = 19.773 kN Ans.
The shearing force at half length = 18.347 + 2
2
Problem 5.9 The cross-section of a small beam cut from a sheet of '7—ply
plywood has the dimensions as shown in Fig. 5.10. The alternate layers of the
plywood have the grain parallel to the length of the beam. The beam is 1.2 m
long, simply supported at the ends and loaded by P Nat the middle of the span.
The modulus of elasticity parallel to the grain is E1 = 11440 MN/m2 and that
perpendicular to the grain is E2 = 2860 MN/m2. The corresponding working
stresses are al = 8.57 MN/m2 and a2 = 2.14 MN/m2. Determine the transformed
section and calculate the safe value of the load P assuming the top layer grain
parallel to the length of the beam.
Solution The ratio of the smaller modulus to the larger is E2 : E1 = 1 : 4.
Therefore the width of layers having the grain across- the axis of the beam
should be reduced in the ratio 1 : 4 and the transformed section is shown in Fig.
5.10 (b).
The moment of inertia of the transformed section is
1 1
— x 0.024 x (0.0217)3 — 3 [- 0.018 x (0.0031)3 ]
12 12 x
= 2.0302567 x 104 m4
 Bending Stresses in Beams 129

•
1
,et 3.1 mm each

I 3 1 mm each
ire I
•••••••••-•-•.

24 mm 24 mm ►
(a) (b)

Fig. 5.10

The safe bending moment for the section is

2.0302567 x 10-8
Minax = — X 01 = X 8.57 x 106
0.0217
2
= 16.03622 Nm.
The safe load at the middle of the beam is
4 M.., _ 4 x 16.03622
P= = 53.454 N Ans.
1.2
Problem 5.10 Prove that the moment of resistance of a beam of square
section with one of its diagonal in the plane of bending is increased by flattening
the top and bottom corners as shown in Fig. 5.11, and that the moment of
8
resistance is maximum when y = — Y.
9

Fig. 5.11
130 Strength of Materials

Solution Let D be the diagonal of the square, then Y = fl

Consider an elementary strip of thickness dx at a distance x from X-X axis. Let
the width of the strip be b. Moment of inertia of this strip about axis X-X is b.
dx3/12 + b•dx•x2 = bx2 dx (neglecting the higher powers of dx which are small).
When the corners are not flattened Moment of inertia of the entire
section about x-x-axis is
r
li = 2 5 bx2th, = 2 5 2 (D —2 x2 dx
0 0
D/2
[DX 3 _ 2x 4 ] = D4
=2
3 4 o 48
The section modulus, for the section is
D4 D D3
:
Zr = 48 2 24
When the corners have been flattened Moment of inertia of the section
about x—x-axis is
/2 = 2 bx2 dx = 2 50 (D — 2x) x2 dx
JOY '

DX3 2x4 103 = 2Dy3 4

= 3,
2[ 3 4 3—
The section modulus for the section is
[2Dy3 4] 1 2Dy2
Z2 = Y =
3 Y 3

d z2
For Z2 to be the maximum, =0
dy
4Dy 3y2 = 0
Or
3
4D
Y
9
2 3
2D x 4D 4D _ 32D3
The maximum value of Z2 is = —
3 9 9 729
The maximum permissible stress in the material for both sections is same.
Therefore the ratio of the maximum moments of resistance for two sections is
equal to the ratio of their section moduli.
32D3
M2 Z
_ 2 _ 729 — 1.05349
M1 Z1 D3
24
 Bending Stresses in Beams 131

Thus the moment of resistance of the section with fattened top and bottom is

1.05349 times that without flattening and y = 4D

Y= or D = 2Y
4 x 2Y 8Y
y= (Proved)
9 9
Problem 5.11 A steel tube 4 cm outside diameter and 3 cm inside diameter
is used as a simply supported beam on a span of 2 m, and it is found that the
maximum safe load it can carry at mid-span is 1000 N. Four of these tubes are
placed parallel to one another and firmly fixed together to form in effect a single
beam, the centres of the tubes forming a square of 4 cm side with one pair of
centres vertically over the other pair. Find the maximum central load which this
beam can carry if the maximum stress is not to exceed that of the single tube
above.

Solution
Single tube:
Moment of inertia is given by, I = (44 34) = 8.59 cm4

Area, A = Lr (42 32)) = 5.498 cm2

1 8.29
5
Section modulus, Z = = = 4.295 cm3
y
For a simply supported beam with a concentrated load at the mid-span, the
maximum bending moment is given by
ILL 1000 200
M= = — 50000 N.cm.
4 4
132 Strength of Materials

Now M = o-Z
M 50000
a= = 11640 N/cm2
Z 4.295
Four tubes:
Moment of inertia about x-x-axis is given by
I = 4 (8.59 + 5.498 x 22) = 122.32 cm4
122.32
section modulus, Z = — 30.58 cm3
4
Let the applied central load be W N
W x 200
The maximum bending moment is given by, M = = 50 W N.cm.
4
But M = o-Z
M = 11640 x 30.58 N.cm.
50 W = 11640 x 30.58
W = 11640 x 30.58
50
= 7119 N Ans.

5.5 BEAMS OF UNIFORM STRENGTH

The bending moment varies along the length of the beam but normally the cross-
section is same throughout. Therefore the maximum bending stresses in the
beam along its length will vary. At one section where the B.M. is maximum, the
bending stress will be maximum, then the stresses at other sections will be lesser
and therefore, the provision of a uniform section throughout the length of the
beam is uneconomical. If however, we change the section of the beam with the
change in B.M. at different sections along its length such that the extreme fibre
stress is maximum at every section then the beam is called a beam of uniform
strength. The section can be varied in the following way:
1. By varying the depth, keeping the width constant throughout.
2. By varying the width, keeping the depth constant throughout.
3. By varying both depth and width.
4. By varying the diameter in case of circular beam.

5.6 COMPOSITE OR FLITCHED BEAMS

A wooden beam when connected with steel or metal plates all along its length
for strengthening, it is called a flitched beam. Such a beam of composite section
consisting of two materials will behave as one beam. Since the two materials
are rigidly connected the radius of curvature R for both are the same and also
the strains in the two materials are some due to bending stresses at a section.
The reinforcing material used should have higher modulus of elasticity than the
material of the beam.
 Bending Stresses In Beams 133

Consider a flitched beam (Fig. 5.13) com- b

prising of a timber beam of breadth b and
depth d, reinforced by two steel plates, each
of thickness t and depth d. Let a and as be
the stresses at a distance y from the neutral d-•-A
axis in wood and steel respectively. The
strain in the two materials is same.
a as —
Es
w — 6S =m
En, E a w En,
where En, = modulus of elasticity of wood Fig. 5.13
Es = modulus of elasticity of steel
m = modular ratio
as = m aw
Let M,,, and Ms be the moments of resistance of wood beam and the reinforcing
steel plates respectively then
bd 2
M, = Cc. Z, = 0, x and
6
td2
Ms = as•zs = as x ( — x2
6
But = maw
td 2
Ms=m•6wX
3
Total moment of resistance
M = Mw + Ms
bd 2 td 2 = Crw x (b + 2mt) d 2
= OW X InaW X
6 3 6
Therefore the moment of resistance of the flitched beam is the same as that of
a wooden beam of width (b + 2mt) and depth d. This beam is called an equivalent
beam of some depth and the width is increased by in times the thickness of the
reinforcing steel plates.
Problem 5.12 A 200 mm x 300 mm rectangular timber beam reinforced at
the top and bottom with a steel plate of 200 mm width and 12 mm thickness
is subjected to bending. The modulus of elasticity for steel and timber are 220
kN/m2 and 11 kN/m2 respectively. The allowable working stresses for steel and
timber are 115 MN/m2 and 9.2 MN/m2.
(a) What will be the web thickness of the equivalent steel section?
(b) Determine the maximum allowable bending moment for the section.
(c) If the beam is simply supported at ends and its length is 2 m, what will be
the allowable safe load in N applied at the centre of the beam?
134 Strength of Materials

I
12 mm
Ft-- 200 mm
12 mm

I
E
0
0

\\\
I
12 mm 12 mm
N I-1— 200 mm
(a) (b)

Solution

_ 11 _ 1
Es - 220 - 20
Therefore the transformed section will be an I-section. Let the web thickness
be b of equivalent steel section.
200
(a) b = = 10 mm
20
The allowable stress in the web of the equivalent beam = 20 x a,,„ = 20 x
9.2 = 184 MN/m2. But the allowable stress in the flanges is as = 115
MN/m2. Therefore the stress o = 115 MN/m2 is taken into consideration.
The moment of inertia of the transformed section
I=
12
x 0.2 x (0.324)3 - 2 x 1 x 0.095 x (0.3)3 = 1.3937 x
12
le m4
M
But we know =a

(b) Mmax = — / x a - 1.3937 x 10-4 x 115 x 106 = 98935.778 Nm

0.324
2
(c) The beam is simply supported at the ends and the load is applied at the
centre of the beam.
Wx2
Maximum bending moment, Mmax = W4L or 98935.778 =
4
W = 197871.56 N
 Bending Stresses in Beams 135

Problem 5.13 A flitched beam is

made up of two timber joists, each 10
cm wide by 30 cm deep with a steel
plate 2 cm thick and 20 cm deep sym-
metrically and firmly fixed to them. ° X
Calculate the moment of resistance of
the section of the beam when the
maximum stress in the timber reaches E
8.5 N/mm2. Also find the maximum 10 c`‘), cm-J-1
uniformly distributed load which the Fig. 5.15
beam can carry on a simply supported
span of 5 m. E for steel = 2 x 105 N/mm2 and E for timber = 104 N/mm2.
Solution Let a, be the maximum stress in timber. Then the stress in timber
10
at a distance of 10 cm from XX = xa
15
= 10
The strain in timber at 10 cm from XX —x
15 E,
It is also the strain in steel at 10 cm from XX.
Maximum stress in steel is given by,
10 E 10 200 340
as —x 15 x . = 15 20x x a, =
15
x 8.5 =
3
N/mm2
Et
For timber:
1
Section modulus, z,,, = x 10 x 302 x 2 = 3000 cm3
Moment of resistance, Mw = 8.5 x 100 x 3000 = 255 x 104 N.cm
For steel:
1 9 = 400
Section modulus,=; 6 x 2 x 20- cm3
= 34000 400
Moment of resistance, Ms x = 151 x 104 N.cm
3 3
Total moment of resistance is given by
M= + Ms = 225 x 104 + 151 x 104
= 406 x 104 N.cm = 40.6 kN.m
For a simply supported beam with uniformly distributed load w the maximum
bending moment is given by
wL2 w x 52
M= Nm
8 8
w x 25
=40.6x103
8
ii' = 12992 N/m = 12.992 kN/m Ans.
136 Strength of Materials

Problem 5.14 A composite beam is made of a timber section 10 cm wide

and 15 cm deep reinforced at the bottom by a steel plate 10 cm wide and 12
mm thick. Find the neutral axis of the composite beam.
If the beam carries a uniformly distributed load of 3 kN/m run over a simply
supported span of 4 m, find the maximum bending stresses developed in the
timber and steel. Assume E for steel = 20 times E for timber (wood).

1-4-0.5 cm

T
to
A
N X

\\ 1.2 cm
0 cm T 14-- 10 cm —id
Equivalent steel
section
(a) (b)

Fig. 5.16

Solution
E
Given modular ratio, m = S= 20
E„,
If the timber is replaced by steel, the equivalent width of steel web is given by
10 10
= 0.5 cm
bs = m = 20
The equivalent steel section is shown in Fig. 5.16(b).
Let 5, be the distance of centre of gravity from the bottom edge.
_ 10 x (1.2) x 0.6 +15 x 0.5x 8.7
Y= = 3.72 cm
10 x 1.2+15x 0.5
Moment of inertia about xx-axis is given by
1
I= x 10 x (1.2)3 + 10 x 1.2 x (172 — 0.6)2 +
12
0.5 x 153 + 0.5 x 15 x (7.5 — 3.72)2
x0.5
x
= 444.9 cm4
For a simply supported beam with u.d.Lthe maximum bending moment is given
by
wL2 3000 x (4)2
M_ _ = 6000 Nm = 6 x 105 N cm.
8 8
6 x 105
stress at bottom = 411.9 x 3.72 = 5020 N/cm2 = 50.2 N/mm2
 Bending Stresses in Beams 137

This is the maximum stress in steel.

6 x 105
Stress at top = 444.9 x 12.48 = 16830 N/cm2 = 168.3 N/mm2
168.3
Maximum stress in timber = = 8.415 N/mm2
20
Problem 5.15 A timber beam 20 cm wide and 30 cm deep is reinforced
with two rectangular steel plates each 25 cm deep and 1.2 cm wide. The steel
plates are bolted on each side of the beam with the bottom edges of the plates
flush with the underside of the beam. Determine the position of the neutral axis
and find the moment of resistance of the composite beam when the limits of the
bending stress in steel and timber are 90 N/mm2 and 6 Nimm2 respectively.
Modular ratio = 20.
Solution

T
_m to
N

I
--0-1114— 20 cm —01 14— 24 cm —1-14— 20 cm 24 cm H
1.2 cm T-1.2 cm Equivalent timber section
(a) (b)
Fig. 5.17

When the 1.2 cm wide steel plate is replaced by wood, the equivalent width of
the wood section = 1.2 x 20 = 24 cm.
Let Y) be the distance of centre of gravity from the bottom edge
_ 2 x 25x 24 x12.5+30x 20 x15
Y= = 13.33 cm.
2x 25x 24+30 x 20
Moment of inertia of the equivalent timber section about N.A. is given by
20x 2 [24 x 253
I= 1203 + 20 x 30 x (15 — 13.33) -I- 2 + 24 x 25 x 0.8321
12
= 11 x 104 cm4
The maximum stress in timber will occur at the top and the maximum stress
in steel will occur at the bottom.
Stress at the bottom = 13.336
16.67
13.33
Maximum stress in steel, as = 20 x x a = 15.99 a
16.67 '
For 99 = 5.63 N/mm2
as = 90 N/mm2, cr, = :°
138 Strength of Materials

11x104
Section modulus of the equivalent section, z, = = 6599 cm3
16.67
Al = at x zi = 563 x 6599 = 3615 x 103 N/cm = 36.15 kNm.

REVIEW EXERCISES

Multiple-Choice Questions:
5.1 Indicate the correct answer from the given alternatives:
1. By simple bending of a beam we mean that
(a) the plane of loads coincides with the centroidal plane
(b) the bending of the beam shall be accompanied by twisting
(c) the bending of the beam shall not be accompanied by twisting
(d) the plane of loads does not coincide with the centroidal plane
2. Neutral axis of a beam is the axis at which
(a) shear force is zero (b) moment of inertia is zero
(c) bending stress is zero (d) None of the above
3. The bending equation is
M I a M a E
(a) — = — = — (b) — = =
E R y I y R
M /
(c) M = = —E (d) — =
a R R E y
4. The bending stress in a beam is
(a) equal to section modulus
(b) directly proportional to section modulus
(c) inversely proportional to section modulus
(d) more than section modulus
5. The bending stress in a beam is
(a) equal to bending moment
(b) directly proportional to bending moment
(c) inversely proportional to bending moment
(d) less than bending moment
6. The neutral axis of a beam is subjected to
(a) minimum tensile stress (b) minimum compressive stress
(c) zero stress (d) None of the above
7. The product of Young's modulus and moment of inertia is known as
(a) modulus of rigidity (b) bulk modulus
(c) flexural rigidity (d) torsional rigidity
8. Modular ratio of the two materials is the ratio of
(a) linear stress to linear strain (b) linear stress to lateral strain
(c) their modulus of rigidities (d) their modulus of elasticities
 Bending Stresses in Beams 139

9. Section modulus of a beam is

(a) -Y-- (b) 1 (c) (d)

I Y y
10. The section modulus for a rectangular section about an axis passing
through its centre of gravity is.
bd2 bd 2 bd 2 d
(a) (b) (c) (d)
12 6 2 2
11. The section modulus of a circular section about an axis passing through
its centre of gravity is
ird 2 rd 4
(a) (b) (c) ird 3 (d)
16 16 32 64
12. If the section modulus of a beam is increased, the bending stress of the
beam will
(a) not change (b) increase (c) decrease
13. A flitched beam is used to
(a) effect saving in material
(b) strengthen the beam
(c) increase the cross-section of the beam
(d) equalise the strength intension and compression
14. A flitched beam made of wood and steel shall have equivalent moment of
inertia in terms of wood beam. This is given by
1,, IS
(a) I,„ + m IS (b) IS + m4 (c) IS + (d) 4 +
n
15. Allowable bending stress of a material is than allowable direct stress.
(a) less (b) more
16. Moment of resistance of beam is of its section modulus.
(a) dependent (b) independent
17. When a beam is subjected to bending moment, the stress at any point is
the distance of the point from the neutral axis.
(a) equal to (b) directly proportional to
(c) inversely proportional to (d) independent of
18. When a beam is subjected to bending moment the strain in a layer is
distance from neutral axis.
(a) equal to (b) directly proportional to
(c) inversely proportional to (d) independent of
19. In a beam subjected to pure bending, the intensity of stress in any layer is
distance of the fibre from the neutral axis.
(a) equal to (b) loss than
(c) more than (d) directly proportional to
140 Strength of Materials

20. A flitched beam made of wood and steel shall have equivalent moment of
inertia interms of steel beam. This is given by
ISS
(a) Iw + — (b) — (c) IS + (d) + nil,
m m
Ans: 1 (a), 2 (c), 3 (c), 4 (c), 5 (b), 6 (c), 7 (c), 8 (d), 9 (b), 10 (c), 11 (c),
12 (c), 13 (b), 14 (a), 15 (b), 16 (a), 17 (b), 18 (b), 19 (d), 20 (b)]

Problems
5.2 A rectangular beam 10 m long is simply supported at its ends and is acted
upon by a 10 kN/m uniformly distributed load throughout its length. Find
the size of the beam if the thickness is twice that of its width. Take the
allowable bending stress of the material as 40 MN/m2.
[Ans. b = 16.73 cm, d = 33.46 cm]
5.3 A beam square in section is 6 m long and is supported at a distance of 1
m from each end. The beam carries a u.d.l. of 2 kN/m throughout and the
allowable tensile and compressive stresses are 200 MN/m2 and 240 MN/
m2 respectively. Determine the size of the section. [Ans. 4.48 cmJ
5.4 A 10 m long C.I. pipe of 50 cm internal diameter and 2 cm thickness is
simply supported at its ends. Find the maximum intensity of bending stress
induced in the metal when the pipe is running full with water. Take unit
weights of C.I. and water as 72 kN/m3 and 10 kN/m3 respectively.
[Ans. 13.170548 N/mm2]
5.5 A wooden beam 8 cm wide and 12 cm deep has a semicircular groove of
2 cm radius planed out in the centre of each side. Calculate the maximum
stress in the section when simply supported on a span of 3 m and loaded
with a concentrated load of 450 N at a distance of 1 m from one end and
a u.d.l. of 500 N/m run over the whole span. [Ans. 427 N/cm2]
5.6 For a given stress, compare the moments of resistance of a beam of
square section when placed (i) with its two sides horizontal and (ii) with
its diagonal horizontal. [Ans. 1.414]
5.7 A timber beam of rectangular section is to support a load of 20 IN
uniformly distributed over a span of 4 m. If the depth of the section is to
be twice the breadth and the stress in timber is not to exceed 7 N/mm2,
find the dimensions of the cross-section.
How would you modify the cross-section of the beam if a concentrated
load is placed at the centre with the same ratio of breadth to depth?
[Ans. 25.78 cm, 16.24 cm, 32.48 cm]
5.8 A channel section has an overall depth of 20 cm, flange width of 10 cm,
flange thickness of 2 cm and web thickness of 1 cm. The section is used
as a cantilever beam of span 2 m with the web placed top and horizontal.
Calculate the safe maximum intensity of u.d.l. covering the entire span, if
 Bending Stresses In Beams 141

the allowable bending stresses in tension and compression are not to

exceed 100 N/mm2 and 60 N/mm2 respectively.
If the web of the section is placed horizontally at the both what would
be the safe maximum load intensity? [Ans. 2701.8 N/m, 4503 N/m]
5.9 A wooden beam 7 cm wide and 10 cm deep has a semicircular groove of
3 cm radius planed out in the centre of each side. What is the ratio ,Of its
moment of resistance to bending in the plane YY to that for bending in the
plane XX, if the maximum stress due to bending is the same in both cases?
[Ans. 2.86]
5.10 A steel flat 6 mm wide and 2 mm thick is required to bend in a circular
arc of 2 m radius. Determine the moment required to bend the flat and the
maximum stress induced in the material.
5.11 A beam of /-section 40 cm deep has flanges 20 cm wide and 3 cm thick
and web 2.4 cm thick. Compare its flexural strength with that of a beam
of rectangular section of the same weight, the depth being twice the
breadth. [Ans. 3.27]
5.12 A beam of T-section has flange width of 100 mm, overall depth of 80 mm,
thickness of stem and flange of 10 mm. Determine the maximum stress
in the beam when a bending moment of 200 Nm is acting on the section.
[Ans. 12.32 N/mm2]
5.13 Two wooden beams each 12 cm wide and 30 cm deep are reinforced by
a steel plate 1.2 cm thick and 25 cm deep placed symmetrically and
clamped in between them. Determine the moment of resistance of the
beam, if the safe stress in wood is 736 N/cm2. Take Es = 18 EH,
[Ans. 4028.2 Nm]
5.14 A chimney 2 m in diameter and 40 m high has a cylindrical bottom 5 cm
thick. The density of the metal is 0.01 kg/cm3. It is subjected to a uniform
wind pressure of 20 MPa of projected area. Calculate the maximum stress
in the chimney. [Ans. 6.96 MPa]
5.15 A wooden beam 15 cm x 20 cm is reinforced with two steel plates 10 cm
x 1 cm in section one at the top and the other at the bottom. Calculate the
moment of resistance. Compare it when the plates are attached symmetri-
cally on the sides.

Take Es = 200 GPa, E„, = 10 GPa. [Ans. 2 = 0.2461

m
SLOPE AND DEFLECTION

6.1 INTRODUCTION
In the previous chapter we have studied the stresses produced by bending
moment. In this chapter we shall study the deflection produced by bending
moment. An initially straight beam deforms when loaded, and its axis bends in
a curve which is known as the elastic curve. Deflection of a point on a beam
is defined as the vertical upward or downward displacement of the point before
and after loading. Slope is defined as the angle in radians which the tangent at
the point makes with the original axis of the beam. In designing a beam it is
necessary from the point of view of stiffness that the maximum deflection
should be limited with regard to the span of the beam. The stiffness is inversely
proportional to deflection.

6.2 BEAMS BENDING WITH UNIFORM CURVATURE

Consider a simply supported beam AB of span L

bent in the form of a circular arc under the effect
of external loads. When the beam deflects, let the
central point C occupy the position D. Then the
central deflection will be CD. Let CD = y and OB
the radius of curvature = R. Join OC and when
produced it meets with BE at E and the circle in F.
From :chord properties
AC x CB = CF x CD
L2
= (2R — y) y = 2 Ry — y2
4
L2 E
or y2 — 2Ry + — = 0
4 Fig. 6.1
2R ± 114R2 — L2
Y=
2
 Slope and Deflection 143

M E 1
From the relation — = — we have — =
I R R El
Hence y can be determined.
Let the tangent at B make an angle 0 with the axis of the beam.

Slope at B = tan 0= -y
dx
For 0 to be small tan 0 = 0 = sin 0
BC
Now sin 0 = =
OB 2R
ML
0=
2E1

6.3 DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION OF

THE DEFLECTION CURVE
(a) For sagging bending moment Consider a beam AB which takes the
shape of a curve A'B' as shown in Fig. 6.2. Consider two points C and D on
the elastic curve.
B

(a) Loaded beam

B'

0— d0
dB: dx
Elastic (b) Bent beam
curve

Fig. 6.2

Let 0 = angle made by the tangent at C with x-axis.

d0= angle between the normals to the curve at C and D.
The normals at C and D intersect at 0. The length OC or OD is the radius
of curvature R.

Now CD = Rd0 or _ dO = dO
R
1 -CD dx
Slope at C = 0 and at D = 0— dO, i.e. the slope decreases with increase of dx
dO
therefore is (—)ve.
dx
144 Strength of Materials

1 _ _de
But d y = tan 0 = 0 [Since 0 is very small]
R — dx dx
d 2 y _ de _—1— = — M
dx2 dx R El
d2 y
El = M.
dx2
dy
Integrating once the above equation we obtain — , or slope of the beam at any
dx
point.
(b) For hogging bending moment
Consider an elemental length AB for a
cantilever beam subjected to hogging
bending moment as shown in Fig. 6.3.
Let the coordinates of A and B be (x, y)
and (x + dx, y + dy) respectively. Draw
tangents at A and B to cut the x-axis and
let them subtend angles 0 and 0+ de with R de
x-axis respectively. 0 be the centre of
curvature. The angle subtended at 0 is
de. 0
1 = de Fig. 6.3
ds = Rde or
R ds
dy dx = dy
From A ABC, we have =sin 9, cos 0 and = tan 0
ds ds dx
1 _ de deldx deldx
•••
R ds dsldx sec 0

Now tan 0 = dy
dx
Differentiating with respect to x
2 d0 d2y
sec 0—=
dx dx2
de _ 1 d 2 y = d 2y 1
dx sec2 0 dx2 dx2 (1+ tan2 0)
de d2y 1
1 dx dx2 (1+ tan2 0)
Now
R sec 0 (1 + tan2 0)1/2
1
= d2 y 1
dx2 (1+ tang 0)3/2
 Slope and Deflection 145

Since tan 0 is very small, its square can be neglected

1 d2 y M_E
But
R dx 2 I R
1_ M _ d2 y
R — El — dx2
d 2y
El = M.
dx2
d2y
when M is (+) ye [as in case (a)] is negative and when M is (—) ve [as
dx2
d2 y
in case (b)] is positive.
d x2
d2 y
The general equation for deflection is El =— M.
dx2

6.4 STRAIN ENERGY DUE TO BENDING

The effect of bending moment at a section of a beam is to produce direct tensile
M•
and compressive stresses which is given by as = y. These stresses vary
2
0'
from one section to the other. So, the equation of strain energy, U =
2E x
volume, cannot be used directly. But we can use it to find the strain energy due
to bending moment in the following way.
Consider a small length of the beam dx. Let the elemental area be dA. The
strain energy of portion of the beam of length dx,
(14
6z m2 . ‘,2
SU = x Volume = x (dA dx) = dA • dx
J 2E 2E 2E •
m2. dx
= y 2dA
2E12
But, y2 dA = I.

2 dx
SU= M
2E1
Therefore, the total strain energy of the whole beam, U = du

f M 2 •dx
U=
2E • I
146 Strength of Materials

6.5 METHODS -OF SOLUTION

The following methods are generally used to determine the slope and deflection
at a point of a beam:
(i) Macaulay's method, (ii) Moment area method, and (iii) Conjugate beam
method.

6.5.1 Macaulay's Method or Double Integration Method

The differential equation of the deflection curve is
d2y
EI = -M (i)
dx 2
This theorem states that for any loading, particularly when concentrated
loads are concerned, take a section X at a distance x beyond the last load. In
Equation (i)
E = Modulus of elasticity of the beam
I = Moment of inertia of the beam cross-section about the neutral axis which
passes through the centroid of the cross-section.
M = Bending moment at a distance x from one end of the beam.
y = Deflection of the beam.
dy
The first integration yields the slope — at any point of the beam and the
dx
second integration gives the deflection y for any value of x. These equations,
yield two constants of integration for each region. These constants are deter-
mined by imposing conditions- of continuous deformations and slopes at the
points common to the adjacent regions. Substituting the value of these constants
in the two equations of slope and deflection, the final equations for slope and
deflection are obtained. From these two final equations the value of slope and
deflection at any point in a beam can be obtained.
(a) Cantilever beam with a concentrated load W at the free
end Let AB be the cantilever beam of span L, fixed at A and free at B.
Let W be the point (concentrated) load at free end B.
Consider a section XX at a distance x from the free and A. Moment at x is
given by
Mx = -Wx w
The differential equation of bending
becomes, B —t--
d2y
El = M„ = Wx
dx 2 Ymax

Integrating once we get

dy Wx 2 B'
I
EI = + Cl
dx 2 Fig. 6.4
 Slope and Deflection 147

where C1 is a constant of integration

At x= L, dY = 0 Ci = L2
dx Cl 2
Therefore the final equation for slope is
dy Wx2 WL2
El = (i)
dx 2 2
Slope at B is maximum, for slope at B (OB) put x = 0 in Equation (i)
WL2
El °max =
2
WL2
0max —
—
2E1
(—)ve sign indicates that the slope is convex upwards.
For deflection, integrating Equation (i) above
Wx3 W
El •y = e x + C2
6 2
where C2 is another constant of integration
WL3 WL3 WL3
at x = L, y = 0 .. C2 =
2 6 3
Therefore the final equation for deflection is
Wx3 WL2 WL3
El • y = x+
6 2 3
At x = 0, i.e. at B the deflection is maximum
WL3
EI • y.=
3
WL3
Ymax =
3E1
(b) Cantilever beam carrying a concentrated load W not at the
free end Consider a cantilever beam AB of length L and carrying a concen-
trated load W at a distance L1 from the fixed end A. Consider a section X—X at
a distance x from the fixed end A. The bending moment at X—X is (Fig. 6.5).
= — W (Li — x)
d 2y
EI , M = W (L1 — x)
dx`
Integrating, we get
dy wx2
EI = WLi x + C1
dx 2
where C1 is a constant of integration
dy
At x = 0, =0 C•=0
dx
148 Strength of Materials

B T

B1 g

1
B2

Fig. 6.5

Wx 2
El = WL I x (i)
dx 2
For slope at C put x = L1

Or = dY = 1 [WL, x
dx EI 2 2E1
As there is no load on the portion BC, this portion will not bend. It will remain
straight.
Wei
°B 19c. = 2E1
For deflection, integrating Equation (i) we have
W/ix 2 3
y= W6 + C2
2
where C2 is a constant of integration.
At x = 0, y = 0 C2 = 0
The final deflection equation is
WLi x2 Wx 3
El. y =
2 6
For deflection at C put x = L1
1 [ WL3i WL3i WL3i
Yc =
El L
2 6 3E1
But yc = /3/31
B1B2 = B1C1 tan Oc = BC x Oc [ Oc is small, tan Oc = Oc]
WL2
= (L - Li) x
2EI
The deflection at B will be maximum
31 W 21
••• Ymax = Y8 = BB2 = BBI + B1B2 = x (L - L I )
E1 + 2E1
(c) Cantilever beam carrying a uniformly distributed load at the
rate of w/unit length over the entire span Consider a cantilever beam
AB of length L and carrying a uniformly distributed load of intensity w/unit
 Slope and Deflection 149

length as shown in Fig. 6.6. Consider

w/unit length
a section X—X at a distance x from the
free and A.
A B
The bending moment at X—X is ee = °max
wx 2
Mx —
—
2
2
d2y WX
El = -M =

dx 2 2
Integrating, we get Fig. 6.6
dy WX
3
El — = + CI
dx 6
where C1 is a constant of integration
dy wL3
at x = L, slope
=0 C1 = —
dx 6
Therefore the final equation for slope is
El dy wx 3 wL3
(i)
dx 6 6
At x = 0, slope is maximum
w L3
0„,a„ = OB = —
6EI
(—)ve sign indicates that slope is convex upwards.
Integrating Equation (i) above for deflection we have
wx4 wL3x
El .y = + C2
24 6
where C2 is a constant of integration
wL4 wL4 wL4
At = L, y = 0 C2 =
6 24 8
Therefore the final equation for deflection is
wx 4 wL3x wL4
El y=
24 6 4
At B, i.e. at x = 0 deflection is maximum
wL4
Ymax = YB =
8E1
(d) Cantilever beam carrying a distributed load which varies uni-
formly from zero at free and to w per unit length at the fixed
end Consider a cantilever beam AB of length L carrying a distributed load
which varies uniformly from zero at free end to iv/unit length at the fixed end.
Consider a section X—X at a distance x from fixed end A.
150 Strength of Materials

Fig. 6.7

w
Rate of loading at x = — (L - x)

(L - x) wx 1 (L x) = (L -
Fx = x)2
L 2 2L
Bending moment at X-X is
M_ = -Fx x
(L-(L
x) 2 (L - x)w
x) x =- (L - X)3
3 ) 2L 3 6L
d2y
El = -m = - x>3
dx2 6L
Integrating, we get
dy =
El w (L - x)4 + C1
24 L
dx
where C1 is a constant of integration
dy wL
At A, i.e. at x = 0, — = 0 .% =
dx 24
The final equation for slope is
wL3
EI 61 = (L x)4 +
dx 24 L 24
At B, i.e. at x = L, the slope is maximum,
3
wL
•6 • emax = -B = 24E1
For deflection, integrating equation (i) we have

El • y = (L x)5 +
wL3 X + C2
120L 24
where C2 is a constant of integration

At x = 0, y=0 .% C2 = -
we
120
Therefore the final equation for deflection is
El y = w (L x)5+ w
e wL4
x
120L 24 120
 Slope and Deflection 151

At B, i.e. at x = L deflection ( y) is maximum

wL4 wL4 wL4
EI•y.=„ ———=
24 120 30
wL4
Ymax =
30E1
(e) Cantilever beam subjected to a
moment at the free end Consider a can-
A
tilever beam AB of length L is subjected to a
moment M at the free end B. Consider a sec-
tion X—X at a distance x from the fixed end A.
The bending moment at X—X is Fig. 6.8
Mx= —11/1
d 2y
El = =
dx2
Integrating we get
El dy = M•x + C1
dx
where C1 is a constant of integration.
dy
At A the slope is zero, i.e. at x = 0, — = C1 = 0
dx
Therefore the final equation for slope is
dy
El — = M•x (i)
dx
ML
At x = L, 013 =
El
For deflection, integrating Equation (i) we get
M• 2
El. y = + C2
2x
where C2 is a constant of integration.
At A deflection is zero, i.e. at x = 0, y = 0 C2 = 0
M
Therefore the final equation for deflection is El.y =
2
Deflection at B when x = L is
ML2
YB 2E1
(f) Simply supported beam carrying a concentrated load at mid-
span Consider a simply supported beam of span L and carrying a concen-
trated load W at mid-span. Consider a section X—X at a distance x from the left
end A as shown in Fig. 6.9. By symmetry the support reactions RA and RB at
152 Strength of Materials

Fig. 6.9

A and B are each equal to .

Mi = — • x
• 2
2y Wx
E/ d = —Mx =
dx2 2
Integrating the above equation for slope we get
dy Wx 2
G./ = - +C1
dx 4
where C1 is a constant of integration.
At mid-span C, the slope is zero, i.e. at
L dy
x= =0 = WL2
2 dx 16
Therefore the final slope equation is
dy Wx 2 WL2
EI — =
dx 4 16
Slope is maximum at the ends A or B.
dy
i.e. at x = 0, — is maximum
dx
WL2 WL2
EI °max = Om.=
16 16E/
For deflection integrating Equation (i) we have
Wx3 wex
El. y= + + C2
12 16
where C2 is a constant of integration.
At A deflection is zero, i.e. at x = 0, y = 0. C2 = 0.
wx3 wex
Therefore the final equation for deflection is El • y =— +
12 16
L
/ Deflection is maximum at mid-span C, i.e. at x = —
2
 Slope and Deflection 153

1 [ WL3 WL3
)'max = Yc =
El 32 96
WL3
Ymax
48E1
(g) Simply supported beam carrying a uniformly distributed load of
w/unit length over the whole span Consider a simply supported beam
AB of span L carrying a uniformly distributed load of w/unit length over the
whole span. Consider a section X—X at a distance x from left end A as shown
in Fig. 6.10. By symmetry the support reactions RA and R8 at A and B are each
wL
equal to
2

co/unit length

lititatititittetitetittititotittill

WL WL
RA =

Fig. 6.10

Bending moment at section X—X,

- wLx wx 2
2 2
2
d wLx wx 2
El y=m
dx2 2 2
Integrating the above equation for slope, we get
dy wLx 2 WX 3
El — = — -I- CI
dx 4 6
where C1 is a constant of integration.
dy
At mid-span, i.e. at x = L Slope =0
2 dx
wL3 wL3
0= + + CI
16 48
wL3 wL3 wL3
CI =
16 48 24
Therefore the final slope equation is
wLx2 wx 3 wL3
El dy = (i)
dx 4 6 24
154 Strength of Materials

Slope is maximum at the ends A and B

dy
At x = 0 slope imaximum
s
dx
wL3
°rnax = = 24E/
For deflection, integrating Equation (i)
3 wx4 wL3 x
El. y= wLx + C2
12 24 24
where C2 is a constant of integration.
At A deflection is zero, i.e. at x = 0, y = 0.
. C2 = 0
Therefore the final deflection equation is
3 WX 4 3x
El. y= wLx + + wL
12 24 24
L
Deflection is maximum at mid-span C, i.e. at x = —
2
1 r we wrt
Ymax = Yc= + +
El L 96 384 48
5 we 5 WL3
(where W = w•L)
384 E1 384 El

SOLVED PROBLEMS
Problem 6.1 A cantilever beam 12 cm wide and 20 cm deep is 2.5 m long.
What uniformly distributed load should the beam carty to produce a deflection
of 0.5 cm at the free end and what concentrated load at free end would produce
the same deflection? Give the slope at the free end in both cases. Ignore self-
weight of the beam. Take E = 2 x 105 N/mm2. [D.C.E. Part-II 1999]

w kN/m T
tittitrnittitittitst1B_w _ lc/
Ag
1
- -
0.5 cm 0.5 cm
2.5 m _t_ 2.5 m

(a) (c)
Fig. 6.11

Solution:
Let I = moment of inertia of the rectangular section about centroidal axis =
1
— x 12 x 203 = 8000 cm4 = 8000 x 10-8 m4 = 8 x m4
12
 Slope and Deflection 155

Maximum deflection at the free end of the cantilever

wL4
= 0.5 x 10-2
8E1
w x (2.5)4 128 x 106 x 05
= 0.5 x 10-2 or w=
8x 2 x105 x106 x8 x10-5 . (2.5)4 x 102
w = 16384 N/m
wL3 16384 x (25)3
Slope at the free end = = 2.666 x 10-3 rad.
6E1 6x2x105 x106 x8x10—
Let W Newton be the concentrated load that can be placed under the given
conditions of the problem.
WL3
Maximum deflection at the free end = = 0.5 x 10-2
3E1
W x (25)3
or = 0.5 x 10-2
3x 2 x105 x106 x 8 x10—
48 x 106 x 05
W= = 15360 N = 15.36 kN.
102 x (25)3
WL2 15360 x (2.5)2
Slope at the free end = = 0.003 rad.
3E1 2 x 2 x 105 x 106 x 8 x 10—
Problem 6.2 A cantilever beam AB 6 metres long is subjected to a u.d.l. of
`w' kN/m spread over the entire length. Assume, rectangular cross-section with
depth equal to twice the breadth. Determine the minimum dimension of the beam
so that the vertical deflection at the free end does not exceed 1.5 cm and the maxi-
mum stress due to bending does not exceed 10 kN/cm2. Take E = 2 x 107 N/cm2.
[D. C.E. Part-II, 1998]

w kNim

tittettellitotiltaltetetita B
1.5 cm
6m I
(a) (b)
Fig. 6.12

wL4
Solution: The deflection at the free end B, yB =
8E1
wx 103 x 64
1.5 x 10-2 =
8x2x107 x104 x I
tits
Or = 18518.518 (i)
I
156 Strength of Materials

Maximum bending stress at the extreme fibre from N.A. at fixed end for
maximum bending moment.
AI • y wL2 • b d 2b
if= [*: Y= — = -- —b]
I 21 2 2
wx62xbx103
10 X 103 X 104 =
2xI
wb = 2 x 108
or
I 36 x 103
Dividing Equation No. (ii) by Equation No. (i) we get
2 x 108
b— 0.3 m = 300 mm
36 x 18518.518 x 103
d = 2 x 300 = 600 MM.
Problem 6.3 A cantilever beam 3 metres 1.2 m 15 kN/m
long and of symmetrical section of 25 cm
deep, carries a uniformly distributed load of A/ watt miasmata B-r-
15 kN per metre run throughout, together YB

with a point load of 40 kN at a distance 1.2

metre from fixed end. Find the deflection at
the free end and the maximum stress due to Fig. 6.13
bending. Take E = 2 x 107 N/cm2, I = 13500 ca4. [D.C.E. Part-II, 1997]
Solution:
Here L = 3 m, = 1.2 m
W = 40 IN, w = 15 IcN/m
Deflection at the free end B = Deflection due to point load + Deflection due
to u.d.l.
wL4
yB =+ 4 x (L — Li) +
3E1 2E1 8E1
40 x 103 x (1.2)3 x 106 + 40 x 103 x (120)2 x (300 —120)
= 3x2 x107 x13500 2 x2x107 x13500
15 x 103 x (300)4
8 x100 x 2 x107x13500 = 0.8398 cm.
Maximum bending moment at the fixed end A,
M = 40 x 103 x 1.2 + 15 x 103 x 3 x 3 = 115500 Nm
2
M•y115500 x 100 x 25
Maximum bending stress at extreme fibre =
I 13500 x 2
= 10694.44 N/cm2
Problem 6.4 What would be the slope and deflection at point 'B' as in Fig.
6.14(a) if the applied moment is 100 KN.m and length is 3 metres. The section
 Slope and Deflection 157

of the beam is 15 cm high and 10 cm wide and E = 2.1 x 107 N/cm2 for the
material used. [D.C.E. Part-II, 1996]

M= 100 kNm
E
A • to
°- •- A
T N
/
YB

10 cm —01
(a) (b)

Fig. 6.14

Solution: Moment of inertia of the beam section,

1
I= x 10 x 153 = 2812.5 cm4
12
ML 100 x 103 x100 x 300
Slope at B= = 0.05 radian
E/ 2.1 x 107 x 2812.5
ML2 100 x 103 x 100 x (300)2
The deflection at point B = 7.5 cm
2E1 2 x 2.1 x 107 x 28125
Problem 6.5 A cantilever 10 cm wide and 20 cm deep projects 2 in from a
wall into which it is cast. The cantilever carries a u.d.l. of 2 kN/m over a length
of 1 ni from the free end and a point
2 kN/m 1 kN
load of 1 kN at the free end. Find the
slope and deflection at the free end.
Take E = 210 GPa.
Solution: m YB
Here, L = AB = 2 m 2m
LI = AC = 1 m
W = 1 1(1\1, w = 2 Ithim Fig. 6.15
Moment of inertia of the beam section,
1 4
1= — x 0.1 x (0.2)3 =
12 3 x 104
Slope at the free end B is given by
WL2 wL3 w(L — L1 )3
OB = — +
2E/ 6E1 6E1
103 X 22 X 3 x 104
2 x 210 x 109 x 2
2 x 103 x 23 x 3 x 104 2x 103 x (2 —1)3 x 3 x 104
6 x 210 x 109 x 2 6 x 210 x 109 x 2
= 0.000309 radian.
158 Strength of Materials

Deflection at the free end B is given by

We we [w(L — L04 w(L — L1)3 x 4
YB = + +
3E1 8E1 8E1 6E1
103 x23 x3x104 2x103 x24 x3x104
= 3x 210x109 x 2 8x 210x109 x 2
[2x103 x(2-1)4 x3x104 2x103 x(2-1)3 x3x104 x1
8 x 210x109 x 2 6x 210x109 x 2
= 0.00045 m = 0.45 mm.
Problem 6.6 A simply supported beam of span 10 m is carrying a point load
of 10 kN at a distance 6 m from the left 10 kN
end. If E = 210 GPa and I = 10000 cm4
calculate: At B
C
(i) Slope at the left end a-6m--+-b- 4 m -*-
RA ,, RB
(ii) Deflection under the load 10 m
(iii) Maximum deflection of the beam Fig. 6.16
Solution: Here,
L = 10 m, W = 10 IcN = 10 x 103 N, a = 6 m, b = (10 — 6) = 4 m,
E = 210 GPa = 210 x 109 N/m2, I = 10000 cm4 = 10-4 m4.
(i) Slope at the left end is given by
Wb (L2 — b2) 10 x103 x 4 x (100-16)
= = 0.00266 rad.
6EIL 6 x 210 x109 x 10-4 X 10
Deflection under the load is given by
Wab (L2 — a 2 — b2) 10 x 103 x 6 x 4 (100-36-16)
Yc = = 0.00914 m
6EIL 6x210 x109 x10-4 x10
= 9.14 mm.
Maximum deflection of the beam is given by
Wa (L2 — a2)312 10 X 103 x 6 (100 — 36)3/2
Ymax = = 0.00938 m
EIL 9.6 x 210 x 109 x10-4 x 10
= 9.38 mm
Problem 6.7 A timber beam of rectangular section has a span of 5 m and
is simply supported at its ends. It is required to carry a total load of 40 kN
uniformly distributed over the whole span. Find the minimum values of the
breadth and depth if the maximum bending stress is not to exceed 7 MPa and
the maximum deflection is limited to 1 cm. Take E = 10.5 GPa.
Solution: For a simply supported beam with uniformly distributed load, the
maximum bending moment is given by
wL2 WL 40 x103 5
M= = 2.5 x 104 Nm.
8 8 8
 Slope and Deflection 159

Maximum deflection at the centre is given by

5 WL3
Ymax —
384 El
5 40 x 103 x 53
1 x 10_2 x I = 0.62 x 10--3 m4.
= 384 10.5 x 109 x /
M=6
We know,
I y
2.5 x 104 _ 7 x 106
.. d = 0.3472 m = 34.72 cm.
0.62 x10-3 — d
2
1 3
Again, I= bd
12
0.62 x 10-3 = 1
x (0.3472)3 x b
12
b = 0.1777 m = 17.77 cm
Problem 6.8 A simply supported steel beam 6 m long is circular in cross-
section and is of 15 cm diameter. What heaviest central point load can be placed
on it so that the maximum deflection of the beam does not exceed 1.035 cm?
Calculate the slope at the supports then. For steel, take E = 210 GPa.

15 cm —0-I
(b)
Fig. 6.17

Solution: Moment of inertia of the beam is given by

ir 71 X 154
I= D— = 2485.047 cm4
4 64
But we know
We
YIMIX = 48 El

W x (6)3
1.035 x 10-2 =
48 x 210 x 109 x 2485.047 x 10-8
W = 12002.8 N
WL2 3 x yin. 3 x 1.035 x 10-2
Slope at A, OA = = 0.00518 radian
16E1 L 6
Slope at B, 0B = —OA = — 0.00518 radian.
160 Strength of Materials

Problem 6.9 A horizontal girder

of steel having uniform section is 14
in long and is simply supported at its
ends. It carries concentrated loads
of 120 kN and 80 kN at two points
3 m and 4.5 m from the two ends
respectively (Fig. 6.18). 1 for the
section of the girder is 16 x 104 cm4 Fig. 6.18
and E for steel is 210 GPa. Calculate the deflection of the girder at points under
the two loads.
Solution: Let RA and RB he the reactions at the supports A and B respectively.
RA RB = 120 + 80 = 200 (i)
Taking moment about B
RA x 14 = 120 x 11 + 80 x 4.5 = 1680 RA = 120 kN
From Equation (i) RB = 80
Now consider a section X—X at a distance x from left end A.
The bending moment at X—X is
M = 120x — 120 (x — 3) — 80 (x — 9.5)
d2y
E1= = —M = —120x + 120 (x — 3) + 80 (x — 9.5)
dx 2
Integrating for slope
El dy = —60 x2 + 60 (x — 3)2 + 40 (x — 9.5)2 + C1
dx
where Cj is a constant of integration
Integrating again for deflection we have
40 (x9. — 3
EL), = —20 .1C3 ± 20 (x — 3)3 + _ 3) + C1 x + C2
3
where C2 is a constant of integration
At A deflection is zero, i.e. at x = 0, y = 0 C2 = 0.
At B deflection is zero, i.e. at x = 14, y = 0
3 40
o = —20 x (14)3 + 20 (11) + x (4.5)3 + 14 C1
C1 = 1931.78
Deflection at D i.e. at x = 3 m
1
yo = x [-20 x 33 + 1931.78 x 3]
210 x 109 x 16 x 10—
= 0.01564 m
Deflection at C, i.e. at x = 9.5 m
40 (9.5 9.5)3
EI yc = — 20 x (9.5)3 + 20 (9.5 — 3)3 + _
3
+ 1931.78 x 9.5
 Slope and Deflection 161

EI. yc = 6696.91 kN.M3

6696.91 x 103
Yc = = 0.01994 m Ans. .
210x109 x16x10-4
Problem 6.10 A simply supported beam is loaded as shown in Fig. 6.19(a).
Determine the deflection at points C and D in the beam. Take E = 200 GPa and
I/= 20000 cm4.
1 kN
1 kN/m
X

C
x
6m
1 kN/m
(a) (b)

Fig. 6.19

Solution: Taking moment about B

RA x 6 = 1000 x3 x 4.5 + 1000 x2
15500
RA = 6
On part BC a u.d.1. of 1 kN/m is introduced both above and below so that
these loads neutralise each other and the net effect remains unchanged. Consider
a section X—X at a distance x from left end A.
15500 x 1000x2 1000
M. — 1000 (x — 4) + (x — 3)2
6 2 2
d2y 15500 x 1000x2 1000
El = —M = — + + 1000 (x — 4) + (x — 3)2
dx 2 6 2 2
Integrating the above equation for slope, we get
15500x2 + 1000x3 + 1000 (x — 4)2 + 1000 (x — 3)3
Ell' dY = + C1
dx 12 6 2 6
Integrating again for deflection, we have
15500 x3 1000 x4 1000 (x — 4)3 1000 (x — 3)4
El.), = + + + + Cl x + C2
36 24 6 24
At x = 0, deflection is zero, i.e. y = 0 .. C2 = 0
At x = 6, deflection is zero, i.e. y = 0 .. C1 = 6.84 x 103
Therefore the final equation for slope is
15500x2 1000 x3 1000 (x — 4)2 1000 (x — 3)4
El dy — + + 6.84 x 103
dx — 12 6 + 6 + 24
The final equation for deflection is
15500x3 1000x4 1000 (x — 4)3 1000 (x — 3)4
+ 6.84 x 103 X
ELY = 36 + 24 + 6 4- 24
162 Strength of Materials

For deflection at C put x = 3

1 15500 x 33 1000 x 34 12 27 x 103
Yc — El + 6.84 x103 x 3 = '
36 24 EI
12.27 x 103
= 0.0003 m = 0.3 mm.
200 x 109 x 20000 x 10—
For deflection at D put x = 4
E15500 x 43 ÷ 1000 x 44 1000
YD = I + 6.84 x 103 x 4
36 24 24
10.429 x 103 10.429 x 103
= 0.00026 m = 0.26 mm.
El 200 x 109 x 20000 x 10—
Problem 6.11 A horizontal cantilever of uniform section has an effective
length of 2.5 m, and carries a load of 50 kN at the free end. If the 50 kN bad
is replaced by two equal loads, one at the free end and the other at 1.5 metres
from the fixed end, such that the maximum deflection is the same as in the first
case, find
(a) the magnitude of equal loads, and
(b) the maximum bending stress in the second case expressed as a percentage
of that in the first case.
Solution:
Length, L = 2.5 m, Load, W = 50 kN, L1 = 1.5 m
Let W1 be the magnitude of equal loads
Case (a)
Deflection of the cantilever at the free end is given by
WL3 5 x (25)3 781.25
Y = 3E1 3E1 3EI
Case (b)
Deflection of the cantilever at the free end is given by
WL3
W L2
1, + WILL + i 1 (L — L1)
Y = 3E1 3EI 3E/
Wi x (2.5)3 WI x (15)3 Wi x (1.5)2
+ + (2.5 — 1.5)
3E7 3E/ 2 EI
22.375 WI
= WI [(2.5)3 + (1.5)3 + (1.5)21= .
E'I 3E1
As the deflection in both the cases is equal
22375 Wi = 781.25
. WI -= 34.92114,. An.st,
3E1 3E1
Maximum bending moment in the'first case
1141 = 50 x 2.5 -= 125 kNm
 Slope and Deflection 163

Similarly, 34.92 x 2.5 + 34.92 x 1.5 = 139.68 kN.m

M2 =
We know M= 61 z
125 = at z (i)
Similarly, 139.68 = 62 z
Dividing Equation (ii) by Equation (i) we have
a2 = 139.68
= 1.117 or 111.7% Ans.
a1 125
Problem 6.12 A horizontal cantilever ABC 20 kN/m 30 kN/m
4 m long is built-in at A and simply supported
at B, 3 m from A by a rigid prop so that AB
is horizontal. If AB and BC carry a uniformly
distributed load of 20 kN/m and 30 kN/m
(c)
(Fig. 6.I9c), find the load taken by the prop.
Solution: Consider a section at a distance x Fig. 6.19
from A as shown in Fig. 6.19(c). The bending moment at this section is given
by
20
M = —30 (3.5 — x) + P(3 — x) — (3 — x)2
2
= P(3 x) —10x2 + 90x — 195
d 2y
El = —P(3 — x) + 10x2 — 90x + 195
dx2
Integrating
dy X2 10x3
El — = —P 1r — 45X2 + 195x + C1
dx 2 2
Integrating
3
EL y = —P ( 3x2 — 3 ) + 10 x 4 15x- + 195X
2 2+ CI x + C2
2 6 12
dy
At — =0
x = 0, ... C1 = 0
dx
At x = 0, y=0 :. C2 =0
At x = 3 m, y = 0
0= 4,(27 27) + 10x81 15 x 27 + 1952x 9
2 6) 12
x 27 (1 _ 1) _ 810 . 195 x 9
P i5 x 27 + 2
0 6) — 12
810 195 x 9
9P= —15 x 27 +'
12 2
P = 60 kN
Problem 6.13 A horizontal beam simply supported at its ends, carries a
load which varies uniformly from 20 kN/m at one end to 60 kN/m at the other
164 Strength of Materials

(Fig. 6.19 d). Estimate the central deflection, if the span is 6 m, the section is
45 cm deep and the maximum bending stress is 100 MPa. Take E = 210 GPa.

60 kN/m
20 kN/m 120
A B
x
6m
(d)

Fig. 6.19

Solution: Taking moment about B

1
RA x 6 = 20 x 6 x 3 + x 6 x 40 x 2 = 600
2
. RA = 100 kN
2
At a section x from A the rate of loading is = 20 + - x
3
S.F. = 100 - 20x - I x • = 100 - 20x - X 2
2 3 3
1
x - -
M= 100x - 20x x - x x -x x -x = 100x- 10x2 - x3
3 3 9
Bending moment will be maximum where shear force is zero.
100 - 20x - X2 = 0 or x2 + 60x - 300 = 0
3
Solving x = 4.641 m
Maximum bending moment,
)2 (4.641)3
M = 100 x 4.641 - 10 x (4.641 = 237.6 kNm
9
Moment of inertia,
I = IY1- x y =
237.6 x 0.45
= 5.346 x le m4
100 x10'x 2
2
d y 3
El = -100x + 10x2 + x
dx 2 9
dy
Integrating El = -50x2+ 10 x3 + 4 + C
dx 3 36 1
Integrating again
-50 x3 10 4
El • y = + x + 5 + Ci x+ C2
12 180
At x = 0, y = 0 C2 = 0
At x = 6 m, y = 0
 Slope and Deflection 165

50 3 10 4 65
0= x6+ x 6 + 180 + 6 C
Cl = 412.8
At x=3m
5
50 3 10
El • y = — — x 3 ± - X 34 + + 412.8 x 3 = 857.25
3 12 180
857.25
Y= , = 0.007635 m = 0.7635 cm
210 x109 x 5.346 x 10 —

6.5.2 Moment Area Method

The following two theorems known as moment area theorems or Mohr's
theorems enable us to get quicker solutions than the double integration method.
Theorem-1
The first theorem states that the change of slope between any two points on an
elastic curve is equal to the area of the bending moment diagram between these
two points divided by the flexural rigidity El. This theorem may be stated in
equation forms as follows:
A
0=
EI
where A = Area of bending moment diagram between the points under consid-
eration.
Theorem-2
The second theorem states that the intercept taken on a vertical reference line
of tangents at any two points on an elastic curve, is equal to the moment of the
area of the bending moment diagram divided by the flexural rigidity El. This
theorem may be stated in equation form as follows:
Ax
y= El
where .k = Distance of centre of gravity of bending moment diagram from the
end.
(a) Derivation of the first moment area theorem Figure 6.20(a)
shows a portion of the deflection curve of a bent beam. Consider an element
of length ds of the beam. We know
El
M=— or M = (i)
R
Figure 6.20(b) represents the bending moment diagram corresponding to the
length AB of the beam. The element ds subtends an angle dO measured with
respect to the centre of curvature of the element ds.
ds = Rd0 or dO = ds
— = M • ds.
R El
166 Strength of Materials

I
R B dB
ds 1
Tangent at A

(a)
Tf xdO
Tangent at B

M
(b)

Fig. 6.20

Replace ds by its horizontal projection dx as we are concerned only with very

small lateral deflection of beams. Thus
d0 = Mdx
El
The angle 0 between tangents to the deflection curve at the points A and B
may now be found out by summing all such angles
d0 = Mdx A
0= =—
El EI
A
where A = Area of the bending moment diagram between points A and B.
(b) Derivation of the second moment area theorem It is required to
determine the vertical distance of point B (refer Fig. 6.20) on the deflection
curve from the tangent drawn to this curve at point A. This distance is repre-
sented by Bb.
Mdx
We know dO =
El
Deflection due to bending of the element ds is dy = xdO

dy = xdO — Mxdx
El
The right side of this equation represents the moment of the shaded area Mdx
about a vertical line through B. Integrating, we have
Mxdx
y = Bb =
El El
A
(c) Cantilever carrying a point load at the free end Figure 6.21(a)
shows a cantilever AB fixed at A and free at B. Let L be the length of the
cantilever. The beam carries a point load W at B. Figure 6.21(b) shows the B.M.
diagram for the cantilever. Let yB be the deflection at B with respect to A and
0B be the slope.
 Slope and Deflection 167

Area of the bending moment diagram,

1 WL2
A = 2 L • WL =

.*. OB = A _ WL2
El - 2E1 L
(a)
A5c-
YB = El A B
where = distance of centre of gravity c.g.•
2 L
of B.M. diagram from end B = L WL 3
3 (b) B.M. diagram
WI] 2 Fig. 6.21
YB = 2E1 x 3 - = 3E1
(d) Cantilever carrying a uniformly w/unit run
distributed load Figure 6.22(a) shows a
cantilever of length L carrying a u.d.l. of w A/ B
per unit run. YB
Area of the B.M. diagram
L
1 wL2 (a)
=A=•L
3 2 6
A wL3
Slope at B = OB = =
El 6E1
coL2 (b) B.M. diagram
Deflection at B = yB = 2
El
where x = distance of centre of gravity of Fig. 6.22
3
B.M. diagram from end B = - L
4
111,3 3 we
YB= 6E1 L=
4 8E1
(e) Simply supported beam car-
rying a point load at mid-span
Figure 6.23(a) shows a simply sup-
ported beam AB of length L carrying a
point load W at mid-span C. Figure
6.23(b) shows the B.M. diagram for the
beam. The maximum slope occurs at
the ends A and B. The maximum de-
flection occurs at the mid-span C.
A
Slope at A = 0, =
- EI
Area of the bending moment diagram
between A and C
168 Strength of Materials

1 L WL WL2
=
A= 2 4 16
WL2
°A = 16E/
Distance of centre of gravity of the bending moment diagram between A and
C from
A= x = — x
3 2 3
ALt WL2 L WL3
The maximum deflection at C = yc = x =
El 16E1 3 48E1
co/unit run
(f) Simply supported beam car-
rying a uniformly distributed load
Figure 6.24(a) shows a simply sup-
ported beam AB of length L carrying a
uniformly distributed load of w per
(a)
unit run over the whole span. Figure
6.24(b) shows the bending moment WL2
diagram for the beam. The maximum 7 8

slope occurs at A and at B. The maxi-

mum deflection occurs at point C (the
mid-span). C
Area of the bending moment diagram (b)
between A and C Fig. 6.24
2 wL2 wL3
A= x Lx =
3 2 8 24
A wL3
Slope at
El 24E1
_ 5 L 5
x =—x— = — L
8 2 16
Deflection at C = Maximum deflection
Ax wL3 5 5 wL4
= Yc = El L=
24E1 16 384 El
Problem 6.14 A cantilever of 1 20 kN 1 20 kN
Ci
length 10 metres is carrying a point A *B
1- d
load of 20 kN at the free end and an-
other load of 20 kN at the middle of the (a)
beam. Determine by monient area
ET
method, the slope and deflection of the z
cantilever at the free end. Take E = 200 0 100 kNm
co
GPa and 1 = 20000 cm4: (b) B.M. diagram
Solution: Figure 6.25(a) shows the Fig. 6.25
cantilever carrying point loads of 20 kN
 Slope and Deflection 169

at B and C. Figure 6.25(b) shows the bending moment diagram. B.M. at B =

0, B.M. at C = -100 kNm, B.M. at A = -200 - 100 = -300 kNm.
Area of B.M. diagram 1,
1
A = - x 5 x 100 = 250 kNm2
1 2
A2 = 5 x 100 = 500 kNm2
1
= x 5 x 200 = 500 kNm2
A3 2
Total area of B.M. diagram = 250 + 500 + 500 = 1250 kNm2
A 1250 x 103
Slope at B = OB = = , = 0.03125 radian
El 200 x 109 x 2 x 10
Let YB = Deflection at the free end
Now total moment of the bending moment diagram about B,
Ax = Ai xi + A2 X2 + A3 X3
2 3 5
= 250 x - x 5+ 500 x - x 5+ 500 x x 5= 8750 kNm3
3 2 3
IV 8750 x 103
= 0.2187 m
YB = El - 200 x 109 x 2 x 10-4

Problem 6.15 Compute the reaction at 10 kN/m

the end C of the propped cantilever shown in
A
Fig. 6.25(c). m 2m
Solution: Slope at A is zero and deflec- (c)

tion at C = 0. According to Mohr's second 6 P

theorem
EA:i = 0 for AC about C
1 2
or A i .i-- 1 = A2X2 - x 6P x 6 x -- x6 (d)
2 3
3 Fig. 6.25
= x 80 x 4 x (- x4+2)
30 4
200
P= kN = 7.4074 kN.
27

6.5.3 Conjugate Beam Method

This method is a modified form of the moment area method. This method is
useful for beams and cantilevers with varying flexural rigidities. Conjugate beam
is an imaginary beam of length equal to that of the original beam, width equal
1
to — , and loaded with usual bending moment diagram.
El
Consider the case of a simply supported beam with single concentrated load
as shown in Fig. 6.26(a).
170 Strength of Materials

The bending moment diagram A'B'C'

is shown in Fig. 6.26(b). Now A'B' may be
considered as a beam with a distributed
load given by the bending moment diagram
A' B' C'. This imaginary beamA'B' is called
the conjugate beam.
For actual beam taking moment about B (a)

RA x(a+b)=Wxb C'

= RA = Wb
a+b
Bending moment at A'

C = Mc = RA X a = Wab
a+b (b) Conjugate beam

For the conjugate beam taking moment Fig. 6.26

about B'
( a + b) 1 x Wab 2
RA' X (a + b) — 1 x Wab x a xb x — b = 0
2 (a + b) 3 ) 2 (a + b) 3
1 Wab [a 2 +3ab 2b2
RI
A X ()
a + b= x
2 (a + b) 3 3

= 1 x Wab x (a2 + 3 ab + 2b2)

6 (a + b)
Wab (a +2b)
RA' = Wab X (a2 + 3 ab + 2b2) —
6 (a + br 6(a + b)
Wab (2a +b)
and RI; —
6(a + b)
„ Wab (a +2b) Wab (2a + b)
10A = =
6(a +b) EI , BB 6(a +b) EI
Thus to get the slope at the end A of the actual beam, the reaction at the end
A' of the conjugate beam should be divided by EI.
The slope at any point, say at a distance x from the end A, will be 0A — ex,
where Ox is the angle between the tangents at A and x.
Wab (a + 2b) Area of A A'X'Z'
OA — 0 —
6 (a + b)• El El
1 Wab (a + 2b)
Area of A A'X'Z'i
EI [ 6 (a + b)
In the above expression the first term is the reaction at A' of the conjugate
beam and the second term is the load on the conjugate beam to the left of section
XZ. The whole expression within the bracket is the shear force at the point of
the conjugate beam. The slope at any section is obtained by dividing the shear
force in the conjugate beam by El.
 Slope and Deflection 171

The deflection at any point at a distance x from left end A is

y = XZ — OZ = x0A — OZ
Wab (a + 2b) RA,
Now XZ = x = xx
6 (a + b) El El
By moment area method
At Area of AA'X'Z' x
OZ = = x
El El 3
RA, X X Area of ISA'X'Z' x
•'• x
Y= El El 3
1 f
x x - Area of AA X Z x 31
= rA"
1
= — [Bending moment of the conjugate beam at a distance x from A']
El
Thus the deflection at any point of the actual beam is obtained by dividing
the bending moment at that section in the conjugate beam by El.
1 [ Wab (a +2b) x Wab x x xi
Y = El x
6 (a + b) (a + b) a x 2 x 3
Wab x [a + 2b x2
(a + b) El 6 6a
Wbx x (a2 + tab — x2)
6 (a + b) EI
Problem 6.16 Determine the deflection at the centre of the beam shown in
Fig. 6.27(a) by conjugate beam method. Take E = 200 GPa and I = 2500 cm4.
30 kN 130 kN

A 1 E
1 in-,- 4m -0 m>
(a)

30 kN 30 kN

Fig. 6.27

Solution: Taking moment about A

RA x 6 = 30 x 5 + 30 x 1 = 180
172 Strength of Materials

RA = 30 kN.
= 30 kN.
RB
Bending moment at C = 30 x 1 = 30 kNm
Bending moment at D = 30 x 1 = 30 kNm
Bending moment at A and B = 0.
The bending moment diagram is shown in Fig. 6.27(b).
For the conjugate beam shown in Fig. 6.27(b), taking moment about B'.
1
RA' x 6 = [2 x1x 30x(5+)+30x 4 x 3+- xlx 30 xl
3 2 3
RA x 6 = 80 + 360 + 10 = 450
RA' = 75 kNm2
RBI = 75 kNm2

Deflection at E yE = -ki [R x 3 —30 x 2 xl— xlx 30(2 + 1

3-)1

lx103
[75 x 3 — 60 — 35] = 0.026 m
200 x 109 x 2500 x

REVIEW EXERCISES
Multiple-Choice Questions:
6.1 Indicate the correct answer from the given alternatives:
1. The maximum deflection of a cantilever beam of length L with a point load
W at the free end is
f x We We We We

— (b) (c) (d)

(a) 3 El 8 El 6 El 16 El
2. The maximum deflection of a cantilever beam of length L with a uniformly
distributed load of w per unit length is
wL4 4 wL4 wL4
(a) (b) wL (c) (d)
3 El 8 El 16 El 48 El
3. The maximum deflection for a simply supported beam when a concen-
trated load W is applied at the centre of the beam is
5 WL3 WL3 WL3 WL3
(a) (b) (c) (d)
384 El 36 El 48 El 24 El
4. The slope at the free end of a cantilever of length L carrying a concentrated
load W at the free end is
WL2 WL2 WL2 WL2
(a) (b) (c) (d)
8 El 6 El 3 El 2 El
5. The maximum slope for a simply supported beam of length L carrying a
concentrated load W at the centre is
 Slope and Deflection 173

WL2
(b)
WL2 (c)
WL2 (d)
WL2
(a) 8 E/ 12E/ 16E/ 24E1
6. The maximum slope for a simply supported beam of length L carrying a
u.d.l. of w per unit length is
wL3 wL3 wL3 wL3
(b) (c) (d)
(a) 6E1 16E/ 24E1 48E1
7. The maximum slope of a cantilever of length L carrying a u.d.l. of w per
unit length is
, , wL3 We wL3 wL3
0) — (b) (c) (d)
3E1 6E1 8E1 16E/
8. The maximum deflection for a simply supported beam of length L carrying
a u.d.l. of w per unit length is
, 5 we 5 we we 5 we
(a) — — (b) (c) (d) 3
364 EI 384 El 384E1 24 El
9. Moment area method is used for determining the
(a) shear force at a point (b) slope at a point
(c) bending moment at a point (d) deflection at a point
10. Conjugate beam method is used for determining the
(a) bending moment at a point (b) shear force at a point
(c) deflection at a point (d) slope at a point
Ans. 1(a), 2(b), 3(c), 4(d), 5(c), 6(c), 7(b), 8(b), 9(b), and (d), 10(c) and (d)

Problems
6.1 A cantilever 15 cm wide and 20 cm deep projects 1.5 m out of a wall and
carries a point load of 50 kN at the free end. Find the slope and deflection
of the cantilever at the free end. Take E = 210 GPa.
[Ans: 0.002678 rad., 0.2678 cm]
6.2 A cantilever 5 m long carries a point load of 80 kN at a distance of 3 m
from the fixed end. Determine the slope and deflection at the free end of
the cantilever. Take E = 210 GPa and I = 40000 cm4.
[Ans. 0.00428 rad., 1.71 cm]
6.3 A cantilever 10 cm wide and 20 cm deep is 3 m long. What uniformly
distributed load should the beam carry to produce a deflection of 6 mm
at the free end? Take E = 210 GPa. [Ans. 24.888 kN]
6.4 A cantilever beam 6 m long is subjected to a u.d.l. of 10 w kN/m over the
entire span. The beam is of rectangular cross-section having depth equal
to twice the width. Determine the dimensions of the beam, so that the
deflection at the free end does not exceed 15 mm. The maximum stress
due to bending does not exceed 100 MPa. Take E = 200 GPa. •
[Ans. b = 30 cm, d = 60 cm]
174 Strength of Materials

6.6 A cantilever 3 m long is loaded with a u.d.l. of 10 kN/m over a length of

2 m from the fixed end. Determine the slope and deflection at the free end
of the cantilever. Take I = 10000 cm4 and E = 200 GPa.
[Ans. 0.000666 rad., 1.66 mm]
6.7 A cantilever 10 cm wide and 20 cm deep is 2 m long. It is loaded with
a u.d.l. of 5 kN/m for a length of 1 m from the free end. Find the slope
and deflection at the free end. Take E = 210 GPa.
[Ans. 0.000417 rad., 0.61 mm]
6.8 A propped cantilever 10 m long has 15 cm wide and 40 cm deep cross-
section. If the allowable bending stress and the deflection at the centre are
10 MPa and 1.5 cm respectively, determine the safe uniformly distributed
load, which the cantilever can carry. Take E = 120 GPa.
[Ans. 6.4 kN/m]
6.9 A horizontal beam AB of 6 m span, is built in at A and freely supported
at B. It carries a u.d.l. of 30 kN/m over the whole length and a concen-
trated load of 160 kN at the middle of the span. Determine the bending
moment at A and the reaction at B. Use Macaulay's integration method.
[Ans. —315 kNm, 117.5 kN]
6.10 A beam AB 6 m long is simply
supported and subjected to a
uniformly distributed load of
10 kN/m as shown in Fig.
6.28. Determine the deflection
of the beam at its mid-point
Fig. 6.28
and also the maximum deflec-
tion. Take El = 45 x 106 Nm2. Total weight W
[Ans. 0.2578 cm, 0.2581 cm]
6.11 An overhanging beam ABC is
loaded as shown in Fig. 6.29.
Determine the slope and deflec-
tion of the beam at point C in Fig. 6.29
terms of E, I, W and L.

39 W
[Ans. e
48 EI
w
6.12 A simply supported beam AB of span L
carries a distributed load of varying in-
X
tensity as shown in Fig. 6.30. Measur-
ing x from end A, establish the equation
of the deflection curve for the beam. Fig. 6.30
Hence calculate the deflection at the centre of the beam.
[e
Am
5 w
768 El
 Slope and Deflection 175

6.13 A horizontal beam AB is freely supported at A and B, 9 m apart and carries

a u.d.l. of 20 kN/m run (including its own weight). A clockwise moment
of 180 kNm is applied to the beam at point C 4 m from the left hand
support A. Calculate the reactions at A and B and sketch the bending
moment diagram for the beam, stating principal values. Calculate the slope
and deflection of the beam at C if EI = 15 x 104 kN m2.
[Ans. 70 kN, 110 kN, 0.001605 rad., 1.211 cm]
6.14 A tiNriply supported beam carries a tri- wiunit length
angul4rly distributed symmetrical load
as shoWn in Fig. 6.31. Determine the
deflection equation and the magnitude
2
of maximu deflection. L

Fig. 6.31

ji
TORSION

7.1 TORSION OF SHAFTS

When equal and opposite forces are applied tangentially to the ends of a shaft,
it is subjected to a twisting moment which is equal to the product of the force
applied and the radius of the shaft. This causes the shaft either to remain
stationary or to rotate with constant angular velocity. In either case, the stress
and strain set up in the shaft will be the same. When the shaft becomes subjected
to equal and opposite torques at its two ends the shaft is said to be in torsion
and as a result of which the shaft will have a tendency to shear off at every
cross-section perpendicular to its longitudinal axis. So the effect of torsion is
to produce shear stress in the material of the shaft.

7.2 SHEAR STRESS IN A CIRCULAR SHAFT

SUBJECTED TO TORSION
The following assumptions are made, while finding out shear stress in a circular
shaft subjected to torsion:
1. The shaft circular in section remains circular after twisting.
2. The material of the shaft is uniform throughout.
3. A plane section of the shaft normal to its axis before twist remains plane
after the application of torque.
4. The twist along the length of the shaft is uniform throughout.
5. All diameters of the normal cross-section which are originally straight
remain straight after twisting and their magnitudes do not change.
6. Maximum shear stress induced in the shaft due to the application of torque
does not exceed its elastic limit value.

7.3 TORSION EQUATION

Consider a solid shaft of radius R and length L. Let the end B of the shaft be
subjected to a pure torque T as shown in Fig. 7.1(a). The line AB on the surface
 Torsion 1 77

asmaxH

(c)
Fig. 7.1

of the shaft will be distorted to AB' after the application of the torque. The angle
LBAB' = 4 is called the shear strain and LBOB' = 0 is called the angle of twist.
Shear strain is a measure of the distortion produced by the shearing force and
is equal to the angle of distortion 0.
BB' Re
••• Shear strain, 0 =
If as be the shear stress on the outermost surface of the shaft and G be the
modulus of rigidity of the shaft material then
(7s G RO
or as = =
G
as GO
(i)
In a given shaft, under a given torque, G, 0 and L are constant.
as O
=--G = constant
R L
Thus the shear stress (as) in the shaft is proportional to the radius of the
shaft. The shear stress is maximum at the outer surface. At the centre the shear
stress is zero. The shear stress diagram showing the variation of shear stress
from the centre to the outer surface of the shaft is shown in Fig. 7.1(b).
Now consider an elementary ring of the shaft at a radius r and of thickness
dr as shown in Fig. 7.1(c). Let the shear stress at this radius be a51.
Total force on the ring = Area of the ring x stress on the ring
= 2nr dr x a51
Moment of this force about the axis of the shaft
= 2irr dr x as1 x r = 2.7r?dr x as1
( asGO
,=
= 27rr2 dr x x r As as = = constant

= 27tr3dr x as .. as= as r
1 R x
178 Strength of Materials

R ,
Total resisting moment of the shaft cross-section is = i 2nr'dr • a-L
0 R
But the total resisting moment must be equal to the applied torque T
a fR 4
as r 4 R = 2,7r • = 27ras • R--
Cs 3
.-. T = 2g —L3- r3 dr = 27r — x
R0 R L4 0 R 4 4

D
2nas •(-
2 )3
— x 3
= D o-s
4 16
T = r D3 6
16 s
T=x 4x x as = IC D4 x 2 x as = 1p X (TS
32 D D 32 2R R
rD4
where Ip = - polar moment of inertia of the section of the shaft
32

= GO
Again

as = Ge
Ip
This equation is known as torsion equation.

7.4 HOLLOW CIRCULAR SHAFTS

Consider a hollow circular shaft subjected to a torque T
Let R= Outer radius of shaft
r = Inner radius of shaft
= Shear stress at the outer radius R
Consider an elementary ring of thickness dri at a radius ri as shown in Fig. 7.2(a).

Flg. 7.2
 Torsion 179

Resisting force on the ring against shearing = Area of the ring x stress on ring
= 2nr1 dr1 x asi
Resisting moment of the force on the ring = 2 gri dri x a x r1 = 2Klidr1a51
si
Total resisting moment = j2Kri dr1 a51
But total resisting moment = Applied torque = T

T = 52 mei dr1 asi But as' = R

as
asi = ri x R

T = i 2 nri dr1 x ri x a
= 5= f 2 rrldr 1 • as = 27C X (TS R 113 d l 1
r R r R R
a [ R4 4]
1
= 2n x a s [1141R = 2r x s = 2rc x C5 - 5 [R4 - r I
R 4 R 4 4 4R
,
= a5 x It [R4 .._ IA]
2
T= 7r [D4 - d4[= as x I p
—
R x 32 R
T=
— as
—
I,
T GO
or — = — = (iv)
/p R
This equation is the same as Equation (iii), shear stress is maximum at the
outer radius. The variation of shear stress along the radius of the hollow shaft
is shown in Fig. 7.2(b).

We know from above T = aS

—X — [D4 - a.4] = as X — [D4 - d 4 ]
TC
R 32 32
2
[D4-d41
T= x x crs (v)
16 D
This is the equation of torque for a hollow shaft.

7.5 POWER TRANSMITTED BY A SHAFT

Let a shaft be subjected to a mean torque, T Nm, rotate at N r.p.m. and transmit
P kW power.
Angle turned by the shaft in one revolution = 2n radians
Angle turned by the shaft per minute in N revolutions = 27r N radians
Work done by the shaft per minute = Torque x angle turned in one minute
= Tmean X 27r N Nm. •
180 Strength of Materials

Power transmitted by the shaft

Work done per minute
P= kW
60000
27r NTm.
P= kW (vi)
60000

7.6 TORSIONAL RIGIDITY

The product of G • I p is called the torsional rigidity. The torsional rigidity is the
torque that produces a twist of one radian in a shaft of unit length.

7.7 COMPOSITE CIRCULAR SHAFTS

7.7.1 Shafts in Series
Consider a shaft made of two mate-
rials connected in series as shown in
Fig. 7.3. The shaft is subjected to a
torque T.
As both the shafts are subjected to the
same torque,
Ti = T2
Now Fig. 7.3

T1 = = G1 0 1 Tr, as,_ = G,
< 02
and _
/pi Dl L1 1192 D2 L2
2 2
IP1 X as1 I x as
Ti
G 0
= 1 1 T2 p2 , = G202
D1 4 D2 L2
2 2
/ p x us /P2x O.S2
=
D1 D2
2 2
=—ir X D,4 x DI = , )3
= IP2 x Di
32 - - "2
as2 I, D2 —Ir x D,4 X D, DI
32 - -
/1,, x GI 0 1 X G2 02
Again T1 = and T2 = 1192
L1 4
4
e, 1192 x G2 X L1 D2 ) G2 4
= =( X X
02 / pi X GI X L2 DI GI 4
Total angle of twist, 0 = 01 + 02
 Torsion 181

7.7.2 Shafts in Parallel

Now consider a shaft made of two ma-
terials connected in parallel as shown
in Fig. 7.4. The torque applied in this
case is divided between the two shafts L1-12
but the angle of twist is the same for
each shaft. Let T be the applied torque. Fig. 7.4
Then T = T1 + T2 and 01 = 02.
T — G1 I p Gi el P L!
1
T1 = and e1= "
I p, L1 I pi G1
T2 G2 02 Tp 2 X 02
.'. T2 = 2 G and 02 = T2 L2
/p2 I P2 G2
/p2 G2 02
T = IP, G101
L1 L2
T1 1-1 = T2 L2
IPA G1 p
2
G2

7.8 TORSIONAL RESILIENCE

Consider a hollow shaft of external diameter D, internal diameter d and of length
L is subjected to a gradually applied torque T producing an angle of twist O. The
energy stored in the shaft due to its angular distortion is known as torsional
energy or torsional resilience.
1
Torsional energy, U = Average torque x angle of twist = — T x O.
2
We know
T =) as — GO n (D4 —d 4 2 cr s L
x as and 0 =
IRL R I, 16 D GD
ir 1 D4 — d 4 j 2a s L
... U=1x X Crs X
2 16 D GD
,2 ,,,./. 2 T
= •-, s •.•-, x (D4 d4-) _ CY S ICI', X (D2 — d2) (D2 + d2)
16 GD2 4Gx4D2
_ 2s (D2 + d2 j z (D2 _ d2) x L
a x x
4G D2 4

= cr2s (D2 + d2 ) x volume of shaft.

4G x D2
182 Strength of Materials

For solid shaft d= 0

2
0-
U= s x volume of shaft
4G
For a very thin shaft, d = D
2
0-
U= s x volume of shaft.
4G
cy 2 D2 d2
strain energy per unit volume = —s— x
4G D2
As the shear stress in the cross-section of the shaft is varying so, the strain
energy per unit volume at any place over the shaft will be varying.

7.9 SHAFT COUPLING

Sometimes the available length of
the shaft is less than the desired
length, then it becomes necessary
to connect the two shafts together. -d 4=1111111111111111
This is done by means of flanged
coupling as shown in Fig. 7.5.
The coupling surrounds the Shaft IPA.. I. Flan e
two shafts to be connected. The — --
flanges are joined together by bolts
and nuts. Connection between Fig. 7.5
each shaft and coupling is pro-
vided by the key. The bolts are arranged along a circle called the bolt circle.
Let as = Maximum shear stress in the shaft
ab = Maximum shear stress in the bolt
crk = Maximum shear stress in the key
d= Diameter of the shaft
Db = Diameter of bolt circle = 2 x Rb
db = Diameter of bolt
n = Number of bolts
T = Torque to be transmitted.
g
4 • d1 • ab
The maximum load that can be resisted by one bolt = —

Total moment transmitted. by n bolts = T = n x x x o-b x Rb

Since the torque resisted by thebolts should be equal to the torque transmit-
ted by the shaft, therefore
7C 3
d • 0-5. =nx — xdb2 xo-b xRb = xdb2 xcrb xDb
16 4 8
 Torsion 183

For key: Let lk = Length of the key

bk = Breadth of the key
o-k = Maximum shear stress in the key
d
Torque resisted by the key = Area x Stress x Radius = /k • bk • ak • -
2
This is equal to the torque transmitted by the shaft. Therefore,
j3 4 • bk • cr k • d
— •a • CT =-
16 S 2

SOLVED PROBLEMS

3
Problem A hollow sha ft of diameter ratio is required to transmit 590
-
5
kW at 110 rp.m., the maximum torque being 20% greater than the mean. The
shear stress is not to exceed 63 MPa and the twist in a length of 3 metres is not
to exceed 1.4°. Calculate the minimum external diameter satisfying these con-
ditions.
G = 84 GPa.
Solution:
NTine
Power = 2ir a" kW.
60000
590 x 60000
T.= = 51218.954 Nm
2/r x110
Let D = External diameter
3
d = Internal diameter = - D = 0.6 D
5
I,, = [D4 - (0.6 D)4 ] = 0.0272 rD4
32
Tmax = 1.2 X T. = 1.2 x 51218.954 = 61462.745 Nm.
Tnax _ as _ GO
R L

_ 2 o-s or
-
61462.745
=
2 x 63 x 106
or D3 = 5.7085 x 10-3
p 0.0272 KE 4 D
D = 0.1787 m = 17.87 cm.
L 61462.745 x 3
Again 0= 1.4 x =
G • 1p 180 84 x 109 x 0.02727rD4
Or D4 = 1.0513 x 10-3
D = 0.18006 m = 18.006 cm.
Required diameter = 18.006 cm. Ans.
184 Strength of Materials

Problem 7.2 A solid shaft is to transmit 295 kW at 100 rp.m. If the shear
stress is not to exceed 80 MPa, find the diameter of the shaft. What percentage
saving in weight would be obtained if this shaft is replaced by a hollow one
whose internal diameter equals 0.6 of the external diameter; the length, material
and maximum shear stress being the same.
Solution:
27tNTinean
Power =
60000
295 = 27r x 100 x Tmean
60000
295 x 60000 295 x 300
Tmean
an N-m.
200 n 7C

Tmax = Tmean = 3 (TS

16 D
295 x 300 3
= x D x 80 x 106 D = 0.12149 m= 12.149 cm.
16
T = as
p R.

T and as being the same then will be same for the two shafts.
For hollow shaft
1p = — = [at — (0.6 DI)4] = 0.0272 KM
H 32 32
For solid shaft
It n4
-Ps = 32 --
0.0272 irDi4 _ 7rD4 x 2 D3 (0.12149)3
or Di3 =
Di — 32 x D 0.8704 0.8704
2
Di = 0.1272 m = 12.72 cm.
= 0.6 DI = 7.634 cm.
For solid shaft, Area As = 7—c x (12.149)2 = 115.9233 cm2
4
For hollow shaft, Area AH = — x [(12.72)2 — (7.634)2] = 81.3047 cm2
4
As — Ay
Percentage saving in weight = x 100
As
115.9233 — 81.3047
X 100 = 29.86% Ans.
115.9233
 Torsion 185

Problem 7.3 A hollow steel shaft is made to replace a solid wrought iron
shaft of the same external diameter, the material being 35 percent stronger than
the iron. Find what fraction of the outside diameter the internal diameter may
be. Also neglecting the couplings, find the percentage saving in weight by this
substitution, assuming that steel is 2 percent heavier than wrought iron.
Solution:
For the solid shaft, Ips = ri D4
2
The external diameter of hollow shaft = Diameter of solid shaft = D
For the hollow shaft, /pH (D4 — d4)
=32
Let as = shear stress intensity for wrought iron shaft
= shear stress intensity for steel shaft = 1.35 o
ir 3
Now, Ts = — D
16
x (— 4
TH - x 1.35 as
16 D D
The torque transmitted in the two cases will be same
/V (D4 - d4
— as = x 1.35 as
16 16 D
D4 = (D4 — d4) x 1.35 or 1.35 d4 = 0.35 D4
4
d ) = 0.35
= 0.7135
) 1.35
2
Area of cross-section of the solid wrought iron shaft = —
i4r D

74r (D2 - d2)

Area of cross-section of the hollow steel shaft = —

ir D
=— 2 1—
( d2
,,
4 D`

= 4 D2 (1 — 0.71352) = — 7r D2 x 0.49
4
Let cos be the weight of unit volume of wrought iron, coH be the weight of unit
volume of steel = 1.02 cos
Weight of unit length of wrought iron shaft = — 7r4 D2 cos

Weight of unit length of hollow steel shaft = D 2 x 0.49 x 1.02 cos

4
186 Strength of Materials

Weight of steel shaft D2x 0.49 x 1.02 cos

= 4 = 0.5
Weight of iron shaft —
it D2 0)
4 s
Therefore the saving in weight is 50%.
Problem V.4 The internal diameter of a hollow shaft is two-thirds of its
external diameter: Compare its resistance to torsion with that of a solid shaft of
the same weight and material.
Solution:
Let D = Diameter of solid shaft
Di = External diameter of hollow shaft
2
dl = Internal diameter of hollow shaft = — D
3 1
For Hollow Shaft
2
(n2 4 D2) — 5ir
Area, AH = 7 4 (D 2— = 4 -9 1 36

= 657r Di4
Polar moment of inertia, /pH = 2 (D — = D14 — DI 4
32 32 x 81
For solid shaft
7r D4
A = 4 D2, Polar moment of inertia, /ps =
Area, As
32
Weight is same for the two shafts,
5ir Di JED2 /-;$ 9
or —
D2 = — or = 1.3416
36 — 4 5
as • / p
Again, T =
o is same for both the shafts
65/r 4
TH = I Rs 32 x 81 D 65/4
x = 65 (1.3416)3 = 1.94
Ts ps RH = 704 Di 81D3 81
32
Problem 7.5 Compare the weight of a solid shaft with that of a hollow one
to transmit a given power at a given speed with a given maximum shear stress,
2
the inside diameter of the hollow shaft being — of the outside diameter.
3
Solution:
T _ 6S
T and as being the same —11 will be the same for the two shafts.
Ip R
 Torsion 187

Let D = Diameter of solid shaft

Di = External diameter of hollow shaft
2
d1 = Internal diameter of hollow shaft = — 1
3D
For solid shaft
7rD4 X2 = 7cD3 , Area A, = — 2
I Ps
7r D
Rs 32 D 16 ' 4
For hollow shaft

Area, = (D2 _1 D2) _ 5 ff Di

AH 4 I 9 — 36

Iv = 7r (D4 16 D4) = 65g DI

I 81 1 32 x 81
I PH 65/c /4 2 657r Di
x =
RH 32x81 D1 16x81
7CD3 65n. /4 65 3
.*. or D3 = D1 or D = 0.929 D1
16 16 x 81 81

Weight of solid shaft As 7r

4 D2
= 9 (—
D )2
Weight of hollow shaft Ay 57r 5 Di
36
9
= — x (0.929)2 = 1.553
5
Problem 7.6 Prove that a hollow shaft is always stronger than a solid
shaft of the same material, weight and length, when subjected to simple torque.
Solution:
Let d = Internal diameter of hollow shaft
nd = External diameter of hollow shaft so that n is greater than 1
D = Diameter of solid shaft
Since the two shafts are of equal length and weight, their areas of cross-
sections are equal.
7r_ D2 = 4 (n2d2 _ d2) or D2 = d2 (n2 - 1) D = d \1n2 —1
4
Torque transmitted by the hollow shaft
n4d 4 --d 4 ir n4 —1
= x xa= X X d3 as (i)
16 nd s 16 n
Torque transmitted by the solid shaft
7r .3 2
= D3 = — a (n — 1)3/2 as (1)
16 16
188 Strength of Materials

The hollow shaft will be stronger than the solid shaft if expression (i) is
greater than expression (ii).
n4 —1
> (n2 — 1)3/2
n
n2 +1 > 2 _ 1)1/2
or (n
n
or (n2 + 1)2 > n2 (n2 — 1)
or n4 + 2n2 + 1 > n4 — n2
or 3n2 + 1 > 0 which is true.
Problem 7.7 The shaft shown in Fig. 7.6 rotates at 200 rp.rn. with 30 kW
and 15 kW taken off at A and B respectively and 45 kW applied at C. Find the
maximum shear stress developed in the shaft and the angle of twist of the gear
A relative to C. Assume G = 85 GPa.
30 kW 1 15 kW 1 45 kW
out out in

A B C

• -- 7.5 cm.._ .

4m 14-- 2m

Fig. 7.6

Power transmitted across CB = Power applied at C = 45 kW.

Power taken off at B = 15 kW
Power transmitted across BA = 45 — 15 = 30 kW
For BC
Power = 45 kW, N = 200, d = 7.5 cm, LBc = 2 m
Torque transmitted across BC is given by
60000 x Power 60000 x 45
T BC = = 2148.5917 N-m.
27rN 29C x 200
The maximum shear stress in BC is given by
16 x TBc — 16 x 2148.5917 =
25938223 N/m2
asBc
ABC x (0.075)3
CrsBc = 25.938223 MN/m2
The maximum angle of twist 01 in BC of B relative to C is given by
TBC = G 01
I PBC LBC
TBC X L BC 2148.5917 x 2 x 32
••• — 7 = 0.0162749 radian.
X 1 pBc 85 x 109 x tc x (0.075)"
For AB
Power = 30 kW, N = 200, d = 5 cm, LAB = 4 m
 Torsion 189

Torque transmitted across AB is given by

60000 x Power 60000 x 30
TAB = — 1432.3945 N-m
2n N 2r x200
The maximum shear stress in AB is given by
16 x TAB 16 x 1432.3945
as — = 58361002 N/m2
" 7rd1/3 x (0.05)'
= 58.361002 MN/m2
The maximum angle of twist 02 in AB of A relative to B is given by
TAB X LAB 1432.3945 x 4 x 32
02 = = , = 0.109856 radian
G X I pAg 85 x 109 x x (0.05)
Angle of twist of A relative to
C = 01 + 02 = 0.0162749 + 0.109856 = 0.12613 radian
= 7.226°
The maximum shear stress developed in the shaft AB is equal to 58.361002
MN/m2.
Problem 7.8 The stepped steel shaft shown in Fig. 7.7 is subjected to a
torque Tat the free end and a torque 2T in the opposite direction at the junction
of the two sixes. What is the total angle of twist at the free end, if the maximum
shear stress in the shaft is limited to 70 MPa? Assume the modulus of rigidity
to be 84 GPa.

Fig. 7.7

Solution: The torque 2T at B is equivalent to two torques each of value 1'.

Then BC is subjected to a torque T at C and an opposite torque T (clockwise)
at B while AB is also subjected to equal and opposite torque 7'.
For BC
Let 01 = Angle of twist of C relative to B.
TL Tx 1.8 x 32
= 3.4923 x 10-5 T.
91 = GI p = 84 x 109 x x (0.05)4
For AB
Let 02 = Angle of twist of B relative to A
TL T x 1.2 x 32
02 = , = 1.45513 x 10-6 T
G. I 84 x 109 x x (0.1)
01 and 02 are in opposite directions. Therefore total angle of twist at C, 0c =
01 - 02
190 Strength of Materials

The maximum shear stress occurs in BC and its value is given by,
TxR Tx2.5x10-2 x32
as = / p
x (0.05)4
x (0 .05)4 x 70 x 106
T= = 1718.0585
2.5 x 10-2 x 32
01 = 3.4923 x le x 1718.0585 = 0.0599 radian
02 = 1.45513 x le x 1718.0585 = 0.002499 radian
Oc = 0.0599 - 0.002499 = 0.0574 radian
= 3.288° Ans.
Problem 7.9 A solid alloy shaft of 5 cm diameter is to be coupled in series
with a hollow steel shaft of the same external diameter. Find the internal
diameter of the steel shaft if the angle of twist per unit length is to be 75 percent
of that of the alloy shaft.
Determine the speed at which the shafts are to be driven to transmit 185 kW
if the limits of shearing stress are to be 55 and 80 MPa in the alloy and steel
respectively. Modulus of rigidity for steel = 2.2 x Modulus rigidity for alloy.
Solution:

For alloy shaft, 0 =

GA Ir

0
For steel shaft, =

T x 0.75
or 4 GA IPA = 3 Gs Ips.
GA I pA GS I Ps

4 x 3 x (0.05)4 = 3 x 2.2 x [(0.05)4 - d4]

2 32
or d4 = 246.2 x 10-8
d = 0.03961 m = 3.961 cm.
For alloy shaft maximum torque is given by
T= D3 6s = 6 x (0.05)3 x 55 x 106 = 1350 N-m.
For steel shaft maximum torque is given by
D4 - d4 [(0.05)4' -:-(0.03961)41x 80 x 106
T. I X X s= x = 1190 N-m.
16 D 16 0.05
Therefore permissible torque, T = 1190 N-m.
2KNT 2rxNx1190
Now, Power = 185 =
60000 60000
N = 1485 r.p.m.
Problem 7.10 A round steel rod is surrounded by a close fitting tube of
duralumin, the two being securely fastened together to form a composite shaft.
 Torsion 191

Find the diameter of the steel rod and the outside diameter of the duralumin tube
so that the maximum shearing stresses in the two materials do not exceed 90 and
60 MPa respectively when the composite shaft is subjected to a torque of 700
N-nz. Also calculate the angle of twist on a length of lm. G for steel = 84 GPa,
G for duralumin = 28 GPa.
Solution:
Let d = Diameter of the steel rod
D = External diameter of the duralumin tube
us
We know — =
GO 0
— as ao
R L L Gs Rs GDRD
90 x 106 60 x 106
Or or D = 2 d
84 x 109 x d 28 x 109 x D
Ts = x d3 x 90 x 106 = 17.671459 x 106 d3 N-m
16
D4 _ d 4 16d 4 - d 4
TD
ir x x aD — x x 60 x 106
16 D 16 2d
= 88.357293 d3
Total torque, T = Ts + TD = 17.671459 x 106 d3 + 88.357293 d3 = 106.02875
x 106 d3
700 = 106.02875 x 106 d3 d = 0.01876 m = 1.876 cm
D = 2d = 3.752 cm
90 x106 x 1 180
Angle of twist, 0= a sL =
Gs Rs 84 x109 x 0.0094 x = 6.53°
Problem 7.11 A hollow shaft having the external diameter twice the
internal diameter, subjected to a pure torque, attains a maximum shearing stress
as
as. Show that the strain energy stored per unit volume of the shaft is 5
16G
where G is the modulus of rigidity. Such a shaft is required to transmit 4415 kw
at 110 rp.m. with uniform torque, the maximum stress not exceeding 75 Mpa.
Calculate the shaft diameters and energy stored per cubic metre when transmit-
ting this power.
Take G = 85 GPa.
Solution:
Let D = External diameter of the hollow shaft.
d = Internal diameter of the hollow shaft
D = 2d.
1 T•L = T2 •L
Energy stored U= T. 0= 1 T
'2 2 G•l p 2G I p
a;lp L 4 cr2s Ir D4 — d4
x xL
R2 2G I p D2 32 2G
192 Strength of Materials

4 a2s ir 2 2 (D2 + d2 )
= X (D d )x Lx 16G
D2 4
( 2 D
D ±
4a:s xVx 4 5 as
2
16G 16G x V
U _ 5 6s
V — 16G
2,r NT
Power = kW
60000
2 xxx110xT
4415 = T = 383274.04 N-m.
60000
D4 _ d 4
n
T— x x as
16 D

1D4 — D4
16 )
383274.04 = x x 75 x 106
16
D = 0.3027 m = 30.27 cm.
d= = 15.135 cm.
Energy stored per cubic metre is given by
U 2s 5 x (75 x 106 )2
= 5a 16 x 85 x 109 = 20680.147 N-m/m3.
V 16G
Problem 7.12 A hollow shaft subjected to a pure torque, attains a maxi-
mum shearing stress as. Given that the strain energy stored per unit volume is
0.2
where G is the modulus of rigidity, calculate the ratio of shaft diameters.
3G
Determine the actual diameters for such a shaft required to transmit 3680 kW
at 110 rp.m. with uniform torque when the energy stored is 20000 N-in per cubic
metre of material. Take G = 85 GPa.
Solution:
T•L
= T2
1 1
Energy stored, U= -rz. T • B= T
2 2 G•Ip 2•G•l p
62s iP L a2s g (D4 — d )
= = x x xL
R2 x 2G I p R2 32 2G
40- 2s LE. ( D2 + d2)
= x 4 (D2 — d2) x L x 6G
16G
D•
2
= as x D + d x V
4G D2
 Torsion 193

u 0.z_ (D2 + d2 0_
' '=
V = 4G 5 x ‘ D2 3G
D2 4. d2 =
or or D2 = 3d2 or —D = Vi
D2 3
NT
Power = 27r kW
60000
3680 = 2xxx110x/
T = 319467.38 N-m
60000
0.2
3G = 20000 or a = 20000 x 3 x 85 x 109
as = 71.414284 MPa

T= x (D4 - d4) X as
16
(9d c
319467.38 = 16 x x 71.414284 x 106
„A d p.)
d = 0.1702 m = 17.02 cm.
D = Jd= x 17.02 = 29.48 cm.
Problem 7.13 A bronze linear of 8 cm outside diameter is fitted over and
firmly attached to a steel shaft of 5 cm diameter. The working shearing stresses
are 65 and 40 MPa for steel and bronze respectively. Calculate the power which
can be transmitted by the compound shaft at 500 r.p.m. Take G = 85 GPa for
steel and 45 GPa for bronze.
Solution:
625 g
/,,s = 32 x (0.05)4 = x 10-8 m4
32
A 34717r
hs,B = 32 [(0.08)4 - (3.05)-1= x i 0-8 m4
32
The angle of twist of the bronze linear and the steel shaft will be same for
any length.
TB = Ts
GB • I pB Gs •I ps
32 TB 32 Ts
or Q =
45 x109 x 3471x x10- 85x 109 x 625x 7t x 10-8
TB = 2.94 Ts (i)
Maximum torque which can be carried by the bronze linear is given by
I P X CB 3471 x x 10-8 x 40 x 106
TB = B D = 3407.646 N-m.
32 x 0.04
194 Strength of Materials

Maximum torque which can be carried by the steel shaft is given by

/ p xas 625x7rx10-8x65x106
Ts_ = 1595.34 N-m.
Rs32 x 0.025
To satisfy Equation (i)
TB = 3407.646 N-m.
3407.646
Ts - = 1159.063 N-m
2.94
Total torque, T = TB + Ts = 3407.646 + 1159.063 = 4566.709 N-m
27r x 500 x 4566.709
Power = = 239.1123 kw
60000
Problem 7.14 A shaft of 10 cm diameter transmits 100 kw at 120 rp.m.
A flanged coupling having a key 14 cm long and 2.5 cm wide is keyed to the
shaft. Six bolts of 2 cm diameter are symmetrically arranged along a bolt circle
of 30 cm diameter. Find the shear stress induced in the shaft, key and the bolts.

Solution: Given d = 10 cm, 'P = 100 kW, N = 120 r.p.m., lk = 14 cm,

bk = 2.5 cm, n = 6, db = 2 cm, Db = 30 cm.
27r N T 2.7rx120xT
Power = kW. 100 =
60000 60000
T = 7957.75 Nm = 795775 Ncm
For shaft

Now T as T x r 795775 x 5
= 4052.84 N/cm2.
1p = /p
— x104
32
For key T = lk x bk x ak x r
T 795775 = 4547.284 N/cm2
ax /k xbk xr 14x2.5x5
g
For bolts T= n X — d X Crb x Rb
4 b
795775=
GI) = 2814.48 N/cm2
nx — db x Rb 6 x 4 x 22 x -1(1
4 2

REVIEW EXERCISES
Multiple-Choice Questions:
7.1 Indicate the correct answer from the given alternatives:
1. The torsional equation of a circular shaft is
T 6 s GO T 6s GO
(b) == -17
\a' IP LR IP
( T =0'5 GO T as GO
(d) = =R
\c) R I1, = L
 Torsion 195

2. Torsional rigidity of a circular shaft is

T T T T
(a) . —.— (b) — (c) - 0 (d) —
P R L
3. For a circular shaft under torsion the shear stress varies
(a) parabolically (b) uniformly
(c) linearly (d) hyperbolically
4. The shear stress in the extreme outer fibre of a circular shaft under torsion
is
(a) zero (b) maximum
(c) minimum (d) none of the above
5. The shear stress at the centre of a circular shaft under torsion is
(a) zero (b) maximum
(c) minimum (d) none of the above
6. Indicate which is the true statement when the two shafts are connected in
series.
(a) Shear stress in each shaft is the same
(b) Torque in each shaft is the same
(c) Angle of twist in each shaft is the same
(d) None of the above
7. Indicate which is the true statement when the two shafts are connected in
parallel.
(a) Shear stress in each shaft is the same
(b) Torque in each shaft is the same
(c) Angle of twist in each shaft is the same
(d) None of the above
8. For the two shafts having same length, material and weight, the torque
transmitted by the solid shaft in comparison to the hollow one is
(a) more (b) less (c) equal
9. In a given shaft of given material, subjected to a given angle of twist, shear
stress produced will be
(a) more if its length is less (b) less if its length is less
(c) more if its length is more (d) none of these
Ans. 1(a), 2(c), 3(c), 4(b), 5(a), 6(a), 7(c), 8(a), 9(d)

Problems
7.2 What will be the required diameter of shaft to transmit 60 kW at 60 r.p.m.
if the maximum torque is 30 percent greater than the mean and the limit
of torsional stress is to be 56 MPa?
196 Strength of Materials

If the modulus of rigidity is 84 GPa, what is the maximum angle of

twist in 3 m length. [Ans. 10.41 cm, 2.2015°]
7.3 Find the maximum stress in a propeller shaft of 40 cm external and 20 cm
internal diameter, when subjected to a twisting moment of 4650 N-m. If
the modulus of rigidity is G = 82 GPa how much is the twist in a length
20 times the external diameter? [Ans. 394.7 kN/m2, 0.0110316°]
7.4 A solid shaft of 20 cm diameter has the same cross-sectional area as a
hollow shaft of the same material with inside diameter of 15 cm.
(a) Find the ratio of powers transmitted by the two shafts at the same
angular velocity.
(b) Compare the angle of twist in equal lengths of these shafts when
stressed to the same intensity. [Ans. 0.588, 1.25]
7.5 A hollow steel shaft of 20 cm internal diameter and 30 cm external
diameter is to be replaced by a solid alloy shaft. If the polar modulus has
the same value for both, calculate the diameter of the solid shaft and the
ratio of torsional rigidities. G for steel = 2.5 x G for alloy.
If the torsional rigidity has the same value for both, calculate the ratio
of the polar moduli. [Ans. 27.878 cm, 2.69, 0.476]
7.6 A solid steel marine engine shaft is required to transmit a maximum torque
of 23000 N-m. If the shear stress is not to exceed 75 MPa and the angle
of twist should be limited to 0.17°/m, find the suitable diameter for the
shaft. Take G = 84 GPa. [Ans. 17.5 cm]
7.7 A hollow shaft is to transmit 295 kW at 80 r.p.m. If the shear stress is not
to exceed 60 MPa and the internal diameter is 0.6 of the external diameter,
find the external and internal diameters, assuming that the maximum
torque is 1.4 times the mean. [Ans. 16.87 cm, 10.12 cm]
7.8 A solid steel shaft of 6 cm diameter is fixed rigidly and coaxially inside a
bronze sleeve of 9 cm external diameter. Calculate the angle of twist in a
2 m length of the composite shaft due to the action of a pure torque 1000
N-m. Take modulus of rigidity of steel as 80 GPa and of bronze 42 GPa.
[Ans. 0.3593°]
7.9 A composite shaft consists of a steel rod of 10 cm diameter surrounded
by a closely fitting brass tube firmly fixed in it. Find the outside diameter
of the tube so that when a torque is applied to the composite shaft it will
be shared equally by the two materials. Take Gs = 80 GPa, GB = 40 GPa.
If the torque is 17000 N-m, calculate the maximum shearing stress in
each material and the angle of twist on a length of 5 m.
[Ans. 13.16 cm, 43.29 MPa, 28.5 MPa, 3.101°]
7.10 A solid steel shaft of 12 cm diameter is to be replaced by a hollow shaft
having three-quarters of the weight and made of steel in which the work-
ing stress is 25% greater than that employed for the solid shaft. Assuming
that steels have equal density and shear modulus, calculate the internal and
 Torsion 197

external diameters of the hollow shaft and compare its rigidity (i.e. torque
per unit angle of twist) with that for the solid shaft.
[Ans. 4.23 cm, 11.22 cm, 0.748]
7.11 A shaft is to be fitted with a flanged coupling having 8 bolts on a circle
of diameter 15 cm. The shaft may be subjected to either a direct tensile
load of 400 kN or a twisting moment of 18 kN-m. If the maximum direct
and shearing stresses permissible in the bolt material are 125 MPa and 55
MPa respectively, find the minimum diameter of the bolt required. Assume
that each bolt takes an equal share of the load or torque.
[Ans. 26.35 mm]
7.12 A shaft of 8 cm diameter transmits power at maximum shear stress of 70
N/mm2 when the stresses in the coupling bolts and keys are 50 N/mm2
and 60 N/mm2 respectively. The coupling has 4 bolts arranged symmetri-
cally along a circle of 24 cm diameter. The key is 22 mm wide. Find the
diameter of the bolt and the length of the key.
[Ans. 7.63 mm, 20.82 mm]
T =— s GO
7.13 Prove — = in the case of torsion of a circular shaft.
R
7.14 State the assumptions made in the determination of shear stress in circular
shafts subjected to torsion.
7.15 State and explain the expression for power transmitted by a shaft at N
r.p.m. in terms of a mean twisting moment T N-m.

7.16 A shaft fixed at one end is subjected to a twisting moment, prove that a s
GO
L
SPRIINGS

8.1 SPRING
A Spring is an elastic body or resilience member to absorb shock due to sudden
loading by deflection. When the load is removed, the spring recovers its original
shape. It is a contrivance designed to store energy and to restore the same
slowly or rapidly depending upon the function of the spring under consideration.
They are used in railway carriages, motor cars, scooters, motorcycles, cycles,
rickshaws, watches, etc.

8.2 IMPORTANT FUNCTIONS OF SPRING

The important functions of spring vary according to theirs uses:
1. To absorb shock or impact loading as in carriage springs.
2. To store energy in clock springs.
3. To apply forces and to control motions as in brakes and clutches.
4. To measure forces as in spring balance.
5. To change the variations characteristic of a member as in flexible mounting
of motors.

8.3 MATERIALS FOR SPRINGS

Springs are usually made of either high carbon steels or medium carbon alloy
steels. Phosphor bronze, brass, stainless steel and other metal alloys are used
for corrosion resistance springs. Springs of small sizes are usually wound cold
and are given heat treatment for the desired properties. Springs of large sizes
are wound hot and heat treated after winding. Brass and Bronze springs cannot
be hardened by heat treatment. The allowable strength of a spring wire is inversely
proportional to the diameter of the wire. Hence higher working stresses are
allowed for small wires than large wires. The stress factor depends on the
spring index assumed in designing the spring. The spring index is the ratio of
coil diameter to the spring wire diameter. Clutch and valve spring have spring
index 5. For general industrial purpose, the spring index is 8 to 10.
 Springs 199

8.4 TYPES OF SPRINGS

8.4.1 Helical Spring
A length of wire wound into a helix is known as a helical spring.
There are two types of helical springs:
(a) Close-coiled helical springs In close-coiled helical spring the wire
is wound quite closely such that the pitch distance between any two consecutive
helics or turns is small. In this case the helix angle is less than 10°.
(b) Open-coiled helical spring An open-coiled helical spring is that in
which the plane containing each coil is inclined to the axis of the helix and the
helix angle is more than 10°. The coils are separate from each other.

8.4.2 Leaf Spring

It is composed of flat bars of varying lengths clamped together to obtain greater
efficiency and resilience. The major stresses are tensile and compressive. Leaf
springs may be full elliptic, semi-elliptic and cantilever.

8.4.3 Torsion Spring

It is used for transmission of small torque. Plain torsion spring is simply a rod
but helical torsion spring consists of helical coils very close to each other.

8.4.4 Circular Spring

It may be of two types: spiral and curved. A spiral spring consists of a flat strip
wound in the form of a spiral and loaded in torsion. The major stresses are
tensile and compressive due to bending.
A curved spring consists of only one curve instead of several. One end is
fixed and the other is loaded.

8.4.5 Flat Spring

Flat springs may be parallel and triangular types. In flat parallel springs the leaf
is of uniform width. But in triangular flat springs the leaf is of triangular shape,
fixed at the base of the triangle.

8.5 CLOSE -COILED HELICAL SPRING WITH AXIAL LOAD

Consider a close-coiled helical spring. Subjected to an axial load P as shown in
Fig. 8.1(a).
Let d = Diameter of spring wire
R = Mean radius of the coil
n = Number of coils
L = Length of the wire of the spring = 27rRn
200 Strength of Materials

Fig. 8.1

= Deflection or elongation of spring caused by the load P

G = Modulus of rigidity.
Every section of the wire of the spring is subjected to a torsion PR. This
produces maximum shear stress in the wire. Further more, the cross-section of
the wire is twisted as shown in Fig. 8.1(b): a line AB is distorted to AB'. The
torque PR causes stress, the maximum value of which at the outer fibre is

PxRx— 2 16PR
Txr T 6,
=
Ip ird 4 gd 3 Ip
32
The force P acting at the section shall also cause direct stress
P 4P
qs2 = = 7rd 2
The maximum stress which occurs in the outer fibres of the wire is given
by
16PR 4P 16PR ( d
C. (3-si crs2= gd3 + 7rd 2 gd 3
1+
4R
When the diameter of the wire is much less than the mean radius of the spring

then the term d being too small, can be neglected. In that case the maximum
4R
shear stress is given by
_ 16PR
Cr,max 703
The length of the wire under torsion is L = 2irRn.
 Springs 201

Let 0 = Angle of twist of cross-section of the wire.

T GO TxL Px Rx2trRn 64PR2n
= or 0 = = ire —
Ip L Gx I p Gd 4
Gx
32
From Fig. 8.1(b), the deflection
64PR3n
8 = RO =
Gd 4
Strain energy stored in the spring,
1 64PR2n
U= 1 xTx0= — xPRx
2 2 Gd 4
= 32P2R3n 32R3n as
U x
Gd 4 Gd 4 16
2 2
a
sn'" x tr2d2Rn = M" x
8G 4G
2
as
x Volume of spring wire.
4G
The stiffness of the spring is the load required to produce unit deflection and
is denoted by k.
Gd 4
k_ —
64R3n
The maximum load which a spring can carry without any permanent deforma-
tion is called the proof load and the corresponding stress is known as proof
stress. When the spring is subjected to proof load, the energy stored in the spring
is called proof resilience. The stiffness of spring is also called spring constant.

8.6 SPRINGS IN SERIES

Two springs of stiffness k1 and k2 are connected in series as shown in Fig. 8.2
and a load P is applied at the end. Each spring will be subjected /////// iwiiivi
to the same load P.
Let Sl = Extension of spring of stiffness k1 due to load P
•52 = Extension of spring of stiffness k2 due to load P
= Total extension
P P 11 1)
= 451 + 32 = — + — = P -+ —
k1 k 2 ki k2
P
P_
1 1 Fig. 8.2
S —+—
ki k2
202 Strength of Materials

1
ke = where keq is the equivalent stiffness of the composite spring.
g 1 1
k1 k2

8.7 SPRINGS IN PARALLEL

Two springs of stiffness k1 and k2 are connected in parallel
as shown in Fig. 8.3 and are subjected to a load P. The load
P will be shared by the two springs. But the extension of
both springs will be same.
P = P1+ P2
P = k18 + k23= 6(k 1 + k2)
Fig. 8.3
or = k1 + k2 keq = ki + k2
8

8.8 LEAF SPRING

Leaf springs or laminated springs consist of a number of thin plates of same
width and thickness but of different lengths all bent to the same curvature. They
are loaded at the ends and supported in the middle as shown in Fig. 8.4(a). Leaf
springs are widely used in railway carriages, motor vehicles and trollies, etc.
The ends of each laminate are tapered to a point, the shortest one being of
diamond shape. The spring is connected to the body of the vehicle with pins at
ends and transmits the load to the axle by resting on it at the middle. The rise
ye at the middle depends upon the load to be carried by the spring. When the
spring is loaded fully all the plates become Ftraight.

[4— b
(c)

(b)
Fig. 8.4
 Springs 203

Let P = Maximum load on the spring

L = Length of the spring
t = Thickness of the leaves or plates
b = Width of leaves or plates
n = Number of leaves
S = Original deflection of top laminate
a = Maximum stress
L
Maximum bending moment at the centre, M =
4
Initially all plates are bent in circular arc of radius R.
1 3
— bt bt 2
Section modulus of each plate, Z = — = I 12
y t a
2
nbt 2
Section modulus of n plates, Z =
a
We know, M = crZ
PL nbt 2 3 PL
a X - a =
4= a 2 x nbt 2
The top plate is bent to a radius R as shown in
Fig. 8.5.
By geometry
BE x ED = AE x EC
L
Y, x (2R — y,) = x —
2 2
2Ry, — y,2 = e
As y, is very small in comparison to R, h2 may be Fig. 8.5
neglected.
2Ry, = L2
4
L2
= 8R
a = E a = — E Et
Again or — or R =
y R t R 2a
2
From Equation (ii) we have
L2 cr L2
Yc = Et 4Et
8x
2a
204 Strength of Materials

Substituting the value of a from Equation (i) to Equation (iii)

3 PL L2 3 )( PL3
yc = nbt 2 — 4Et = 8 — nEbt 3
nEbt3
P— 8 X
3 L3
P 8 x nEbt 3
Stiffness of the spring, k — —
Yc 3 L3

8.9 OPEN-COILED HELICAL SPRING

(a) Axial deflection Consider an open-coiled helical spring as shown in
Fig. 8.6 under the action of axial load. In an open-coil helical spring, the spring
wire is coiled in such a manner, that there is a large gap between the two
consecutive turns. As a result of this the spring can also take compressive load.
Let d = Diameter of the spring wire
D
R = — = Mean radius of the spring coil

a = constant helix angle which the coils make with planes perpendicular
to the axis of the spring.
n = Number of open coils
p = Pitch of the spring coils
w = Axial load
8 = Deflection of the spring under the load.

Length of the spring wire, L = 27r Rn= 27rRn sec a

cos a

From Fig. 8.6 (c) tan a =

27rR
Take an axis ox tangential to the centre line of the open helix at 0. OY is
perpendicular to OX and OA is perpendicular to the axis of the spring as shown
in Fig. 8.6(b). Then OX, OY and OA lie in the same plane.

A 4 = WR sin a

WR

X.
T= WR cos a w y

(b) (c)
Fig. 8.6
 Springs '205

Couple or moment acting on the spring due to load w is = WR. This couple
is acting along OA and it can be resolved into two components along OX and
OY.
Along OX, torque T = WR cos a
Along OY, bending moment M = WR sin a
d
M a M • y WR sin a • —
2 32 WR sin a
We know — =— a=
I y —Xd rd3
64
TL WR cos a• L
And 0=
GIP GI P
Again
M _E
and
L ati _
I R R R L
M _ E0
I L
ML
.•• 0 = El where 0 = angle subtended by the bent wire at the centre of
curvature due to bending moment M.
The average work done = 2 W • 5
Strain energy stored in the spring under torsion and bending is
U= T- + M • 0
22
1 1
W•3=2 T•0+ 2 M 0
2
W• = T•0+M•0
WRL cos a WRL sin a
= WR cos a x = WR sin ax
GI p El
2 [COS2 a sin2 a]
or 5 = WR L
G•Ip El

cost a + sin2 a
3 = WR2 x 2irnR sec a
G x -L
c d 4 E x 1-r— d 4
32 64
64WR3n sec a cost a 2 sin2 a
8— +
d4 G E
If a = 0, i.e. the case of a closed-coil helical spring
64WR3n
=
Gd 4
206 Strength of Materials

(b) Angular rotation There is a bending in the plane of the axis of the wire
due to M, and there is a twisting in the wire due to T as shown in Fig. 8.7. The
horizontal components produce rotation about the axis of the spring.
Let f3 be the resultant of the rotations 0 and 0
e sin a— 0 cos a
TL M•L
sin a— cos a
G. l p E• I

WR cosa x 27r Rn sec a x sina WR sina x 27r Rn sec a x cosa

Gx-Id 4 Ex— 7r d a
32 64
64 WR2n• sin a 1 2
••• =
d4 [G E

0 cos a op sin a

0 sin a cos a

Fig. 8.7

SOLVED PROBLEMS
Problem 8.1 A close-coiled helical spring is to have a stiffness of lkN/m
of compression under a maximum load of 45 N and a maximum shearing stress
126 MPa. The solid length of the spring is to be 4.5 cm. Find the diameter of
the wire, the mean diameter of the coils required. Modulus of rigidity G = 42
GPa.
Solution:
_ Gd 4
Stiffness, k = P = P —
pR3n 64R3n
Gd 4
Maximum shear stress, asmax — 16PR
703
42 x 109 x d4
WOO = (i)
64R3n
6 16x 45xR
126 x 10 =
nY/ 3
or R = 0.175 x106 x ird3
, 0.045
Solid length of the spring = nd = 0.045 n
d
 Springs 207

Substituting the value of n in Equation (i)

42 x 109 x d4 x d
1000 =
64 x R3 x 0.045
Substituting the value of R from Equation (ii)
42 x 109 x cis
1000 =
64 x (0.175703 x (106)3 x (d3$
d = 0.00306 m = 0.306 cm.
Substituting the value of d in Equation (ii)
R= 0.175 x 106 x it x (0.306)3 x le
= 0.01575 m = 1.575 cm
Mean diameter of the coil, D = 3.15 cm
0.045
Number of turns, n = - 14.7 i.e. 15 turns.
0.00306
Problem 8.2 A close-coiled helical spring, whose free length when not
compressed is 15 cm, is required to absorb strain energy equal to 50 N-m when
fully compressed with the coils in contact. The maximum shearing stress is
limited to 140 MPa. Assuming a mean coil diameter of 10 cm find the diameter
of the steel wire required and the number of coils. G = 80 GPa.
soivition Let 8 be the deflection of the spring when fully compressed. Then
0.15 - 3 = nd (i)
a 2
Strain energy is given by, U = xV

(140 x 106)2
50 = xV
4 x 80 x 109
V = 8.1632 x 1e m3
But V= d2 x 27rRn = d2 x 2ir x (0.05) n
4 4
8.1632 x 10-4 r d2 x 27r x (0.05) n
= —4
3.308 X 10-3
n=
d2
ird 3 m3
We know, T =PxR= xo- x0.05=
P x 140 x 106
16 s ' 16
P = 549.7787 x 106 d3 N
1
Strain energy, U = 50 = P x 8= x549.7787x106d3x6
2 2
8- 0.18189x10-6
d3
208 Strength of Materials

Substituting the value of n and Sin Equation (i)

0.18189 x 10-6 3.308 x 10-3
0.15
d3 d2
or d3 - 22.0533 x le d2 - 1.21261 x 10-6 = 0
Solving: d = 0.02417 m = 2.417 cm
3.308 x 10-3
n= - 5.66 = 6 turns.
(0.02417)2
Problem 8.3 A close-coiled helical spring has a stiffness of 10 kN/m. Its
length when fully compressed, with the adjacent coils touching each other is 40
cm. The modulus of rigidity of the material of the spring is 80 GPa.
(i) Determine the wire diameter and the mean coil diameter if their ratio =
10
(ii) If the gap between any two adjacent coils is 0.2 cm, what maximum load
can be applied before the spring becomes solid, i.e. the adjacent coils
touch?
(iii) What is the corresponding maximum shear stress in the spring?
Solution: Total gap in the coils = Gap between two adjacent coils x Number
of turns = 0.002 n metre.
When the spring is fully compressed, there is no gap in the coils and therefore
maximum compression of the coil will be equal to the total gap in the coil.

. Maximum compression, (5 = 0.002 n Stiffness, k = Gd4

8D3 n
80 X 109 X d4
10 X 103 = = D3 n x 10-6 (i)
8 X D3 n
0.4
Now solid length = nd or 0.4 = nd n=
d 1
Again — =— D = 10 d
D 10
Substituting the value of n and D in. Equation (i)
d4 = (10 d)3 x x 10-6
d= 0.02 m = 2 cm.
D = 10 d = 20 cm.
Number of turns, n = 0.4 = 20
0.02
= 0.002 x 20 = 0.04 m = 4 cm.
Stiffness of the spring, k = P
P=kx8=10x103 x0.04 = 400 N.
 Springs 209

Maximum shear stress is given by

16PR .16 x 400 x 0.1
asmax = ird 3
, = 25464791 N/m2.
7C x (0.02r

Problem 8.4 Close-coiled helical springs having n turns are made of round
wire such that the mean diameter of coils D cm is ten times the wire diameter.
(D
Show that the stiffness in N/m for any such spring is — x constant and
n)
determine the constant when G = 80 GPa.
Such a spring is required to support a load 1 kN with an extension of 10 cm
and a maximum shear stress of 350 MPa. Calculate (i) its weight (ii) mean coil
diameter (iii) number of turns. The material weighs 78000 N/m3.
Solution:
P , = Gd4
Stiffness, k = =
40 64 PR'n 64 Ran
Gd 4
But D= 10 d or R = 5 d
Gd 4 Gd GD
k=
64 x 125d3n = 64 x 125n = 64 x 125 x 10n
(2) 80 x 109 = (D)
x x 106
O't ) 64 x 125 x10 (n)
Required constant = 106
Energy stored, U = — x 1000 x 0.1 = 50 Nm
1 P•6= 2

Also, U= as v
4G •
(350 x106)2 16 3
50 = V V=
4x 80 x109 122500
16
(i) Weight = 122500 x 78000 = 10.1877 N

Now T=PxR= d3
16
1000 x D r D3
x x 350 x 106
2 16 1000
D = 0.08529 m = 8.529 cm.
1000
Stiffness, k = P = 10000
= 0.1
D
i.e. — x 106 = 10000
n = 100 D =,100 x 0.08529 = 8.529 = 9
210 Strength of Materials

Problem 8.5 A close-coiled helical spring is made of steel wire of 6 mm

diameter coiled into 50 coils of mean diameter 5 cm. The modulus of rigidity
of steel is 80 GPa. The spring is held fixed at the top and a load of 150 kN is
allowed to fall through a height of 5 cm before engaging with a hook at the
lower end of the spring. Calculate (a) the maximum extension of thel spring and
(b) the maximum stress in the wire.
Solution:
Let 6 be the maximum instantaneous extension.
Let P be the gradually applied equivalent load which will produce the same
deflection 6.
64 PR3n 64 x P x (0.025)3 x 50
8=
Gd 4 80 x 109 x (0.006)4
P = 2073.6 6
Now loss of potential energy of the weight = Gain of strain energy of the spring
150 (0.05 + 6) = 2 P.6 = 2 x 2073.6 x 62
or 62 — 0.1446 8 — 0.00723 = 0
+ 0.1446 ± /(0.1446)2 + 4 x 0.00723
6=
2
= 0.1839 m = 18.39 cm.
P = 2073.6 x 0.1839 = 381.335 N.
16 PR 16 x 381.335 x 0.025
Maximum stress, a max
703 x (0.006)3
= 224782780 N/m2
Problem 8.6 Calculate the weight of a helical spring made of steel wire of
circular section which is required to bring to rest a weight of 200 N moving with
a velocity of 4 metres per second. The maximum allowable stress in the spring
is to be 600 MPa, and the modulus of rigidity is 80 GPa. Steel weighs 78000
N/m3.
If the spring is made from wire of 8 mm diameter with a mean coil diameter
of 5 cm, calculate the maximum deflection produced and the number of coils
required.
Solution:
200 x 42
Kinetic energy = = 163.1 N-m.
2 x 9.81
Strain energy stored in the springs is given by
0-2
U= s
4G
(600x 106)2
163.1 = xV V = 0.000145 m3
4 x 80 x10'
 Springs 211

Weight of the spring = 0.000145 x 78000 = 11.31 N

Now, V=4 g d2 x IrDn

0.000145 = 4 x (0.008)2 x tc x 0.05 x n

n = 18.36
Let P be the equivalent gradually applied load which would cause the same stress
of 600 MPa as is caused by the weight moving with a velocity of 4 m/s.
3
T=PxR= d a
16 s
P x 0.025 = ± 1 x (0.008)3 x 600 x 106
16
P = 2412.743 N.
1
Now strain energy, U = — P.6 or 163.1 = x 2412.743 x
2 2
S = 0.1352 m = 13.52 cm.
Problem 8.7 A composite spring has two close-coiled helical steel springs
connected in series, each spring has 12 coils at a mean diameter of 3 cm. Find
the diameter of the wire in one of the springs if the diameter of the wire in outer
spring is 3 nun and the stiffness of the composite spring is 720 N/m.
Estimate the greatest load that can be carried by the composite spring and
the corresponding extension for a maximum shearing stress of 190 MPa. G
80 GPa.
Solution:
Let P be the load carried by the composite spring.
81 be the extension of the first spring
82 be the entension of the second spring
S be the total extension of the spring.
64 x P x (0.015)3 x 12
= 0.0004 P m
80 x 109 x (0.003)4
64 x P x (0.015)3 x 12 3.24 x 10-14 x P
52
80 x 109 x d4 d4
3.24 x 10-14 x P
S = 61 + 62 = 0.0004P +
d4
P P
But 6=—=
k 720
3.24 x 10-14 x P
= 0.0004 p+ da
720
d = 0.00239 m = 0.239 ctn.
212 Strength of Materials

3 ird 3 s
Now, T=PxR= — ir d as
16 P= 16 R
The limiting load will be found in the spring with the smaller wire diameter, i.e.
x (0.00239)3 x 190 x 106
P= = 34 N
16 x 0.015
P 34
Total elongation, = = = 0.0437 m
k 720
= 4.73 cm.
Problem 8.8 In a compound helical spring the inner spring is arranged
within and concentric with the outer one, but is 1 cm shorter. The outer spring
has 10 coils of mean diameter 3 cm and the wire diameter is 3 mm. Find the
stiffness of the inner spring if an axial load of 100 N causes the outer one to
compress 2 cm.
If the radial clearance between the springs is 2 mm, find the wire diameter
of the inner spring when it has 8 coils. G = 80 GPa.
Solution: For a compression of 2 cm, the load carried by the outer spring
Gd 4 80 x 109 x (0.003)4 x 0.02
= 60 N
64 R3n 64 x (0.015)3 x 10
Therefore the load carried by the inner spring = 100 — 60 = 40 N for a
compression of 1 cm.
40
Stiffness of the inner spring is given by k = = 4000 N/m
0.01
D = 0.03 — 0.003 — 2 x 0.002 — d = 0.023 — d
Gd 80 x109 X d 4
k— =
8D 3n 8 x (0.023 — d)3 x8
1010 x (0.023 — d)3
4000 = or 4 =
(0.023 — d)3 x 8 312500
As d is small compared with 0.023, as a first approximation
= 0.0233 d = 0.002498 m = 0.2498 cm
cfl
312500
Second approximation
= (0.023 — 0.002498)3
ct4 d = 0.00229 m = 0.229 cm
312500
Final approximation
(0.023 — 0.00229)3
Q d = 0.002309 m = 0.231 cm
312500
Problem 8.9 A vertical rod 3 in long, 25 mm in diameter, fixed at the top
end, is provided with a collar at the bottom end. A helical spring of mean
diameter 24 cm consisting of 5 coils of 4 cm diameter steel is mounted on the
 Springs 213

collar. A sliding weight of 5.5 kN is dropped down the rod on to the spring. Find
the height measured from the top of the uncompressed spring, from which the
weight should be dropped to produce an instantaneous stress of 70 MPa in the
rod. Also find the maximum shearing stress in the spring. Take E for rod as 70
GPa and G for spring as 80 GPa. Assume the spring to be close-coiled, but not
quite closed up tight by the action of the falling weight7
Solution:
= 70 x 106
Elongation of the rod, Si x 3= 0.003 m
70 x 109
Let P be the equivalent gradually applied load which would produce the same
stress of 70 MPa in the rod as is caused by the falling weight.
P= — ic x (0.025)2 x 70 x 106 = 34361.17 N
4
This load will also act on the spring.
Deflection of the spring is given by
64 x 34361.17 x (0.12)3 x 5
d2 = = 0.0928 m = 9.28 cm.
80 x 109 x (0.04)4
Loss of potential energy of the weight = strain energy stored in the rod and the
spring
1
5.5 x 103 (h + + 82) = P x 81 + P x 82
2
5.5 x 103 (h + 0.003 + 0.0928) = x 34361.17 x 0.003 + 1
2 2
x 34361.17 x 0.0928
h = 0.2034 m = 20.34 cm
shear stress in the spring is given by
16PR 16x 34361.17 x 0.12
Gs = 3= = 328.125 MPa.
itd g X (0.04)3
Problem 8.10 A leaf spring 75 cm long is required to can), a central point
load of 8 kN. If the central deflection is not to exceed 20 mm and the bending
stress is not to be greater than 200 MPa, determine the thickness, width and
number of plates.
Also compute the radius to which the plates should be curved. Assume width
of the plate equal to 12 times its thickness and E equals to 200 GPa.
Solution:
Let t = Thickness of the plates
aL2
Using the relation, y =
4 Et
200 x 106 x (0.75)2
0.02 = t= 0.007 m= 0.7 cm.
4 x 200 x 109 x t
214 Strength of Materials

Let b = width of the plates

b = 12 x 0.7 = 8.4 cm.
Let n = Number of plates
Using the relation
3 PL 3 x 8 x103 x0.75
6= 2 or 200 x 106 =
2nbt 2 x n x 0.084 x (0.007)2
n = 10.93 say 11
2 z
(0.75) 2
We know yc = R or R = = 0.02 = 3.515 m
8 8x
Problem 8.11 A laminated steel spring, simply supported at the ends and
centrally loaded, with a span of 75 cm is required to carry a proof load of 7.5
kN and the central deflection is not to exceed 5 cm. The bending stress must not
be greater than 400 MPa. Plates are available in multiples of 1 mm for thick-
ness and in multiples of 4 mm for width. Determine suitable values for the
thickness, width and number of plates and the radius to which the plates should
be formed. Assume the width to be 12 times the thickness. E = 200 GPa.
Solution:
3PL3
yc =
8Enbt 3
3 x 7.5 x 103 x (0.75)3
0.05 = nt4 = 9.887 x 10-9 (i)
8 x 200 x 109 x n x 12t x t3
3PL
We know, a=
2nbt 2
3 x 7.5 x103 x 0.75
400 x 106 = = 1.757 x 10-6
2 x n x 12t x t2
Dividing Equation (i) by Equation (ii) we have
9.887 x 10-
t= ,9 = 5.624 x 10-3 m = 0.5624 cm.
1.757 x 10'
1.757 x 10-6
From Equation (ii) ri — = 9.877, say 10
(0.005624) 3
L2 (0.75)2
Radius of curvature, R = = 1.406 m
8yc 8 x 0.05
Problem 8.12 A carriage spring 1.3 in long has leaves of 10 cm width and
12 mm thickness. The maximum bending stress is 150 MPa and the spring must
absorb 120 N-m. of energy when straightened. Calculate the number of leaves
and their initial radius of curvature. E = 200 GPa.
Solution:
a2 cr
2 not.L
Energy stored, U = •V= x
oE aE 2
 Springs 215

(150 x 106)2 x n x 0.1 x 0.012 x 1.3

120 = n = 8.205 say 9
6 x 200 x 109 x2
The actual bending stress a1 is given by
a x 9 x 0.1 x 0.012 x1.3
120 = 16 1 = 143.22 MPa
6 x 200 x 109 x2
The bending stresses in the plates when straightened will be the reversed
stresses that would be obtained if the plates wire were originally straight and
then bent to the radius R.
a1 = E R = Et = 200 x 109 x 0.012 = 8.378 m.
t R 2a1 2 x 143.22 x 106
2
Problem 8.13 A load of 200 N is dropped from a height of 10 cm on to
the centre of a carriage spring which is simply supported at its ends. The spring
has 10 steel plates each 5 cm wide and 6 mm thick, the longest plate being 75 cm.
Calculate the maximum instantaneous stress in the plates and the initial radius of
curvature of the spring if the impact just flattens the spring. E = 200 GPa.
Solution: Let P be the equivalent gradually applied load which would cause
the same stress as is caused by the impact load.
Then 200 (0.1 + = PIS
2
3 3PL3 = 3P x (0.75)3
But
8Enbt 3 8 x 200 x 109 x 10 x 0.05 x (0.006)3
P = 136533.33
1
200(0.1 + 5) = x 136533.33 82
2
or 52 — 2.93 x 10-3 3 — 2.93 x 0
Solving S = 0.01865 m
P = 136533.33 x 0.01865 = 2546.346 N
3 x 2546.346 x 0.75
a = 3PL = 159.1466 MPa.
2nbt 2 2 x 10 x 0.05 x (0.006)2

R= = 035)2 = 3.77 m
85 8 x 0.01865
Problem 8.14 A semi-elliptical laminated spring has the following speci-
fications:
Length of the longest plate = 70 cm
central load = 3.5 kN
central deflection = 1.8 cm
Allowable bending stress = 190 MPa
Determine the size of the plates, overlap, number of plates and radius of cur-
vature. Take width of plates to be 12 times the thickness and E= 200 GPa.
216 Strength of Materials

Solution:
3 PL3
Deflection, y, =
8 nEbt 3
Stress, a = 3 PL
2 nbt 2
Ye = L2 t = a xL2
a 4Et y, 4E
190 x 106 x (0.7)2
t= = 6.465 x 10-3 m = 6.465 mm
1.8 x10-2 x 4 x 200 x10'
Width of plates, b = 12 x 6.465 = 77.583 mm
3 PL
a=
2 nbt 2
3.5 x 103 x 0.7
190 x 106 = 3 x
2 n x 0.077583 x (6.465 x 10-3)2
n= 5.96 say 6.
a E Ey Et
Now — =— R=
y R a 2a
200 x 109 x 6.465 x 10-3
= 3.402 in.
2 x 190 x 106
L = 0.7 = 3.888 x 10-2 m = 38.88 mm.
over lap, a=
2n 2x9
Problem 8.15 Find the mean radius of an open-coiled spring of helix angle
30°, to give a vertical displacement of 2.3 crir and an angular rotation of the
loaded end of 0.02 radian under an axial load of 40 N. The material available
is steel rod of 6 mm diameter: E = 200 GPa, G = 80 GPa.
Solution:
64 WR 3n sec a cost a 2 sine a
=
d4
64x 40xR3 xnx 2 3 2
0.023 =
(0.006)4 x -NA 4 x 80 x 109 4 x 200 x 109
R an = 8.49 x 10-4 (1)
We know
p = 64 WR 2n sin a 1 2
d4 [ G E
64 x 40 x R 2n[ 1 2
0.02 =
(0.006)4 x 2 80 x 109 200 x 109
R2n =8.1x 10-3 (11)
Dividing Equation (i) by Equation (ii)
R= 0.1048 m= 10.48 cm
 Springs 217

Problem 8.16 In an open-coiled spring of 10 coils the stresses due to

bending and twisting are 100 MPa and 110 MPa respectively when the spring
is loaded axially. Assuming the mean diameter of the coils to be eight times the
wire diameter, find the maximum permissible axial load and the wire diameter
for a maximum extension of 1.8 cm.
Take E = 200 GPa and G = 80 GPa.
Solution:
d3
Bending moment, M = WR sin a = xo
32
Here D = 8d R = 4d

W x 4d sin a = 1w/ 3 x 100 x 106 W sin a = 2454369.3 d2(i)

32
g
Torque, T = WR cos a =
16 d3 x as
W x 4d cos a= x d3 x 110 x 106
16
W cos a = 5399612.4 d2
Dividing Equation (i) by Equation (ii) we have
tan a = 0.4545 a = 24.443°
2454369.3d 2
From Equation (i) W = = 5931241.1 d2 (iii)
sin 24.443°
64 WR3 qz• sec a cost a 2 sine a
6=
d4
64 x W x 64 d3 x 10 0.82877 2 x 0.17233]
0.81 = +
d4 x 0.91037 80 x 109 200 x 109
W = 33140.016 d (iv)
From Equation (iii) and (iv) we have
5931241.1 d2 = 33140.016 d d = 0.00558 m
W = 33140.016 x 0.00558 = 185.165 N.
Problem 8.17 If the closed-coil spring formula is used for finding the ex-
tension of an open-coiled spring under axial load, determine the maximum angle
of helix for which the error in the value of the extension is not to exceed 1%.
Assume E = 2.5 G.
Solution:
64 'WR3n
According to close-coiled formula extension is given by Si =
Gd4
According to open-coiled formula extension is given by
64 WR3n sec a cost a 2 sine a
82 = d4
218 Strength of Materials

32 - 6
Percentage error = 1% = 1 x 100
u2
[cos2 a 2 sin2 al
sec a
1= x 100
[cos2 a 2 sin2 a
sec a

1- E cos2 a+ 2G sin2 a- E cos a x 100

E cost a + 2G sin2 a
2.5G cost a + 2G sin2 a- 2.5G cos a
1= x 100
2.5G cost a + 2G sin2 a
or 2.5 cost a + 2 sin2 a = 250 cost a + 200 sin2 a - 250 cos a
or 247.5 cos2 a + 198 sin2 a - 250 cos a = 0
or 247.5 cos2 + 198 (1 - cos2 a) - 250 cos a = 0
or cos2 a - 5.05 cos a + 4 = 0
Solving cos a = 0.985
a = 9° 54'.
Problem 8.18 An open-coiled spring of 12 cm mean diameter has 10 coils
of 2 cm diameter wire, at a slope of 30° to the horizontal when the coil axis is
vertical. Find the axial load and torque necessary to extend the spring by 0.5
cm, if rotation is prevented, indicating whether the torque tends to wind up or
unwind the spring. Take E = 200 GPa and G = 80 GPa.
Solution:
64 WR2n sin a 1 2 64 TRn sec a sin2 a 2 cos2 a
[G 0
d4 E G
1 2 ]+ T [sin2 + 2 cos2 al
or WR sin -0
a[GE cos a Ga
or W x 0.06 [ 1 2 + 2T [ 1 2x3 1 -0
+
2 80 x 109 200 x 109 Vi 4 x 80 x 109 4 x 200 x 109
... T = - 6.11 x 10-3 W
64 WR3n sec a cos2 a 2 sin2 a + 64 TR2n sin a r 1 2 1
3= + = 0.005
d4 G E (14 LG E
64 x W x (0.06)3 x 10 x 2 [ 3 „+ 2
or
(0.02)4 x 4 x 80 x 10' 4 x 200 x 109
64 x T x (0.06)2 x 10 1 2
= 0.005
(0.02)4 x 2 80 x 109 200 x 10'
 Springs 219

Or 1.1847 x w+ 1.62 x 10-4 T = 0.005

or 1.1847 x + 1.62 x 10-4 x (- 6.11 x = 0.005
or 1.1847 x 10-5 W - 9.8982 x = 0.005
' or 1.0857 W = 0.005
W = 460.524 N
T = - 6.11 x x 460.524
= - 2.8138 N-m
The negative sign indicates an unwinding torque.
Problem 8.19 A close-coiled helical spring is made of steel wire of 6 mm
diameter. It has 3 turns of mean diameter of 6.5 cm and the pitch of the coils
when the spring is unloaded is 1.5 cm. Determine the axial load which when
gradually applied will cause the coils just to close up. Take G = 80 GPa.
If the spring stands on a rigid horizontal surface with the axis vertical and
a load of 150 N is allowed to fall freely on the top of the coil, find the height
through which it must fall in order just to dose the coils together.
Solution: For one turn, S = 1.5 - 0.6 = 0.9 cm
64 PR3n
3=
Gd4
64 x P x (0.0325)3 x 1
0.9 x 10-2 =
80 x 109 x (0.0006)4
P = 424.724 N
Total displacement is given by, A = 8 x 0.9 = 7.2 cm.
Now strain energy, U = —1 P.O = — 1
x 424.724 x 0.072 = 15.29 N-m.
2 2
Let the 150 N load be initially h m above the top of the spring, then potential
energy given up by this load is given by
P.E = 150 (h + 0.072)
150 (h + 0.072) = 15.29 h = 0.0299 m = 2.99 cm
Problem 8.20 Find by what % the axial extension is underestimated if the
inclination of the coils is ignored for a spring in which a = 25°.
Take E = 200 GPa, and G = 80 GPa.
Solution: The deflection under axial load W is given by
WR3n sec a cost a 2 sine a
3 = 64
d4
For a = 25° we have
64WR3n • sec 25° cost 25° 2 sin 2 25°
3=
d4 80 x 109 200 x 109
- 64 WR3n 1330
x (i)
d4 109
220 Strength of Materials

For a = 0°
64 WR3n sec 0° cost 0° 2 sine 0°
(51 =
d4 80 x 10' + 200 x109
3
64 WR n 1250
x
d4 109
% under estimation of axial extension is given by
— (51 x 100 = 1330 —1250 0'
x 100 = 08 x 100 = 6.015
1330 1.33

REVIEW EXERCISES
Multiple-Choice Questions:
8.1 Indicate the correct answer from the given alternatives.
1. The shear stress in a closed-coil helical spring of mean coil diamater D,
wire diameter d, under axial load P is
Pd PD 8 PD 8 PD
(a) (b) (c) (d)
irD 3 rd3 ird 2 gd 3
2. The angle of helix in a closed-coil helical spring is
(a) less than 5° (b) more than 5°
(c) equal to 5° (d) equal to zero degrees.
3. The axial deflection of a closed-coil helical spring of mean diameter D, wire
diameter d, number of turns n, under axial load P is
64 Pr 3n 64 PR3n 16 PD3n 16 Pd 3n
(a) (b) (c) (d)
GD4 Gd 4 Gd 4 GD4
4. Spring index is the ratio of
(a) length of the spring to its mean coil diameter
(b) mean coil diameter to the diameter of the spring wire
(c) mean coil diameter to the length of the spring
(d) length of the spring to its wire diameter.
5. The angle of twist of a closed-coil helical spring of mean coil diameter D,
wire diameter d, number of turns n, under axial load P is
16 PD2n 16 Pd 2n 64 Pr3n 64 Pr2n
(a) (b) (c) (d)
Gd 4 GD4 GD4 GD4
6. The resilience of a closed-coil helical spring under axial load P is
6
2 2 62s 62
(a) (b) (c) (d)
2G 4G 8G
7. Two springs having stiffness 2 N/m and 3 N/m are connected in series.
The equivalent stiffness will be
 Springs 221

5 6 5 3
(a) — N/m (b) — N/m (c) —N/m (d) — N/m
6 5 3 5
8. Two springs having stiffness 3 N/m and 4 N/m are connected in parallel.
The equivalent stiffness will be
12
(a) — N/m, (b) 1N/m (c) 7 N/m (d) 12 N/m
7 2
9. Flat spiral springs are used in
(a) road vehicles (b) watches
(c) railway wagons (d) cycles
10. Leaf springs are used where
(a) space is a problem
(b) space is no problem
(c) large amount of energy is to be absorbed
(d) none of the above

Ans. 1. (d), 2. (b), 3. (b), 4. (b), 5. (a), 6. (c), 7. (b), 8 (c), 9. (b), 10. (b, c).

Problems
8.2 A close-coiled helical spring of 10 cm mean diameter is made of 20 turns
of 10 cm diameter steel rod. The spring carries an axial load of 100 N. Find
the shearing stress developed in the spring and the deflection of the load.
Assume modulus of rigidity to be 84 GPa.
[Ans. 25464791 N/m2, 1.904 cm]
8.3 It is required to design a close-coiled helical spring which shall deflect 1
cm under an axial load of 100 N with a shear stress of 90 MPa. The spring
is to be made out of round wire having a modulus of rigidity of 80 GPa,
and the mean diameter of the coils is to be 10 times the diameter of the
wire. Find the diameter and length of the wire necessary to form the
spring. [Ans. 5.32 cm, 88.91 cm]
8.4 A close-coiled helical spring is made out of round steel wire 6 mm in
diameter, the coils having a mean diameter of 8 cm. What axial pull will
produce a shear stress of 140 MPa? If the modulus of rigidity of the wire
is 80 GPa and the spring has 20 coils, how much will the spring extend
under this pull and how many N-m of work must be done in producing
this extension? [Ans. 148.44 N, 11.728 cm, 8.705 N-m]
8.5 An engine valve spring designed to have a maximum load of 450 N with
a corresponding deflection of 3.8 cm, is having an internal diameter of
3.8 cm. The spring is made of tempered steel wire. Since the material is
subjected to repeated loading and fatigue must be considered, a low
working stress of 2810 bar will be used. Determine the size of the wire
and number of coils to be used. Assume a value of 6 for the ratio of
222 Strength of Materials

meandiameter of coils to the diameter of wire. The modulus of elasticity

of the spring material is 84360 MPa. [Ans. 0.553 cm, 23.24]
8.6 A close-coiled helical spring of 10 cm mean diameter is made up of 1 cm
diameter rod and has 20 turns. The spring carries an axial load of 200 N.
Determine the shearing stress. Taking the value of modulus of rigidity 84
GPa, determine the deflection when carrying this load. Also calculate the
stiffness of the spring and the frequency of free vibration for a mass
hanging from it.
[Ans. 50929582 N/m2, 3.8095 cm, 5250 N/m, 2.5539 c/s]
8.7 A close-coiled helical spring is made of steel wire 6 mm diameter, has 10
turns of mean diameter 7.5 cm and the pitch of the coils when the spring
is unloaded is 2 cm. Determine the axial load which when gradually applied
will cause the coils just to close up. Take G = 80 GPa. [Ans. 430 N]
8.8 A leaf spring is to be made of seven steel plates 65 mm wide and 6.5 mm
thick. Calculate the length of the spring, so that it may carry a central load
of 2.75 kN, the stress being limited to 160 N/mm2.
Also calculate the deflection at the centre of the spring. Take E = 210
GPa. [Ans. 74.42 cm, 1.623 cm]
8.9 A leaf spring 1 m long is made up with steel plates with width equal to 7
times the thickness. Design the spring for a load of 15 kN, when the
maximum shear stress is 160 MPa and the deflection is not to exceed 1.5
cm
8.10 From what height a load of 150 N be dropped on a spring having energy
750 N—cm in order that the coils just close up? [Ans. 2.6 cm]
8.11 A wagon weighing 10 kN is moving at a speed of 8 km per hour. How
many springs are necessary to absorb the energy due to motion if the
compression of the springs is limited to 18 cm. Each spring is made of
2 cm diameter rod having 12 turns with a mean diameter of 16 cm. Take
G = 80 GPa. [Ans. 5]
8.12 An open-coiled helical spring made of 10 mm diameter wire and of mean
diameter 10 cm has 12 coils, angle of helix being 15°. Determine the axial
deflection and the intensities of bending and shear stress under a load of
500 N. Take G = 80 GPa and E = 200 GPa.
[Ans. 6.13 cm, 65.9 MPa, 123 MPa.]
8.13 Two close-coiled helical springs wound from the same wire but with
different core radii, are compressed between rigid plates at their ends.
Calculate the maximum shear stress induced in each spring, if the wire
diameter is 10 mm and the load applied between the rigid plates is 500 N.
The core radii of the springs are 7.5 cm and 10 cm respectively.
[Ans. 75.6 MPa, 134.3 MPa]
COLUMNS AND STRUTS

9.1 DEFINITIONS
Column A vertical slender bar or member subjected to an axial compressive
load is called a column.
Strut A slender bar or member in any position other than vertical, subjected
to an axial compressive load, is called a strut.
Slenderness ratio It is the ratio of the length of the column to the minimum
radius of gyration of the cross-sectional area of the column.
Buckling factor The ratio between the equivalent length of the column to the
minimum radius of gyration is called the buckling factor.
Buckling Load When the axial load increases continuously on a column, at a
certain value of the load, the column will just slightly be deflected or a little
lateral displacement will take place in it. At this position, the internal forces
which tend to straighten the column are just equal to the applied load. The
minimum limiting load at which the column tends to have lateral displacement
or tends to buckle, is called a buckling or crippling or critical load. Buckling
takes place about the axis having minimum radius of gyration or least moment
of inertia.
Safe load The load to which a column is subjected and which is below the
buckling load is called the safe load. It is obtained by dividing the buckling load
by a suitable factor of safety.
Buckling Load
Safe load —
Factor of safety

9.2 CLASSIFICATION OF COLUMNS

Depending upon the length to diameter ratio or slenderness ratio, the columns
are divided into three classes.
224 Strength of Materials

(a) Short column The column that fails primarily due to direct stress is
called a short column. Short columns are those whose length is less than 8 times
the diameter or whose slenderness ratio is less than 32.
(b) Medium column The columns having lengths varying from 8 to 30
times their diameter or their slenderness ratio between 32 to 120 are called
medium columns.
(a) Long column The column that fails primarily due to the bending stress
and whose slenderness ratio is more than 120 or whose length is more than 30
times the diameter (or the least side) is called the long column.

9.3 EULER'S FORMULA

In 1757, Swiss mathematician Leonhard Euler first analysed the long columns
mathematically ignoring the effect of direct stress, and determined critical loads
that would cause failure due to buckling only. His analysis is based on certain
assumptions.

9.4 EULER'S ANALYSIS

Euler's analysis is based on the following assumptions:
1. Column is initially straight.
2. It is made of homogeneous material.
3. Load is truely axial.
4. Self-weight of the column is neglected.
5. The stresses do not exceed the limit of proportionality.
6. Flexural rigidity is uniform.
7. The column fails only due to buckling.
8. The shortening of the column due to axial compression is negligible.

9.5 END CONDITIONS

9.5.1 Both Ends Hinged
Consider a column of length L hinged at both ends A and B A
carrying an axial compressive load P as shown in Fig. 9.1.
Consider a section at a distance x from one end A and let y C
be the deflection there. The bending moment at a distance
x is
Mr = —
d 2,
El dx 2 =— M1 =—Py

Or, gt .612y + =0 IP
. thc2 Fig. 9.1
 Columns and Struts 225

d 2y P
+ 9, = 0 (i)
dx2 El
P
Let us put -- = m2
EI
2 n
2
dx 2
X2
+my—v
The general solution of Equation (ii) is
y = C1 cos mx + C2 sin mx
where C1 and C2 are constants of integration.
We know two positions where y is zero.
At x = 0, y = 0
0 = CI + 0C1 =0,
At x = L, y = 0
0 = 0 + C2 sin mL
C2 sin mL = 0
Now C2 # 0 because if C2 = 0, Then y = 0
and the column will remain straight, which is not true.
sin mL = 0 mL = nr, n = 0, 1, 2, 3
mL = 7r, the smallest value other than zero. The higher values corresspond
to higher harmonics of the deflected column and are of no practical use.
Least value of m = —
L
2
2 g P _
m = L2 = EI
The least buckling load
2
7r 2 El ir EI
P=
L2 e

where le = equivalent length = L

9.5.2 Both Ends Fixed

Consider a column of length L fixed at both ends as shown
in Fig. 9.2. Let M be the end fixing moment. Consider a
section at a distance x from the end A and let y be the
deflection there. The bending moment at a distance x is
Mx = 13.y — M
2
d y
EI dx2 = — Mx = — 13.y + M

d2 y P M
(i)
dx2 El Y = El
Let P =m2 Fig. 9.2
El
226 Strength of Materials

d2y 2
dx 2 + m .y = El
The general solution of Equation (ii) is

y = C1 cos MX + C2 sin mx +
P
At x = 0, y = 0
0 = C1 + 0 + - .* C1 = —
dy
= —C1 m sin nix + C2 in cos mx
dx
dy
At x=0 =0
dx
0 = 0 + C2 M .% C2 = 0
M M
Y=— cos mx + (1 - cos mx)
P P
At x = L, y = 0
0 = — (1 — cos mL)

Now — 0
1 — cos mL = 0 or cos niL = 1 mL = 0, 2n, 4n
Taking the least value, mL = 27r
2ir
m=

47r2
m2 =
L2 El
4r2 El
The least buckling load, P = (iv)
L2
ir 2 EI n 2 El
(v)
( 42
12 J2
where le = equivalent length =

9.5.3 One End Fixed and the Other End Hinged

Consider a column hinged at end A and fixed at end B as shown in Fig. 9.3.
There shall be a fixing moment M at the fixed end B. To keep the column in
equilibrium there must be a horizontal force F at the hinge A. Consider a section
at a distance x from end A.
M, = Py —Fxx
 Columns and Struts 227

d
2 2y
EI =—Mx =—P•y+Fxx
dx
d2 y P Fxx
•y= (i)
dx 2 + El El
The solution of Equation (i) is
Fxx
y = Cl cos mx + C2 sin mx + (ii)

where nz2 = P
El
At x = 0, y = 0 C1 = 0
At x = L, y = 0
Fig. 9.3
mL + F x L
0 = 0 + C2 sin
dy
Also at x = L, =0
dy F
— = C2 M. cos mx -I-
dX P
F
0= C2 m cos mL +
P
F x 1
or
C2= P . m cos triL
Fx L
. 0 = F x tan mL +
P •m P
F[ tan mL1
0= L
P in
F
Now 0
P
tan mL
L =0
Or tan mL = mL
or tan mL — mL = 0

mL 1 2 3 4 4.49 5
tan niL — mL 0.55741 —4.18504 —3.14255 —2.84218 —0.006775 —8.38051

mL = 4.49

or • L 4 49
EPI = .
P • L2 = 20
El
228 Strength of Materials

20 El,2x2 El
P=
L2 L2
27r2 El K2 El ir 2 El
The least buckling load, P = — —
L2 ( L )2 le2
li)

where le equivalent length =

9.5.4 One End Fixed, the Other End Free

Consider a column of length L fixed at end B and free at end
A as shown in Fig. 9.4. Let the horizontal deflection of the end
A be e. Consider a section at a distance x from end A.
Mx = —P (e — y)
2y
EI 2 = — Mx = P (e — y)

or
d2 y P _ P.e (i)
dx2 El Y — El
The general solution of Equation (i) is
y = CI cos mx + C2 sin mx + e
where m2 = Fig. 9.4
El
At x = L, y = 0
0= C1 cos mL + C2 sin mL + e
dy
At x = L, — = 0
dx
dy
= — Col sin mx + Cf m cos mx
dx
0 = — Crm sin mL + C2.m cos mL
Also at x = 0, y= e
e = CI + e C1 = 0
e
C2
sin mL
0= em x cos mL or cos mL = 0
sin mL
37r
mL = — —
2' 2
= (2n + 1) n = 0, 1, 2,
 Columns and Struts 229

Taking the least value, i.e. n = 0

mL = —
2
7r K 2 El
= P=
El L 2 4 L2
2
El ireEl
(2L)2 e
where 1e = equivalent length = 2L.

9.6 LIMITATIONS OF EULER'S FORMULA

7r 2 El El
For hinged ends, P—
L2 le
where le is the equivalent length

2 E•A•k 2 ir2 E A
P = ir (4 )2
le
k

p 2E
Euler's crippling stress is, crc = = Ir
A (/ 2
e
k)

le . Taking ac = 320
The value of ac depends upon E and slenderness ratio ( —
k
MPa and modulus of elasticity for mild steel E = 210 GPa
••. CYc 320 x 106
2
it E
or ( )2 < 320 x 106

k
2
ie ) 2 X 210 x109
or 6478.6
k 320 x106

80.48
Thus, for Euler's formula to be valid the slenderness ratio for mild steel strut
should not be less than 80.48. In practice, we come across a greater number

of columns having ratio less than 80.48. If Euler's formula is used for such

columns the buckling load will be considerably more than it should be. On
account of this, Euler's formula is not widely used in practice.
230 Strength of Materials

9.7 EMPIRICAL FORMULA

9.7.1 Rankine's Formula
Columns which are very short fail due to pure compression and those which
are very long fail due to bending (as the effect of direct stress is negligible here).
But those columns which are neither very short nor very long fail due to the
combined effect of direct compression and bending stresses.
Rankine proposed a relation for finding out the buckling or crippling load
considering the ultimate load Pe = cre •A for a very short column and Euler's
buckling load
20
E = 2 for a very long column.
le
1
As per Rankine PR = — 1 +1
pc PE
where PR = crippling load for both types of columns
1 PE + PC
PR
F
Pc-PE
Pc
P•P
or P R = pC+Ep
Pc
E e 1 +P

cc • A cc • A
o- C• A•Pe a C• A•Ie2
2
EI 7r 2 •E•A•k 2

cc A

1+ (112
7raCE
2. k

PR 6c • A
— 2
1+ a(-e-)

6c
where a = 2 which is a constant.
it • E
1
For mild steel a = , = 276.3 MPa, E = 210 GPa
7500 6c

Cast iron a = a = 562.5 MPa, E = 91.19 GPa

1600 c
1
Wrought iron a = — = 233.6 MPa, E = 213 GPa
9000 c
 Columns and Struts 231

1
Aluminium a = ,a = 119.1 MPa, E = 70 GPa
5000
1
Timber a = Cr = 473.6 MPa, E = 96 GPa.
2000

9.7.2 Gordon's Formula

According to Gordon Crippling load, P= ac .A

1+ /3

where p = a constant
d = least diameter or breadth of bar

9.8 ECCENTRIC LOADING

9.8.1 Secant Formula
Consider a column of length L hinged at
both ends and subjected to an eccentric
load P as shown in Fig. 9.5. Consider a
section at a distance x from the end A.
= P'Y
d2
El = — MC = —
dx2y
d2y
El + P.); = 0 Fig. 9.5 Hinged column sub-
dx 2
jected to eccentric load
d2 y p
y =0
dx2 El
2
Let = nt
El
d2y 2y 0
m (i)
dX 2
The general solution of Equation (i) is
y = C I cos MX C2 sin nix
At x = 0, y = e Ci = e
At x = L, y = e
e = e cos tirL, + C2 sin mL
e (1— cos mL) mL
C2 - = e tan
sin mL 2
tnL
y e cos nix + e tan sin nix
2
232 Strength of Materials

L
At x = — the deflection is maximum
2
mL mL mL
yina. = e cos — + e tan — • sin
2 2 2
2 mL
COS sin2
2 2 mL
=e = e•sec
mL 2
cos
2
L
= e • sec
El 2
I PL
Now Mrnax = P X Ymax = P'e• sec EI 2
The resultant stress,

A -=
m sec
P' L
AK''`
-r
= A Z A A' El 2
P
Y e • sec11E1-
= [I -I- - ,
A K` ]
where yc = distance of the outermost fibre which is in compression from the
neutral axis.
For the other end conditions, we may write

= 1+ e. Yc sec •—
le
A K2 El 2
where le = equivalent length of the column.

SOLVED PROBLEMS
Problem 9.1 Find Euler's crushing load for a hollow cylindrical cast-iron
column, having 15 cm external diameter and 2 cm thickness, if it is 6 m long
and hinged at both ends. E = 80 GPa. Compare this load with the crushing load

as given by Rankine's formula, using constants 550 MPa and 1600 . For what

length of strut of this cross-section does the Euler formula cease to apply?
Solution:
A= [(0.15)2 - (0.11)2] = 81.7 x 10-4 m2
4
I= [D4 - d4] = [(0.15)4 - (0.11)4] = 17.66 x 10-6 in4
64 64
2 17.66 x 10-6
= 21.6 x 10-4 m2
K = = 8 1.7 x 1 0-4
 Columns and Struts 233

Euler's load is given by

ir2 El 7r2 x 80 x 10x 17.66 x 10-6
P, = 387327.14 N
L2 62
According to Rankine's formula
ac •A 550 x 106 x 81.7 x10-4
PR = 62 — 393591.24 N
4 ) 2 1
1+ a ( — 1+ 1600 x 21.6 x 10-4
The stress calculated from Euler's formula cannot exceed the yield stress of 550
MPa.
6 P 7r2 El ir 2 x 80 x109 x 21.6 x 10-4
550 x 10 = =
A A L2 L2
L = 1.761 m Ans.
Problem 9.2 A straight length of steelban 1.5 in long and 2 cm x 0.5 cm
section, is compressed longitudinally until it buckles. Assuming Euler's formula
to apply to this case, estimate the maximum. central deflection before the steel
passes the yield point at 320 MPa. Take E = 210 GPa.
SOlUi011:
2 x (05)3 _ 1 8
Imin = cm4 10- 1114
12 - 48 48
n2 N 7r2 x 210 x 109 x 10-8
P= = 191.9 N
L2 (15)2 x 48
There will be no deflection till the Euler load is reached. Let 6 = central
deflection
Maximum bending moment,
M = P•6 = 191.9 .6
Direct stress is given by,
61 =P . 191.9 1.919 MPa.
A 2 x 0.5 x10-4 =
Bending stress is given by,
M 191.98 x 6
a2 = z = 8 x 2302.8 x 106 N/1112
2 x (0.5)2 x 10-6
Total stress
320 x 106 = 1.919 x 106 + 2302.8 x 106.6
= 0.1381 m = 13.81 cm Ans.
Problem 9.3 A built-up beam shown in Fig. 9.6 is simply supported at its
ends. Compute its length, given that when it is subjected to a load of 40 kN/
m, it deflects by 1 cm. Find out the safe load if this beam is used as a column
with both ends fixed. Assume a factor of safety of 4. Use Euler's formula.
E = 210 GPa.
234 Strength of Materials

Y
30 cm
5 cm

E
X 0 X
cm-4—

5 cm
30 .cm
I
Y
Fig. 9.6

Solution:
0.3 x (1.1)3 - 0.28 x 13
i‘v - = 9.94166 x 10-3 m4
12
0.05 x (0.3)3 1 x (0.02)3
/YY= 2 x = 2.25666 x 10-4 m4
12 12
Let L be the length of the beam
Deflection at the centre is given by
5 x 40 x103 x L4
= 5 x WL3 = =0.01
384 El 384 x 210 x 109 x 9.94166 x 10-3
L = 14.1496 m
IC2 El n2 x 210 x 109 x 2.25666 x 10-4 x 4
Crippling load, P = =
L2 14.14962
= 9344516.5 N.
5.
16 5 = 2336129.1 N. Ans.
Safe load = 93444
Problem 9.4 Determine the ratio of buckling strengths of two columns, one
hollow and the other solid. Both are made of the same material and have the
same length, cross-sectional area and end conditions. The internal diameter of
hollow column is half of its external diameter.
Solution:
Let Ds = Diameter of solid column
DH = External diameter of hollow column
 Columns and Struts 235

D
Internal diameter of hollow column = H
2
Area of solid column = Area of hollow column

i D 2 = [D2 (pH )2 ]
4 s 4 H 2

or 3 x DH
2= 4
— Ds = 2 'DH
2
ir El
Buckling load of a column as given by Euler's formula is P =
L2
As both the columns are having the same length, material, cross-sectional area
and same ends conditions, the value of A, E and L are same for both.
P«1
Let Ps = Buckling load for solid column
PH = Buckling load for hollow column
Ir [ n4 (DH )4 ]
64 —1.1 2
PH = „ = III
PS or PH _ 15 DH
1H Is rS Is ir D4 16 44s
64 s
2
PH _ 15 x
x
DH = 15 x (4)2 15 x 16
Ps 16 DS 16 3) 16 9
Buckling load of hollow column = 5
—
Buckling load of solid column 3
Problem 9.5 A hollow cylindrical cast iron column is 4 m long with both
ends fixed. Determine the minimum diameter of the column if it is to carry a
safe load of 250 kN with a factor of safety 5. Take the internal diameter as 0.8

times the external diameter. Take cc = 550 MPa and ac = 1

1600
Solution:
Crippling load, P = 250 x 103 x 5 = 125 x 104 N
Area, A= 2 — (0.8 D)2] = iv x 0.09 D2
4 [D
Moment of inertia, I = [D4 — (0.8 D)4] = 0.009225 704
64

( I )112 [0.009225 irD4 1 2

K= = = 0.32 D
rc x 0.09 D`
236 Strength of Materials

C A
Using the relation, P = (k)2
1+ a

= 550 x106 x rx0.09D2

125 x 104
1+ ( )2
1600 0.32D)
or D2 D4
0.008038 =
1+
0.024414 = D2 + 0.024414
D2
or D4 - 0.008038 D2 - 0.0001962397 = 0
0.008038 ± \/(80.38 x 10-4)2 + 4 x 19623.97 x 10-8
D2 =
2
= 185.925 x m2
D = 13.63 x 10-2 m = 13.63 cm
Internal diameter = 0.8 x 13.63 = 10.9 cm. Ans.
Problem 9.6 A short length of tube, of 4 cm internal diameter and 5 cm
external diameter, failed in compression at a load of 240 kN. When a 2 m length
of the same tube was tested as a strut with fixed ends, the load at failure was
158 kN. Assuming that ac in Rankine's formula is given by the first test, find
the value of the constant a in the same formula. What will be the crippling load
of this tube if it is used as a strut 3 m long with one end fixed and the other
end hinged?
Solution:
Area, 14r (D2
A= — - d2) = —
74r [(0.05)2 - (0.04)2]
= 2:25K x le m2 •

Moment of inertia, I = [(0.05)4 - (0.04)4] = 5.7656n x 10-8 m4

64
Least radius of gyration,
IT = 15.7656 ir X 10-8 = 0.016 m
k=—
\ A 1 2.25 r x 10-4
P 240 x 103
crc -= A- = , = 339.53 MPa.
2.25xxx10—
By using the relation, P = acx A
1+ 492

= 339.53 x 106 x 2.25 x 7r x 10-4

158 x 103
1+ a
(0.01
16)2
 Columns and Struts 237

239999.61
or 1 + 3906.25 a = , - 1.5189
158 x 10'
09
518 1
a= - 0.0001328 =
3906.25 7530
Crippling load when used as a strut of 3m length with one end fixed and the
other end hinged:
cr x A 339.53 x106 x 2.25x ir x10-4
Using the relation P= c 2
1++)2 1 4. 1 ( 3 )
7530 x 0.016
= 71976.585 N
Problem 9.7 A strut of length L, moment of inertia of cross-section = I
uniform throughout and modulus of material = E, is fixed at its lower end, and
its upper end is elastically supported laterally by a spring of stiffness k. Show
from the first principles that the crippling load P is given by
tan aL
- 1 - — where a2 = —
aL kL El
Solutions:
The strut is shown in Fig. 9.7 in which
H = Lateral force due to spring of stiffness k.
P = Crippling load
= Deflection of the end B
Then k= H= k x 8
6
Consider a section at a distance x from the fixed end A
and let y be the deflection at that section.
Moment at the section is given by,
M = P (8 - y) - H (L - x)
dy
2 Fig. 9.7
El = PS - - H (L - x)
dx2
d2
El dx2 + P•y = P•8- H (L- x)

d2 y P _P 3 H a P HP
÷ . (L - x)
dx2 El Y - El • - El "' xl - El • P • EI
d2 y P P [ H
+ •y = - — (L- x)]
dx2 El El P
The solution of the above differential equation is

y = Cr cos (x • C2 sin (x • 11 ) + S. (L - x)
EI ) EI
238 Strength of Materials

H P
= C1 cos (x a) + C2 sin (x a) + 6 - (L - x) where a2 =
P El
a= (i)
El
At x = 0, y = 0
HL
0 = Ci x 1 + C2 X 0 + 6- (L - 0) = C1 + 6
P
Cl = HL 3. _(3 _ HL)
p p
Differentiating Equation (i) we have
dy
=- a sin (x a) + C2 a cos (x a) + 0 -
dx
= - C1 a sin (x a) + C2 a cos (x a) + 41
,-
dy
At x=0—=0

0 =- Gra.° + C2.a.1 + = C2 a+

C2 = -
H
Pa
Substituting he value of C1 and C2 in Equation (i) we have
H
y = -(8 - „lf • L) cos (x a) - Pa sin (x a) + 8 - — - x) (ii)
At the end B, x= L and y =
Substituting the above values in Equation (ii) we have

8=4 6— - H• L) cos (L a) - H sin (L a) + 6- (L - L)

P Pa
3. _(3 L) cos (L a) — Ha sin (L a) + b
Pa
(3 _ HL) cos (L H sin (L a)
Or
or a) =
P Pa
HL (8 H .L a

3 6 Pa - HLa)
or tan (L a) = P p

H
Pa
ra La) = _ ( 3 pa La)
k6
 Columns and Struts 239

Dividing by aL
tan (aL)
= - P + 1 = 1 - P Ans.
aL kL kL
Problem 9.8 A steel tube is initially straight and has an external diameter
of 3.8 cm, and internal diameter of 3.5 cm, 1.5 m long, and carries a compres-
sive load of 20 kN acting parallel to the axis of the tube but 0.2 cm from it.
Calculate the maximum stress in the tube. E = 210 GPa.
Solution:
Area, A = — g 2, 1.72 cm2 = 1.72 x 10-4 m2
4 (3.82 - 3.-D)

Moment of inertia, I = 64 [(3.8)4 - (3.5)4] = 2.87 cm4 = 2.87 x 10-8 m4

1120 x 103
a= I P = = 1.826
EI A1210 x 109 x 2.87 x 10-8
a 1.826 x 15
= = 1.366 radian = 78.28°
2 2
aL
sec = 4.92
2
Maximum bending moment is given by
M = Pe. sec (all = 20 x 103 x 0.002 x 4.92
= 196.9 N-m
Direct stress, _ p _ 20 x 103= 116.279 MPa.
1.72 X 10-4
M
Bending stress, a2 = Z = 196.9 x 0.019 = 130.353 MPa.
2.87 x 10-8
Maximum compressive stress,
max
= 61 + 62 = 116.279 + 130.353 = 246.632 MPa.
Problem 9.9 A hollow circular column of length 5 m, external diameter of
20 cm and internal diameter of 14 cm is fixed at both ends. It carries a load
of 200 kN at an eccentricity of 1.5 cm from the axis of the column, Find the
maximum stress.,developed. What should be the limiting eccentricity if tension
is not to develop? Take E = 95 GPa.
Solution:
Area A = (202 - 142) = 160.22 cm2 = 160.22 x 10-4 m2
4
Moment of inertia, I = (204 - 144) = 5968.24 cm4 = 5968.24 x 10_8 m4
64
240 Strength of Materials

1/2
200 x 103
m= = 0.1878
95 x 109 x 5968.24 x 10-8
mL _ 0.1878 x 25 = 0.2347 radian = 13.45°
2 2
mL
sec — = 1.0282
2
Maximum bending moment is given by,
mL
M = P•e• sec = 200 x 103 x 0.015 x 1.0282
= 3084.6 N-m-
Direct stress, _ P _ 200 x 103 = 12.4828 MPa.
- A - 160.22 x10-4
Bending stress, _ M = 3084.6 x 0.1 Q = 5.168 MPa.
62 - Z 5968.24 x
Maximum compressive stress,
acmax = a2 = 12.4828 + 5.168 = 17.6508 MPa.
Let the maximum eccentricity be 'e' for the tension not to develop. Now
(a1 - a2) must not be negative, i.e. a1 a2
P•e•sec mL
12.4828 x 10 6 M or 12.4828 x 106 2

or 12.4828 x 106 > P•e•sec x

2 /
0.1
200 x 103 x e x 1.0282 x
5968.24 x 10-8
3.44557 x 108 x e
12.4828 x 106
or e<
3.44557 x 108
0.0362 m
Thus limitng eccentricity for the tension not to develop is 3.62 cm.
Problem 9.10 A horizontal strut 3 m long, having pin joints at its ends, is
of rectangular cross-section, 4 cm wide and 10 cm deep and carries an axial
thrust of 100 kN together with a vertical load of 10 kN uniformly distributed.
Estimate the maximum stress induced and find the percentage error if the ad-
ditional bending moment caused by the eccentricity of the thrust were neglected.
E = 210 GPa.
Solution:
Area, A = 0.04 x 0.1 = 0.004 m2
 Columns and Struts 241

0.04 x (0.1)3
Moment of inertia, I = = 10-5 m4
12 3
112
P _ 100 x103 x 3
= 0.37796
a 210 x109 x 10-5
mL 0.37796x 3
= 0.567 radian = 32.484°
2 = 2
inL
sec = 1.1854
2
Maximum bending moment is given by
El [
M = w P see (trIL i ]
2 )
10 x 103 x 210 x 109 x 10-5
(1.1854— 1)
3x100x103 x3
= 4327.718 N-m
p 100 x 101
Direct stress, al = = 25 MPa.
A = 0.004
M 4327.718 x 0.05 x 3
Bending stress, a2 = = 64.915 MPa
= 10-5
Maximum compressive stress,
ac x = a + a2 = 25 + 64.915 = 89.915 MPa.
If the eccentricity n? the thrust is neglected
wL2 10 x 103 x 32
Maximum bending moment, M = = 3750 N-m
8 3x8
3750 x 0.05 x 3
Bending stress, a2 = = 56.25 MPa.
10-5
Maximum compressive stress = 61 + a = 25 + 56.25 = 81.25 MPa.
915 — 81.25
Percentage error = 89. x 100 = 9.636 %
89915

REVIEW EXERCISES
Multiple-Choice Questions:
9.1 Indicate the correct answer from the given alternatives.
1. Euler's formula holds good only for
(a) short columns (b) long columns
(c) medium columns (d) both short and long' columns
2. Rankine's formula holds good only for
(a) short columns (b) long columns
(c) medium columns (d) both short and long columns.
242 Strength of Materials

3. The slenderness ratio is the ratio of

(a) area of column to least radius of gyration
(b) effective length of column to least radius of gyration
(c) least radius of gyration to area of column
(d) least radius of gyration to length of column
4. According to Euler's theory, the crippling load for a column of effective
length 1 with one end fixed and the other end hinged is
ir 2 El EI 4-7r El EI
(a) 12 (b) (c) /2
(d) 67r
4/ 2 12
(e) none of the above
5. A column is said to be a short column, when
(a) its length is very small
(b) its cross-sectional area is small
(c) the ratio of its length to the least radius of gyration is less than 80
(d) the ratio of its length to the least radius of gyration is more than 80
(e) none of the above
6. The load at which the column just buckles, is known as
(a) buckling load (b) critical load
(c) crippling load (d) any one of the above
(e) none of the above
7. For long columns, the value of buckling load is crushing load.
(a) equal to (b) less than (c) more than
8. A column with maximum equivalent length has
(a) both ends hinged
(b) both ends fixed
(c) one end fixed and the other end hinged
(d) one end fixed and the other end free
(e) none of the above
9. Compression members always tend to buckle in the direction of the
(a) axis of the load (b) perpendicular to the axis of load
(c) minimum cross-section (d) least radius of gyration
(e) none of the above
10. A column that fails due to direct stress, is called
(a) short column (b) long column
(c) medium column (d) none of the above
11. According to Euler's column theory, the crippling load for a column of
length L fixed at both ends is the crippling load of a similar column
hinged at both ends
(a) equal to (b) two times (c) four times (d) eight times
 Columns and Struts 243 •

12. Critical load for a long column is the crushing load for same section.
(a) equal to (b) less than (c) more than
13. For a short column the slenderness ratio should be
(a) equal to 32 (b) less than 32
(c) more than 32 (d) equal to nearly zero
(e) none of the above
14. For a long column the slenderness ratio should be
(a) less than 80 (b) equal to 80
(c) more than 120 (d) less than 120
(e) none of the above
15. If one end of a hinged column is made fixed and the other end free, the
critical load shall
(a) increase by 2 times (b) decrease by 4 times
(c) decrease by 2 times (d) increase by 4 times
(e) remain the same
16. Secant formula is used for
(a) short columns under eccentric loading
(b) long columns under eccentric loading
(c) short columns under axial loading
(d) long columns under axial loading
17. If the end conditions of a column are changed from both ends hinged to
both ends fixed, the critical load shall
(a) increase by 4 times (b) increase by 2 times
(c) decrease by 2 times (d) decrease by 4 times
(e) none of the above.
18. Rankine constant for mild steel is
1 1 1 1
(a) (b) (c) (d)
1600 7500 5000 9000
Ans. 1. (b), 2. (d), 3. (b), 4. (e), 5. (c), 6. (d), 7. (b), 8. (d), 9. (d), 10. (a),
11. (c), 12. (b), 13. (b), 14. (c), 15. (b), 16. (b), 17. (a), 18. (b).

Problems
9.2 An alloy tube, 5 m long extends 0.6 cm under a tensile load of 60 kN.
Calculate the safe load with a factor of safety 4 for the same tube when
used as a long column with both ends fixed. The inner and outer diameters
of the tube are 2.5 cm and 4 cm respectively.

PL 2 El
Hint: ol = — = 65292 Nimm2, P ir e , Psafe = —
4 = 2.75 kN.
AE
244 Strength of Materials

9.3 Calculate Euler's buckling load of a T-section, having 100 mm flange

width, overall depth 80 mm and 10 mm thick all over. The column is 3
metres long and hinged at both ends. Take E = 210 GPa.
[Ans. 193.25 kN]
9.4 Find Euler's crippling load for a hollow cylinderical steel column of 38 mm
external diameter and 2.5 mm thickness. The length of the column is 2.3
m and hinged at both ends. Take E= 205 GPa. Also determine the crippling

load by Rankine's formula using constants as 335 kN/mm2 and

7500
[Ans. 16.88 kN, 17.16 kN]
9.5 A cast iron hollow cylindrical column 3 m in length when hinged at both
ends, has a buckling load PN. When the column is fixed at both ends, its
critical load rises to (P + 30000) N. The ratio of external to internal
diameter is 1.25 and E = 100 GPa. Determine the external diameter of the
column. [Ans. 7.5 cm]
9.6 Determine the ratio of the buckling strengths of a solid steel column to that
of a hollow column of the same material and having the same cross-

sectional area. The internal diameter of the hollow column is — of its

2
external diameter. Both the columns are of the same length and are pinned
3]
at both ends. [Ans. —
5
9.7 Determine the section of a hollow cast iron column 6 in long with ends
built-in if it carries an axial load of 900 kN. The ratio of internal to external
1
diameter is 0.75. Factor of safety 4, crc = 565 MPa and a =
1600
9.8 A straight bar 2 metres long is used as strut with both ends fixed. When
an axial load of 7.5 kN is applied, the bar is found to buckle. What should
be the diameter of the rod? Rankine's constants ac = 331 MPa and a =
1
[Ans. 1.621 cm]
7500
9.9 A hollow C.I. column whose outside diameter is 20 cm has a thickness
of 2 cm. It is 4.5 metres long and is fixed at both ends. Calculate the safe
load by Rankine's formula using a factor of safety 4. Calculate the slen-
derness ratio and the ratio of Euler's and Rankine's critical loads.
[Ans. 35.15, safe load = 877745 N, 2.42]
.10 A tubular steel strut is of 6.5 cm external diameter and 5 cm internal
diameter. It is 2.5 m long and has hinged ends. The load is parallel to the
axis but eccentric. Find the maximum eccentricity, for a crippling load of
0.75 of the Euler value, the yield stress being 320 MPa. Take E = 210 GPa.
[Ans. 0.005887 m]
 Columns and Struts 245

9.11 A bar of 4 m length when used as a simply supported beam and subjected
to u.d.l. of 30 kN/m over the whole span, deflects 1.5 cm at the centre.
Determine the crippling loads when it is used as a column with the follow-
ing conditions:
(i) Both ends pinned
(ii) One end fixed and the other hinged
(iii) Both ends fixed.
[Arts. 4112335.2 N, 8224670.4 N, 16449341 N]
 10
ANALYSIS OF FRAMED STRUCTURES

10.1 INTRODUCTION

Pin jointed framed structures are used for the roofs of industrial buildings and
also in machine structures.

10.2 DEFINITIONS

(a) Frame Frame is an assembly of straight members pin jointed at their

ends that can with stand external loads without undergoing any geometrical
distortions.
(b) Truss Truss is a structure whose members are pin jointed to form
triangles.
(C) Perfect frame A frame in which the
number of members are just sufficient to
keep it in stable equilibrium while carrying
applied loads at its joints is called a perfect
frame. In such a frame the following relation
must hold good.
n = 2j — 3 (i)
where ri = number of members and j = num- Fig. 10.1 Perfect frame
ber of joints in a framed structure.
A •B
(d) Imperfect frame A frame that has
lesser or more number of members than
needed for it to be perfect is called imperfect
frame. For an imperfect frame the condition
given by Equation (i) is not satisfied.
(e) Deficient frame If the number of
members n provided in a frame is less than the
number of requirement (2j — 3) the frame is Fig. 10.2 Deficient frame
unstable. Such a frame is called a deficient frame. In this case rt < 2j — 3
 Analysis of Framed Structures 247

(f) Redundant frame If the number of A B

members n provided in a frame is more than
2j — 3, then it is called a redundant frame. In
this case n > 2j — 3
(g) Tie A member which is under tension is
called a tie.
(h) Struts Compression members are called D C
struts. Fig. 10.3 Redundant frame

10.3 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN PLANE-FRAME AND SPACE FRAME

Table 10.1 Lists the difference between plane frame and space
frame

Plane frame Space frame

1. Members lie in the same plane. 1. Members lie in different planes.
2. Analysis for forces in the mem- 2. Analysis for the forces in the
bers is comparatively easier. members is difficult.

10.4 REACTIONS AT SUPPORTS

Frames are usually provided with either
(a) Roller or free supports or (b) Hinged support.
At a roller support the line of action of reaction will be at right angles to the roller
base. The reaction RB at the roller support B of the frame structure is shown
in Fig. 10.4.

RHA B Roller
support
Hinged Reaction is
RA support R normal to
the roller base
RVA

Fig. 10.4

At a hinged support, the line of action of reaction will depend upon the load
system on the structure. The reaction at A RHA consists of a vertical com-
ponent RvA I and a horizontal component as shown in Fig. 10.4.
248 Strength of Materials

10.5 SIGN CONVENTION

The arrows on the member of a frame represent only the internal forces set-
up and not the actual forces. Therefore if the arrows on a member point towards
each other then the member is under tension and if the arrows point towards
the joints then the member is under compression, as shown in Fig. 10.5.
0 0
10.6 METHODS OF ANALYSIS Tension

The following methods are used in analysing ° Compression

the forces in frames and trusses. Fig. 10.5 Sign convention
1. Method of joints
2. Method of section
3. Graphical method.

10.7 METHOD OF JOINTS

In this method after determining the reactions at the supports, the equilibrium
of each joint is considered by isolating each joint and drawing the free body
diagram for each joint separately. On each free body diagram the external forces
are marked out including the support reactions and also the forces, known/
determined- in any member. The unknown forces in the members at each joint
are then found out by applying the following conditions of static equilibrium.
E FH = 0 and E Fv = O
where E Fll and E F1, are the algebraic sum of the components of all forces in
horizontal and vertical directions and are equal to zero. As there are only two
equations of equilibrium therefore there should not be more than two unknowns
at the joint to be solved.

10.8 METHOD OF SECTIONS

This method is also based upon the conditions of static equilibrium. The three
conditions of equilibrium are
EFH = 0
EFL = 0
and EM=0
where E M is the algebraic sum of the moments of all the forces about any point
in the plane of the forces. As such section line should be so passed as to cut
as many members as the numbers of equilibrium equations we can have. After
the forces in the members cut by a section line have been determined, then, to
know forces in other members a fresh section line has to be passed cutting
another, set of members in which forces are desired to be known. This method
is very useful when forces in specific members particularly those away from
the supports, can be determined quickly by passing a section line cutting those
members. As there are three conditions of equilibrium, therefore while passing
 Analysis of Framed Structures 249

a section, care should be taken so that the section line does not cut more than
three members in which the forces are unknown. The moment should be taken
about the point where the other two members meet.

10.9 GRAPHICAL METHOD

When the members in the frame are large then the graphical method is used to
find out the forces in all the members. The method consists of the following
steps.
1. Draw the frame to scale. Show all the loads on it and give it proper Bow's
notation. This complete diagram is called space diagram.
2. Draw the vector diagram to a suitable scale. It represents the forces in all
the members of the frame.
3. Prepare the force table indicating the magnitude and the nature of the force
in each member.

SOLVED PROBLEMS
Problem 10.1 Find out the forces in
each member of the frame for the given load-
ing condition as shown in Fig. 10.6 below.
Solution:
Considering equilibrium of joint A
Since there is no load applied at A, members
AC and AB have nothing to balance. Thus
they are null members.
4 kN

Fig. 10.6

---1:\ A
FCC
Fig. 10.6a

4 kN
Considering equilibrium of joint B
FH = 0 Fig. 10.6b
FDB cos 45° = 4
or FDB = 5.66 kN (compression)
EFL = 0
FBC = FDB sin 45° = 5.66 x 0.707 = 4 kN (Tension)
Considering equilibrium of joint C
E Fv = 0
FcE sin 45° = 4
250 Strength of Materials

or FCE = 5.66 kN (Tension)

I Fr/ = 0 FBC
FDB
FDC = FcE cos 45° = 5.66 x 0.707 = 4 lcN
(compression) 45°
4 kN

Fig. 10.6c

FDC

4 kN

Fig. 10.6d Fig. 10.6e

Table 10.2

Member Tension Compression

AB Null Member
AC Null Member
DB 5.66 kN
BC 4 kN
CE 5.66
DC 4kN

Problem 10.2 Find out the forces in each member of the frame analytically
for the given loading condition in Fig. 10.7.

4 "---H E
100 kN
t

RH = 100 kN AA

RAV = 200 kN RB = 200 kN

Fig. 10.7
 Analysis of Framed Structures 251

Solution: Let RB be the reaction at roller end acting vertically up, perpen-
dicular to the base plate of the roller. Taking moments of forces about hinge A
and equating anti-clockwise and clockwise moments.
RB x 4 = 100 x 8 RB = 200 kN.
E Fl, = 0, i.e. RAv RB = 0
FCB
RAV = — 200 kN T = 200 IN
E FH = 0 FAB
RB = 200 kN
RAH = 100 kN.
The hinged end A balances all the horizontal
action of 100 kN. The roller end does not con- Fig. 10.7a
tribute any part to balance the horizontal force of
100 kN.
Joint-B
E Ft, = 0 FCB = 200 kN (compressive)
FAB = 0 (nothing to balance in horizontal direction) is a null member.
Joint-A
E FH = 0 FAC cos 45° = 100 FAC = 141.4 kN (Tensile)
E Ft, = 0
FAD + FAG sin 45° = 200 or FAD + 141.4 sin 45° = 200
FAD = 100 kN (tensile)

N•
N

Y.C) FAD PC)

45° 45°
100 kN A 100 kN A

200 kN

Fig. 10.7b

Joint-C
E = 0; FEC ± FAG cos 45° = 200 or FEC + 141.4 cos 45° = 200
FEC = 100 kN (compressive)
E FH = 0; FDC = FAG cos 45° = 141.4 cos 45° = 100 kN (compressive).
Joint-D
E FH = 0; FDE cos 45° = FCD = 100 kN
FDE = 141.4 kN (Tensile)
DF and EF are null members because at this joint each member individually has
nothing to balance.
Moreover it can be seen that at joint E, vertical Component of DE balances
the vertical force in member CE and at joint D, vertical component of DE
252 Strength of Materials

FEC
FDC
C
N•
FBC = 200 N
D
FCD = 100 kN
OP FDA

Fig. 10.7c Fig. 10.7d

balances the force in DF. Thus EF and DF are null members. Horizontal
component of DE at joint E also balances the 100 kN force.

Table 10.3

Member Tension Compression

BC 200 kN
AB
AC 141.4 kN
AD 100 kN
EC 100 kN
DC 100 kN
DE 141.4 kN
DF
EF

Problem 10.3 Find out the forces in each member of a pin jointed frame,
as shown in Fig. 10.8, under the loading and support conditions as per figure
below and present neatly in a tabular form.

60° 60° 60° 60° 60° 60°

A
rid
3m
B
3m
C
.... 3m
4 RD = 100 kN
'19v 1n4 m a ,, i n4 m
Fig. 10.8

Solution: Let RD be the reaction at support D which acts per-pendicular to

the base plate of roller. Taking moment of all the forces about A
RD x 9 = 90 x 6 + 120 x 3 RD -- 100 1(1•1 T
 Analysis of Framed Structures 253

Joint D
EFI, = 0; FGD sin 60° = 100
FGD = 115.5 kN (compression)
E FH = 0; FDc = FGD cos 60° = 115.5 x 0.5 = 57.7 kN (Tension)
Joint G
E Fy = 0; FGc sin 60° = FDG sin 60°
FGC = FDG = 115.5 (Tension)
I FH = 0; FFG = FDG cos 60° + FGc cos 60°
= 115.5 x 0.5 + 115.5 x 0.5 = 115.5 kN (compression)
Joint C
= 0 ; FFc sin 60° + 90 = 115.5 sin 60°
1155 x 0.866 - 90
FFC = 11.6 kN (compression)
0.866
FH = 0;
FCB = FcD FCG cos 60° + FFc cos 60°
= 57.7 + 115.5 x 0.5 + 11.6 x 0.5 = 121 kN (Tension)
Joint F
I = 0; FFB sin 60° = FCF sin 60° FFB = FCF = 11.6 kN (Tension)
E FH = 0; FEF - FGF FCF COS 60° + FFB COS 60°
115.5 + 11.6 x 0.5 + 11.6 x 0.5 = 127 kN (Compression)
Joint B
= 0; FEB sin 60° + FBF sin 60° = 120
FEB X 0.866 + 11.6 x 0.8666 or FEB = 127 kN (Tension)
FH = 0; FBA + FEB cos 60° = FBc FBF cos 60°
FBA + 127 x 0.5 = 121 + 11.6 x 0.5 or FBA = 63.5 kN (Tension)
Joint E
Fy = 0
FAE sin 60° = FEB sin 60° = 127 sin 60° FAE = 127 kN (compression)

Table 10.4

Member Tension Compression Member Tension Compression

DG 115.5 kN BF 11.6 kN
CD 57.7 kN EF 127 kN
CG 115.5 kN BE 127 kN
FG 115.5 kN AB 63.5 kN
CF 11.6 kN A3 127 kN
BC 121

Problem 10.4 Find out the forces in each member of the frame analytically
for the given loading condition as shown in Fig. 10.9.
254 Strength of Materials

= 100 kN = 100 kN

Fig. 10.8a

FFG

= 11.5 kN

Fig. 10.8b

Fig. 10.8c

FGF= 115.5 kN FEF FGF= 115.5 kN

60° 60° 60° 60°
FFB FcF = 11.6 kN FFB FcF = 11.6 kN

Fig. 10.8d

FEB FFE= 127 kN

= 11.6 kN
60°
60° 60°
FA FEB
B FBc = 121 kN

120 kN

Fig. 10.8e Fig. 10.8f

 Analysis of Framed Structures 255

8 kN 6 kN

Fig. 10.9

Solution:
Joint D
E =0
F1 sin 30° = 6 F1 = 12 kN (Tension)
E FH = 0
F5 = F'1 cos 30° = 12 x 0.866 = 10.4 kN (compression)
Joint C
Resolving the forces perpendicular to the plane
F6 = 10 cos 30° = 8.66 kN (compression)
Resolving the forces parallel to the plane
F2 = F1 + 10 cos 60° = 12 + 5 = 17 kN (Tension)
Joint E
E F1, = 0
F7 sin 60° = 8 + F6 sin 60° = 8 + 8.66 sin 60°
F7 = 17.9 kN (Tension)
F4 = F5 + F6 cos 60° + F7 cos 60°
10.4 + 8.66 x 0.5 + 17.9 x 0.5 = 23.7 kN (compression)
Resolving the forces normal to the plane
F3 = F7 sin 60° = 17.9 x 0.866 = 15.5 kN (compression)
Resolving the forces parallel to the plane
F3 = F2 + F7 cos 30° = 17 + 17 x 0.866 = 32 kN (Tension)

Table 10.5

Member Tension Compression Member Tension Compression

1 12 kN 5 10.4 kN
2 17 kN 6 8.66 kN
3 15.5 kN 7 17.9 kN
4 23.7 kN 8 32 kN
256 Strength of Materials

Fig. 10.9a

= 12 kN

F6 = 8.66 kN

Fig. 10.9b

F6 = 8.66 kN
60° AA 60°
E F5 .10.4 kN

8 kN

Fig. 10.9c

F8

30°
F2 = 17 kN
60°
60°
.F3 = 15.5 kN F7 = 17.9 kN

Fig. 10.9d

Problem 10.5 For the truss shown in Fig. 10.10 determine

(i) the reactions at the two supports A and B in magnitude and direction
(ii) forces in all the members and their nature.
 Analysis of Framed Structures 257

1000 N
\2

2000 N

/ 1000 N

RA

Fig. 10.10

Solution: Let RA be the reaction at the roller support A. The reaction RA shall
be vertical.
In triangle ABC we have
BC 2 BC 2x6 = 12
= cos 30° = AB =
AB 2
Taking moments about B
12
RA X r- - 2000 x 3- 1000 x 6

RA = 1000 j NT
The resultant of all the three loads is 4000 N acting at right angle to BC at D.
Resolving it vertically we have, V = 4000 sin 60° = 2000 ViNT
Resolving it horizontally we have, H = 4000 cos 60° = 2000
Let R Bv = Vertical component of support reaction at B
RBH = Horizontal component of support reaction at B
Now resolving all the forces vertically we have
RB
EFL = 0
RBv + RA - V = 0
,i0o0P
or R Bv + 1000 J - 2000 -13- = 0
RBv = 1000 13-
NT
2000
Resolving all the forces horizontally we have
I FH = 0; RBH H = 0 Fig. 10.10a
or RBH + 2000 = 0 RBH = 2000 N

RB = -‘1(10001,5)2 + (20002 = 1000 -F7 N

It makes an angle 0 with the horizontal,

t 1000,5
an B
= 2000 2
258 Strength of Materials

Consider the equilibrium of truss to the right of

section 1-1 [Fig. 10.10(b)]
Taking E Ft, = 0; FBD sin 30° RBV = 0
F
BD ÷ 1000 h = 0 E

FBD 2000 6 N
Fig. 10.10b
FBD = 2000 J N
(compression)
Taking E FH = 0; /2000 N

FBD cos 30° e-

FBE RBH =

- 2000 At3 x 2+ FBE - 2000 = 0

FBE = 5000 N
(Tension) Joint-D
Consider equilibrium of joint D [Fig. 10.10(c)]
As the joint is a right angle one FDE shall balance Fig. 10.10c
the load 2000 N
FDE = 2000 N (Compression)
The force FcD will balance force FBD
FCD = 2000 N (compression)
Consider equilibrium of truss to the left of sec-
tion 2-2 [Fig. 10.10(d)]
Taking moment about B
RA X AB - FcE sin 30° x 6 = 0

1000x - FCE x 0.5 x 6 = 0 \E

FcE = 4000 N (Tensile) Section 2-2

Consider equilibrium of joint A Fig. 10.10d

E Ft, = 0 FAc sin 60° + RA = 0

FAC X -27 + 1000 =0

FAC = - 2000
FAC = 2000 N (compression)
E FH = 0; FAc cos 60° - FAE = °
1
FAE = F 4c cos 60° = 2000 x -
2
= 1000 N (Tension). A •E
Problem 10.6 A pin jointed frame is shown Joint A
in Fig. 10.11. It is hinged at A and loaded at D.
A horizontal chain is attached to C and pulled so Fig. 10.10e
 Analysis of Framed Structures 259

that AD is horizontal. Determine the pull in the chain and also the force in each
member stating whether it is in tension or compression. [AMIE winter-1991]

Fig. 10.11

Solution: Let P be the pull in the chain. The load 2000 N at D can be
replaced by a horizontal load of 1000 N and a vertical load of 1000 N at
D, as shown in Fig. 10.11(a).

4000P
P- 3

1000P
RAH- 3 N
1000,r2- N
RAH 1.2 m
1000f2 N
RAV= 1000.2. N

Fig. 10.11a

Taking moment of the forces about the hinge A

P x 0.9 = 1000 -J2 x1.2 p_ 1200 fi — 4000 N.

0.9 3
Let RAH be the horizontal component of the reaction at A.

Resolving the forces horizontally, RAH + 1000T2

4000fi
3

RAH = 4000
00 1000 1h
3

RAH = 100
1000 N. —>
3
260 Strength of Materials

2
(1000.,/2 r- 2 2000/5-
RA = + (1000,a) = N
3 3
Let RAv be the vertical component of the reaction at A.
Resolving the forces vertically, we get
RAv = 1000 J IN.
Joint A
Resolving vertically FBA sin 30° = 1000
FBA = 2000 N (compressive)
Resolving horizontally
100015
FAD ÷ = 2000 ,./2 cos 30°
3

FAD = 2000 h x
1000J = 1978.085 N. (Tension)
2
Joint C
BD = 1.2 sin 30° = 0.6 m, BE = 0.6 sin 30° = 0.3 m
ED= 0.6 cos 30° = 0.52 m, CE = 0.9 — 0.52 = 0.38 m
BE 0.3
Let LBCE = 6 tan = = 0 = 38° 17' 24".
CE 0.38
Resolving horizontally

FcB sin 0 = P =
400011i
3
4000 ,F2-
FCB— — 3 x sin 38.29° = 3043.06 N (compression)
Resolving vertically,
FCD = FcB cos 0 = 3043.06 x cos 38.29° = 2388.45 N (Tensile)
Joint D
Resolving horizontally
FDB cos 60° = FDA — 1000 1[2-
1978.085 —1000
FDB = 1127.74 N (Compressive)
cos 60°

Table 10.6

Member Tension Compression Member Tension Compression

AB — 2000 ,5 N DB — 1127.74 N
BC — 3043.06 N
CD 2388.45 N —
DA 1978.085 N
 Analysis of Framed Structures 261

Problem 10.7 Find graphically or otherwise the forces in all the members
of the truss shown in Fig. 10.12. Indicate the result in a tabular form.

REV =

Fig. 10.12

Solution: Let RED, and REH be the vertical and horizontal components of the
reaction at E.
2 1
tan 0= — =
4 2
1 2
= and cos 0 =
1.15
Taking moment about A
REH X 4 = 10 x 8 •• • R EH = 2° IN
Horizontal component of reaction at A, RAH = 20 kN <—
Let the vertical component of reaction at A be RAv
Resolving the forces at A horizontally,

FAB cos 0 = 20 .. FAB = = 22.36 kN (Tensile)

2
Resolving vertically at A
1
RAV = 10 f sin = 10-i3 x = 10 INT
J5
Vertical reaction at E, REv = 0
Joint C
Resolving vertically
10
Fpc sin 0 = 10 FDC = sin 0 = 10 V3 = 22.36 kN (compressive)
Resolving horizontally
2
FcB = Fpc cos 0 = 10 13 x = 20 kN (Tensile)
J5
262 Strength of Materials

Joint D
Resolving vertically
1
FDB = FDC sin 0 = 10 .s,/3 x = 10 kN (Tensile)
V5
Resolving horizontally
2
FDE Fix, cos 0 = 10 AS x = 20 kN (compressive)
V5
Joint E
Resolving vertically
FEB sin 0 = REV = 0 FEB = O

Table 10.7

Member Tension Compression

AB 22,36 kN
BC 20 kN
CD 22.36 kN
DE 20 kN
EB 0 0
DB 10 kN

Problem 10.8 ABCDEF is a pin jointed frame with DA, AB, BE and ED,
forming a square of sides 3.6 metres and diagonal DB. The frame is suspended
from A and B and is extended on either side by horizontal bars DC (3.6 metres)
and EF (4.8 metres) and inclined members AC, BF. The frame carries loads of
20, 5, 15 and 10 kN at the joints C, D, E and F respectively. Using the method
of sections, determine the forces in the members CD, DA, BA and BD indicating
those in compression and tenion. Neglect the weight of members. AB is hori-
zontal.

RA

20 kN 5 kN 15 kN 10 kN
Fig. 10.13

Solution: The space diagram is shown in the figure. The frame is suspended
at A and B.
 Analysis of Framed Structures 263

Let RA = Reaction at A
R B = Reaction at B
Both these reactions will act vertically upwords. Taking moments about A,
3.6 RB = 15 x 3.6 + 1C x (3.6 + 4.8) - 20 x 3.6 = 66
Rig =
66 = 18.33 kN
3.6
RA = (20 + 5 + 15 + 10) - 18.33 = 31.67 kN
Considering section 1-1 and taking the free body
diagram of the left-hand portion which is shown R = 31 .67 kN
in Fig. 10.13(a).
Let al, 02 and a3 be the forces in the members
DE, DB and AB respectively. Taking moments
about D and putting I M = 0
p
20 x 3.6 - a3 x 3.6 = 0 a2 /
20 x 3.6 ► E
or 63 = = 20 kN (tensile) 61
3.6 3.6 m
Therefore the member AB is under tension. 20 kN 5 kN
Taking moments about A
a2 x AP + a1 x 3.6 -F 20 x 3.6 = 0 Fig. 10.13a
where AP = perpendicular from A to DB
62 x AP + 3.6 al + 72 = 0 (i)
Also taking moment about B we get
x 3.6 + 20 x 7.2 + 5 x 3.6 - 31.67 x 3.6 = 0
• 3.6 al + 144 + 18 - 114 = 0
-48 -40
or = kN
3.6 3
Putting this value in Equation (i)
a2 x AP + 3.6 (- 14
°) + 72 = 0

-24 24
62 = AP = 3.6 sin 45° = 9.43 kN
= 9.43 kN (compressive)
Therefore the member BD is under compres-
sion. Considering section 2-2 and taking the RA = 31.67 kN
left hand free body diagram which is shown in A
63 = 20 kN
Fig. 10.13(b). 65
Taking moments about C
65 x 3.6 + 20 x 3.6 - 31.67 x 3.6 = 0
where a5 = force in the member AD D
-4- 3.6 m -01
or a5 = 31.67 - 20 = 11.67 kN (tensile)
Therefore the member AD is under tension. 20 kN

Fig. 10.13b
264 Strength of Materials

Now taking moments about A

64 x 3.6 + 20 x 3.6 = 0 where a4 = force in the member CD
—72
a4 — = — 20 kN = 20 kN(compressive)
= 3.
Therefore the member CD is under compression.

Table 10.8
SL. No. Member Force in kN Nature
1 CD 20 Compressive
2 DA 11.67 Tensile
3 AB 20 Tensile
4 BD 9.43 Compressive

Problem 10.9 Determine the forces 454 N 454 N

in the various members of a pin jointed
framework shown in Fig. 10.14. Design-
ing the members by using Bow's notation,
tabulate the forces stating whether they
are in tension or compression.
Solution: First of all draw the space
diagram and name all the members
according to Bow's notations as shown in
Fig. 10.14(a).
Now draw the force diagram starting with Fig. 10.14
the joint 1 and considering the joints 2, 3,
4 and 5 in turn, as shown in Fig. 10.14 (b).

454 N 454 N

Fig. 10.14a Fig. 10.14b

The forces in the various members may now be scaled off from the force
diagram and tabulated as shown below:
 Analysis of Framed Structures 265

Table 10.9

Force
-.I Intker ; magnitude (NJ Nature
77 ! .8 Compression
r ----:-:;. r 612.9 Tension
954 Compression
TS 376.8 Tension
..i 1144 Compression
612.9 Tension

REVIEW EXERCISES
Multiple-Choice Questions:
10.1 Indicate the correct answer from the given alternatives.
1. In a perfect frame the number of members are
(a) less than (2j — 3) (b) equal to (2j — 2)
(c) equal to (2j — 3) (d) more than (2j — 3)
2. In a redundant frame the number of members are
(a) less than (2j — 3) (b) equal to (2j — 2)
(c) equal to (2j — 3) (d) more than (2j — 3)
3. In a deficient frame the number of members are
(a) less than (2j — 3) (b) equal to (2j — 3)
(c) equal to (2j — 2) (d) more than (2j — 3)
4. A truss can be solved by method of joints when the number of unknowns
at the joint is not
(a) less than 3 (b) less than 2
(c) more than 3 (d) more than 2
5. A truss can be solved by method of sections when the number of un-
knowns at the section is not
(a) less than 3 (b) less than 2
(c) more than 3 (d) more than 2
Ans: 1. (c), 2. (d), 3. (a), 4. (d), 5. (c)

Problems
10.2 Find the forces in each of the members of the king post truss loaded as
shown in Fig. 10.15.
Ans. AB = 20 kN Compression
BC = 12.96 kN Compression
CD = 12.96 kN Compression
DE = 20 kN Compression
266 Strength of Materials

8 kN

A
8kN 8kN

4kN 4kN

A . 6, 1

8m

Fig. 10.15
EF = 16 kN Tension
FA = 16 kN Tension
BF = 6.667 kN Compression
DF = 6.667 kN Compression
CF = 8 kN Tension
10.3 Find the forces in all the members of
the cantilever truss as shown in
Fig. 10.16.
Ans. AB = 26.6 kN Tension
BC = 23.1 kN Tension
CD = 11.55 kN Compression
BD = 13.3 kN Compression. Fig. 10.16
10.4 Determine the forces in all the members of the saw tooth truss as shown
in Fig. 10.17.

30 kN
Fig. 10.17

Ans. AB = 69.2 kN Compression

AE = 34.6 kN Tension
BE = 69.2 kN Tension
BC = 80 kN Compression
CE = 34.6 kN Compression
 Analysis of Framed Structures 267

DE = 86.5 kN Tension
CD = 100 kN Compression.
10.5 Find the forces in the members CD, DE, BC, CF and EF of the braced
cantilever as shown in Fig. 10.18.

40 kN 30 kN 20 kN

E
CD

E
6 m —I-1-4F— 6 m ► 6 m —Id

Fig. 10.18

Ans. CD 20 kN Tension
DE = 28.2 kN Compression
BC = 70 kN Tension
EF = 20 kN Compression
CF = 70.7 kN Compression
10.6 Determine the forces in the various members of the structure shown in
Fig. 10.19.
160 kN

Fig. 10.19

Ans. AB = 155.5 kN Compression

BC = 155.5 kN Compression
AO = 96.2 kN Tension
CO = 96.2 kN Tension
BO = 106.7 kN Tension
COMBINED DIRECT AND
11:
BENDING STRESSES

11.1 INTRODUCTION
We have seen that the load acting at the centroid of the cross-section of the
structural member produces only direct stress, either compressive or tensile in
nature. But very often it is observed that the line of action of the load and the
centroid of' the cross-section of the struc-
tural member do not coincide. such a load
is known as eccentric load and the line of
action of the load from the centre of grav-
ity of the body is known as eccentricity.
Examples of eccentric loading are:
(i) columns subjected to wind loads
(ii) Retaining wall holding back filling
such as earth, water etc.

11.2 LOAD ACTING ECCEN-

TRICALLY TO ONE AXIS
Consider a short column subjected to an Elevation
eccentric load P applied at a distance 'e'
from the axis of the column. At 0 intro-
duce two equal and opposite loads P. Now
the section is subjected to three loads. The
load P acting at 0 will cause a direct stress
and the other two loads, i.e. upward load
P at 0 and downward load P acting at a
distance 'e' from the axis of the column
will form a clockwise couple M = P.e.
Fiq. 11.1
 Combined Direct and Bending Stresses 269

Let A = area of cross-section of the column

ad = direct stress due to load P applied axially
ab = bending stress at a distance y from the neutral axis
ar = resultant of direct and bending stresses.

Thus Direct stress, ad = A

M•y P•e• y
Bending stress, ab =

Bending stress is tensile if y is measured to the left of the neutral axis (towards
the face away from the load) and is compressive if y is measured to the right
of neutral axis (towards the face nearer to the load).
Minimum resultant stress = ad — ab when ab is tensile
Maximum resultant stress = ad + ab when ab is compressive
p P •e•y
•• (Yr =crai- ab= A
There are three cases of stress distribution as shown in Figs 11.2 (a), (b) and (c).

ast11111_4_ ob:

ad > at) ad= crb

(a) (b)

Fig. 11.2

1. When ad > ab, ar(mx) and cr(w.) will be both positive. Therefore there will
be compressive stresses anywhere on the section.
2. When ad = ab, ar(nax)= ad + ab = 2ad and a = ad — ab = 0. Therefore
there will be compressive stresses anywhere on the section and the stress
will vary uniformly from zero at one edge to a maximum at the other.
3. When ad < ab, 0'0. 0 = ad + ad = (+)ve and ar(,nin) = ad — ab = (—)ve.
Therefore o-r(max) is compressive and ar(nin) is tensile.

11.3 LOAD ACTING ECCENTRICALLY TO BOTH AXES

Consider a column subjected to a load with eccentricity about two axes as

shown in Fig. 11.3.
Let P = Load acting on the column
A = Cross-sectional area of the column
e„= Eccentricity of the load about Y—Y axis
e„ = Eccentricity of the load about X—X axis
Moment of the load about X—X axis = Mx = P•ey.
Moment of the load about Y—Y axis = M y. = P•ex.
270 Strength of Materials

B
A

D C

Fig. 11.3

Eccentric application of load P is equivalent to an application of axial load P

at '0' and moments P•ex and P•ey about Y and the X axis respectively.
P
Direct stress due to the load P, ad =
A
P •ex •x = M •x
Bending stress due to eccentricity e, aby =
yy
P•e),•y Mx • y
Bending stress due to eccentricity e)„ tgbx =
IXT = I CC

Resultant stress, 6•,.- P ± Mx 'Y MY 'x

A 1.„
p Alcy Al.x
Maximum stress at B4 6B(max)
Or
—' = A I„ /3,3,

.y M y 'X
_ D(..") = p
Minimum stress at D, o- Mx
A 1., 1)3,
p A • v M y •x
Stress at A; aA = +
A /..„
x
Stress at C; ac = P Mx + MY
A /x„ y Iyy

11.4 LIMIT OF ECCENTRICITY

If the stresses are to be wholly compressive, i.e. if tensile stress is not required
to occur

P•e p
<_ e
Z A A
 Combined Direct and Bending Stresses 271

Now we shall discuss the limit of eccentricity in the following cases:

1. Rectangular section
2. Hollow rectangular section
3. circular section

11.5 CORE OR KERNEL

The area within which the resultant of the loads may be applied so as to avoid
tensile stresses is called the core or kernel of the section.

11.5.1 Core for a Rectangular Section

Consider a rectangular section of breadth b and depth d being acted upon by an
eccentric load P at an eccentricity e. The section bends about YY axis
d b3 b
yy = — • A = bd
12 ; Yin" = 2
Z
e<
_—
A

A•y
d b3 2 1
< — —x
12 x b bd
b
e< —
6

e must be less than or equal to k . Hence the greatest eccentricity of the load
6

is — from the YY axis. Therefore, if the load is applied at any distance less than
6

k from the axis, on any side of the axis YY the stresses are wholly compres-
6
!Y !y
A

X e 14— XX

1
b C ——-h
iy iy
(a) (b)
Fig. 11.4
272 Strength of Materials

sive. Hence the range within which the load can be applied so as not to produce
any tensile stress, is within the middle third of the base.
d
Similarly, the load must act at not farther than — from XX axis, i.e. it must
6
d
act within middle — so that no tension develops. If the load is likely to be
3
eccentric about both the axes XX and YY, the conditon of tensile stress will not
occur when the load is applied any where within the rhombus EFGH whose
d b
diagonals are FH = — and EG = — . This figure EFGH, within which the load
3 3
may be placed so as not to produce tensile stresses, is called the core or kernel
of the section.

11.5.2 Hollow Rectangular Section

Consider a hollow rectangular section of outer width B and depth D and internal
width b and depth d.
BD3 — bd 3
The modulus of the section, Z =
6D
Area. A = BD — bd.
We know that for no tension

e<
- A
BD3 bd 3
6D
BD — bd
BD3 — bd 3
— 6D (BD — bd)
This means that the load can be eccentric on either side of the geometrical axis
BD3 — bd 3
by an amount
6D (BD bd) •

11.5.3 Solid Circular Section

Consider a solid circular section of diameter, d as shown in Fig. 11.5.
70 4 d
I= .4
64 A = 442 Y max 2
We know for tension not to develop
 Combined Direct and Bending Stresses 273

e <_
A.

•
—A Ymax

4 2
< 704 x x
64 gd2 d
<d
- 8
Therefore, the load can be applied any-
d
where but not farther than — from the
8
Fig. 11.5
centre of the section. Thus, the diameter
d d
of the circle within which the load can be applied is 2 x — = . The shaded
8 4
portion in the Fig. 11.5 shows the core of the section.

SOLVED PROBLEMS
Problem 11.1 A rectangular column of 240 mm x 150 mm is subjected to
a vertical load of 10 IN placed at an eccentricity of 60 mm in a plane bisecting
150 mm side. Determine stress intensities in the section.
(D.C.E. Part-II, 1997)

240 mm
A

P= 10 kN

--11 60 mm

139 kN/m2

--Nizmiquiumm

695 kN/m2

Fig. 11.6

Solution:
10
Direct compressive stress, O = 0.15=278 kN/m2
0.24 x
Moment due to eccentricity, M = P x e = 10 x 0.06 = 0.6 kNm.
274 Strength of Materials

x 0.242
Section modulus about Y— Y axis, Z = 0.115 6 = 0.00144 mm3

0
Bending stress, ab = ± — = ± 0.00644 = ± 417 kN/m2
1
Stress at face CD = 278 + 417 = 695 kN/m2
Stress at face AB = 278 — 417 = —139 kN/m2.
Problem 11.2 The line of thrust in a compression testing specimen of 2 cm
diameter is parallel to the axis of the specimen but is displaced from it. Calculate
the distance of the line of thrust from the axis when the maximum stress is 20%
greater than the mean stress on a normal section.
Solution: Let the load on the section be P Newton
70 2
Area of the section = A = cm2

—
7r d 4
3
Section modulus = Z = / =64 =
Y d 70 32
2
Moment = M = P.e.
P 4P
Stress due to direct load = ad = —A= N/cm2
ird2

Stress due to moment = o-b = ± — = ± 32 P

gd3
4 P 32 Pe
Maximum stress = a, max = ab = 2+
Ird 3
P
Mean stress = 4
Ird -
Since the maximum stress is 20% greater than the mean stress
4 P 32 P • e 4P
702 + ird3 = 1.2 x 70 2
8e
or 1+ = 1.2
d
8e
or = 0.2
d
0.2 x d 0.2x2
e= = 0.05 cm.
8 8
Problem 11.3 A short C.I. column of hollow section as shown in Fig. 11.7
is acted upon by a vertical compressive load with an eccentricity of 5 cm. Find
the maximum load the column can carry if the maximum stresses in compres-
sion and tension are limited to 60 MPa and 3 MPa respectively.
 Combined Direct and Bending Stresses 275

5 f:

T
E
I
E
_
0 0
cv

[4-101cm-4
I
I
-4— 20 cm --1-1

Fig.11.7

Solution:
Area of the column, A = 20 x 20 — 10 x 10 = 300 cm2
P P
Direct compressive stress = Uri = =
A 300
Bending moment, M = P-e• = P x 5
204 —104
Section modulus, Z = 6 x 20 = 1250 cm3
Px 5
Bending stess, crb = ± — = ± = +
Z 1250 250
Now ad + Cb = 60 x 102
P P 250+ 300)
+ = 6000 or P (
300 250 300 x 250 = 6000
6000 x 300 x 250
P= = 818181.82 N
550
Also, ad — ay = — 3 x 102 or ab — ad = 300
P P (300— 250)
300 = 300 or P = 300
250 300 x 250
300 x 300 x 250
P= = 450000 N
50
The maximum load the column can carry = 450000 N = 450 kN.
Problem 11.4 A hollow circular column having external and internal diam-
eters of 40 cm and 30 cm, respectively, carries a vertical load of 150 kN at the
276 Strength of Materials

15 kN
e

Plan

Fig. 11.8

outer edge of the column. Calculate the maximum and minimum intensities of
stress in the section.
Solution:
External diameter, D = 40 cm
Internal diameter, d = 30 cm

Area, A = g
4 (D2 d2)) = (402 — 302)
4
= 549.778 cm2.
D4 _ da g 404 — 304
ir
Section modulus, Z = = 4295.146 cm3.
32 D 32 40
Eccentricity, e = 20 cm
Load, P = 150 kN = 150 x 103 N
Moment, M= P e= 150 x 103 x 20 N cm.
 Combined Direct and Bending Stresses 277

P M
Maximum stress, 6,
''max = ad + ab= A + z
150 x 103 150 x 103 x 20
+ = 971.3 N/cm2
549.778 4295.146
P M
Minimum stress, arm. = 6 a
d— b= A — Z
150 x 103 150 x 103 x 20
549.778 4295.146
= — 425.62 N/cm2 (tension) Ans.
Problem I I os A masonry pier of
A
3 m x 4 m supports a vertical load of
80 IN, as shown in Fig. 11.9. ,m
(a) Find the stresses developed at each
corner of the pier. x
(b) What additional load should be Load point
placed at the centre of the pier, so
that there is no tension anywhere in 4m --id
the pier section?
(c) What are the stresses at the corners
with the additional load in the centre? Fig. 11.9

Solution:
Akita =A = 4 x 3 = 12 m2
1
Itir= — x 4 x 33 = 9 m4
12
= x 3 x 43 = 16 rn4
/37 12
= 1 m and ey = 0.5 m
Moment, Mx = P•ey = 80 x 0.5 = 40 IN-m.
M3, = P•ex = 80 x 1 = 80 kN-m.
Distance between Y—Y axis and the corners A as well as B, x = 2 m.
Distance between X—X axis and the corners A as well as D, y = 1.5 m.
(a) Stress developed at each corner
P Mx Aly .x
Stress at A, aA = + -
A / xx /35,
= 80 40 x 1.5 80 x 2
+ = 3.333 kN/m2
12 9 16
P Af y .x
Stress at B, 6B = + +
A Ix, /35,
80 + 40x1.5 + 80x2
= = 23.333 kN/m2
12 9 16
278 Strength of Materials

p Alc y Al y .x
Stress at C, ac = +
A Ix, I yy
80 40 x 1.5 80 x 2
= 10 kN/m2
12 9 16
p Al cy Aly.X
Stress at D, Cc =
A I.xr I yy

80 40 x 1.5 80 x 2 = 10 kN/m2
12 9 16
= 10 kN/m2 (Tension)
(b) Let F be the additional load that should be placed at the centre for notension
in the pier section.
The compressive stress due to this load = = — kN/m2
A 12
For no tension in the pier section, the compressive stress due to the load
F, should be equal to the tensile stress at D, i.e. 10 kN/m2
— 10 F = 120 kN.
12 —
F 0
(c) Stress due to the additional load 120 kN = — = 12 = 10 kN/m2
A 12
Stress at A, crA = 3.333 + 10 = 13.333 kN/m2
Stress at B, 0-B = 23.333 + 10 = 33.333 kN/m2
Stress at C, ac = 10 + 10 = 20 kN/m2
Stress at D, ap = —10 + 10 = 0
Problem 11.6 A tie rod of uniform circular cross-section is required to
withstand a maximum tension of 5001(N, but the end fixing is such that the line
of action is off the axis of the member by 0.75 cm. Find the minimum diameter
of the tie rod if the maximum allowable stress is 12.5 kN/cm2.
Solution:
Let d = Diameter of the rod
500 2000
stress due to direct load, ad = = kN/cm2
702 ird2
4
Moment due to eccentricity of the load,
M = 500 x 0.75 = 375 kN cm
Stress due to moment,
M = 375 375 x 32
0-b = —
z rd3 = 12000lcN/cm2
xd3 rd3
32
Maximum stress = ad + ab = 12.5 kN/cm2
2000 12000
rd..., + re = 12.5
 Combined Direct and Bending Stresses 279

1
[2000 d + 12000] = 12.5
70 3
or 2000 d + 12000 = 12.5 x ird3
or 37.7 d3 — 2000 d — 12000 = 0
or d3 — 53.05 d — 318.3 =0
Solving by trial and error d = 9.33 cm.

REVIEW EXERCISES
11.1 A rectangular strut is 20 cm wide and 16 cm thick. It carries a load of
20 kN at an eccentricity of 12 mm in a plane bisecting the thickness. Find
the maximum and minimum intensities of stress in the section.
11.2 In a tension specimen, 15 mm in diameter, the line of pull is parallel to the
axis of the specimen but is displaced from it. Determine the distance of
the line of pull from the axis, when the maximum stress is 15 percent
greater than the mean stress on a section normal to the axis.
11.3 A steel flat section 150 mm wide and 20 mm thick is subjected to a pull
of 20 kN. Find the maximum and minimum stress intensities set up in the
section when the pull is acting at a distance of 4 mm in the plane bisecting
the thickness. [Ans. 77.3 N/mm2, 56N/mm2]
11.4 A hollow rectangular column is having external and internal dimensions as
2.4 m x 1.8 m and 1.2 m x 1.2 m respectively. Calculate the safe load,
that can be placed at an eccentricity of 50 cm on a plane bisecting the
longer side, if the maximum compressive stress is not to exceed 5 MPa.
[Ans. 720 kN]
11.5 A rectangular section 16 :Y
cm by 12 cm is subjected
to a compressive load of
200 kN acting at 6 cm
from 12 cm side and 3 cm
from 16 cm side. Find the E
X
maximum tensile and com- x C1

pressive stresses.
[Ans. 3.13 kN/cm2,
1.3 kN/cm2]
11.6 A steel rod of circular sec- 16 cm
tion carries a load of 100 y
kN acting 2 cm away from Fig. 11.10
the centre of gravity. Determine the diameter of the steel rod if the maxi-
mum stress is 43.5 MPa. [Ans. 9 cm]
 1
1
.
PROPPED CANTILEVER

12.1 INTRODUCTION
An additional support is provided other than the existing ones to a cantilever to
avoid excessive deflections or to reduce the values of bending moment. This
additional support is known as prop.

12.2 ANALYSIS
Consider a cantilever AB carrying a u.d.1. of w per unit length. The cantilever
is propped at B as shown in Fig. 12.1.

w/unit length

Aj
L
MA
(a)

co/unit length

trnstotstittetlititiMirntitella

(b)

(c)
Fig.12.1
 Propped Cantilever 281

The prop reaction can be obtained as discussed below:

(a) Assume that the prop at B is removed and calculate the deflection yl at the
free end, as shown in Fig. 12.1 (b).
(b) Now assume that the loads from the cantilever have been removed and the
cantilever is subjected to only the prop reaction RB. The upward deflection
caused by the prop reaction is determined.
(c) Now if the level of prop and the fixed end A be the same then
Yi — Y2 = 0
If, however, the prop sinks by an amount y then yi — y2 = y.
From the above relation, the value of prop reaction RB can be calculated.

12.3 PROPPED CANTILEVER WITH A CONCENTRATED LOAD

W AT ITS MID-SPAN AND PROPPED AT THE FREE END
Figure 12.2(a) shows a cantilever AB of length L fixed at A and the free end
B is supported on a rigid prop. W be the load applied at the middle point C of

RB

A W
1B

5
RB = — W
11 16
16 W
(b)

11
W
/We
-Eve
•
16

5
16 W
//,/ gnve/g/ //, 5
16 W
(c)
5
WL

— -1-
11 ,
///////7/7//
,f /7 7// //
C
8
x— L
11
3
f6 WL Point of contraflexure
(d)

Fig. 12.2
282 Strength of Materials

the span and let the prop reaction be RB. The cantilever can be looked upon as
being subjected to the following loadings.
(i) Downward point load W at C
(ii) Upward point load RB at B
As the deflection at B is zero, we have
Down ward deflection at B due to load W = Upward deflection at B due
to RB.

W( 2 1 )2 L RB L3
1) W ( 2
+ X—
3 EI 2 E1 2 3 El
W L3 W L3 RB L3
24 El 16 El 3 El
RB
Or = or W [2 + = RB
W [214 + 116] 3 48 3
5
R =— W
B 16
5 11
Reaction at A = RA = W — —
6 W 16 W
11
S.F. at any section between A and C W (+) ye
= 16
5
S.F. at any section between C and B = — W
The S.F. diagram is shown in Fig. 12.2 (c).
B.M. at B = 0
L
B.M. at C= W x -7.- = — • WL.
16 2 352
5 L
B.M.atA= — WxL—Wx— =— WL
16 16
The bending moment diagram is shown in Fig. 12.2 (d). Bending moment is
zero between A and C. Let the bending moment be zero at a distance x
from B.
5 L
Wx — W =0 or — x — x + — = 0
16 16

or
L
or x _ L
16 x = 2 16 — 2
11 L 8 ,
Or XX - =
.. =
16 2 " 11
8 3
The point of contraflexure is at a distance L from B or -ft- L from A.
 Propped Cantilever 283

12.4 A CANTILEVER WITH A UNIFORMLY DISTRIBUTED LOAD

w PER UNIT LENGTH AND PROPPED AT THE FREE END
Consider a cantilever AB fixed at A and propped at B, carrying a uniformly
distributed load w per unit run over the whole length L as shown in Fig. 12.3(a).
Let the prop reaction be RB.

B
RB

co/unit run

Oirettetititittitittitteiettitittiatta
X

(b)

(c)
9 2
128 °L

+ve
// //
C
3
Y— L
4

coL2 (d)
8

Fig.12.3

Neglecting prop reaction, the downward deflection due to u.d.l. at B,

Y =
B 8 El
RB L3
Upward deflection at B due to RB alone, YB =
3 El
Since the net deflection at B = 0, we have,
we RB L3 3
RB = wL
8 E1 3 EI
284 Strength of Materials

Reaction at B = R = W
B 8
5
Reaction at A = RA = wL - -
8 wL = wL
At any section distant x from B the shear force is given by
3
S.F = wx - - wL
8
At x = 0
3
S.F. at B = - wL
8
At x = L
3 5
S.F. at A = wL - wL = wL
8
Let at a distance x from B, the shear force be zero
0 = wx - 3 wL
8
x= 2L
8
At any section distant x from B the bending moment is given by
3 wx2
M= wL x -
8 2
At x = 0
i.e. B.M. at B = 0
At x = L
3 2 We We
i.e. B.M. at A = wL- - =
8 8
3
At x = L
8
3 3
i.e. B.M. at C = wL x L- —
w x ( L)2
8 8 2 8

= 9 wi? wL2 = wL2

64 - - - 128 128
Let the bending moment be zero at a distance y from B.
wy2
Then
8 wL.Y 2 =
w
16 y ( 6L - 8y) = 0
—
3
y=0 and y = L
 Propped Cantilever 285

At any section distant x from B, the bending moment is given by

2y 3 wx2
El = —8 wL x
dx2 2
Integrating, we get
dy 9 WX3 + C1
EI — = wL x- —
dx 16 6
At A the slope is zero
i.e. at x = L, — = 0
bc
wL3
0= x wL3 — we + C •
16 6 1 1— 48
dy = 3 2 wx 3 wL3
El x (i)
dx 1-6- 6 48
Integrating, we get
wL x 3 wx4 wL3 x
EL), = + C2
16 24 48
At A the deflection is zero
i.e. at x = L, y = 0
we we we
0= +C2 c2 = 0
16 24 48
wL x3 wx4 wL- x
=
16 24 48
Maximum deflection will occur where the slope is zero
3 9 WX 3 We
0 = -176- wL x- ,
6 48
or 9 Lx2 — 8 x3 — L3 = 0
or 8 x3 — 9 Lx2 + L3 = 0
3 9 L 2 L3
or x — x +— =u
g 8
Solving this equation by trial and error method, we get x = 0.422 L
Putting x = 0.422 L for maximum deflection in Equation (ii) we get
wL x (0.422 L)3 w (0.422 L)4 wL3 x 0.422 L
EI ymax
16 24 48
= — 0.005415 we
0.005415 ii,L4
Ymax = — El
0:0054T5 we
Maximum downward deflection —
El
286 Strength of Materials

--SOLVED PROBLEMS
Problem 12.1 Compute the reac- 10 kN/m
tion at the end C of the propped canti-
lever shown in Fig. 12.4.
Solution: 4m 2m
Here L = 6 m, Li = 4 m, w = 10 kN/m Fig. 12.4
Let Rc be the prop reaction at C.
The deflection of the cantilever at C due to u.d.l. on AB alone (neglecting prop
reaction),
wLi wL31
Yc= 8 El + 6 El (L — L1)
10 x 44 10 x 43 1600
(6 4) = (i)
8 El 6 El 3 El
The deflection of the cantilever at C due to prop reaction alone (neglecting
load on AB),
WL3 Rc x 63 72 Rc
Yc = 3 El (ii)
3 El El
Since both the deflections are equal,
1600 72 Rc
Rc = 1600 = 7.4074 kN. Ans.
3 El El 3 x 72
Problem 12.2 A propped cantilever 10 m long has 15 cm wide and 40 cm
deep cross-section. If the allowable bending stress and the deflection at the
centre are 10 MPa and 1.5 cm respectively, determine the safe uniformly
distributed load, which the cantilever can carry.
Take E = 120 GPa.

co kN/m
A itstistetetitotstellitetstitlitott

1.

(a)
Fig. 12.5

Solution:
Given, Length = L = 10 m, Width = b = 15 cm, Depth = d = 40 cm.
1 3 12 x (40)3
• Moment of inertia, I = — 1,4 — = 80000 cm4 = 8 x 10-4
12 12
 Propped Cantilever 287

Let w = Uniformly distributed load over the cantilever

Now the deflection at the centre of the cantilever is given by,
wL4
Yc 192 El
w x 104
1.5 x 10-2 =
192 x 120 x 109 x 8 x 10-4
w = 27648 N/m = 27.648 kN/m
Now bending moment at the centre of the cantilever is given by
wL2 w x 100
M= N-m
16 16
M
Using the relation, — = —
/ y
w x 100 10 X 106
16 X 8 X10-4 = 0.2
w = 6400 N/m = 6.4 kN/m
The safe uniformly distributed load is 6.4 kN/m.
Problem 12.3 A horizontal beam AB of 6 m span, is built-in at A and freely
supported at B. It carries a uniformly distributed load of 30 kN/m over the
whole length and a concentrated load of 160 kN at the middle of the span (Fig.
12.6). Determine the bending moment at A and the reaction at B.
160 kN
30 kN/m

A tottitottititittiebtottitotto ofitolla
3m
x

Fig. 12:6

Solution: Consider a section at a distance x from the fixed end A. The

bending moment at x
30
M, = RB (6 - x) - (6 - x)2 - 160 (3 - x)
We know
d2y
El = - M = - RB (6 - x) + 15 (6 - x)2 + 160 (3 - x)
dx2
Integrating
dy R
El — = 2 (6 - x)2 - 5 (6 - x)3 - 80 (3 - 42 ÷ C1
dx
Integrating again
R 80
5 (6 - x)4 + —
EL)) = - R (6 - x)3
+ 4 (3 - x)3 + CI x + C2
6 3
288 Strength of Materials

dy
At x = 0, — = 0
dx
18 RB — 1080 — 720 + C1 = 0
C1 = 1800 — 18 RB
At x = 0, y = 0
0 = — 36 RB + 1620 + 720 + C2
C2 = 36 RB — 2340
At x = 6 m, y = 0
0 = 6 (1800 — 18 RB) + 36 RB — 2340
RB = 117.5 kN
At x = 0
MA = 117.5 x 6 — 15 x 62 — 160 x 3 = — 315 kN m.
Problem 12.4 A horizontal cantilever ABC 4 m long is built-in at A and
simply supported at B, 3 m from A by a rigid prop so that AB is horizontal.
It AB and BC carry uniformly distributed loads of 20 kN/m and 30 kN/m
respectively, as shown in Fig. 12.7, find the load taken by the prop.
20 kN/m
30 kN/m

Fig. 12.7

Solution: Consider a section at a distance x from A as shown in Fig. 12.7.

The bending moment at this section is given by
x)2
Mx = — 30 (3.5 — x) + RB (3 — x) — 20(3

= RB (3 — x) — 10 x2 + 90 x — 195

El
dx2y 2
= RB (3 — x) + 10x - 90 x + 195
d
Integrating,
dy x 21 10 3
El • = — RB[3x + 45x2 + 195 x + C1
dx 2 3x

Integrating again
3x 2 33 + 10x4 195x2
= — R[ -- + 15x3 + + CIX + C2
2 6 2
dy
At x = 0 — = 0 C = 0
dx
 Propped Cantilever 289

At x = 0, y = 0 C2 = 0
At x = 3 m, y = 0
0= R L71 10 x 81
[27 4
6 12
R B = 60 kN. Ans.
Problem 12.5 A beam AB 2 m long, 10 kN/m
carrying a uniformly distributed load of 10
Ittlbtilretittitititetetil
kN/m is resting over a similar beam CD 1 A 0
m long, as shown in Fig. 12.8. Find the C
2m 1m
reaction at C.
Solution: The deflection at B will be Fig.12.8
the resultant of (i) downward deflection due to load on AB and (ii) upward
deflection due to reaction at B. But the deflection at C will be downward due
to reaction at C.
Downward deflection at B (of beam AB) due to u.d.l. of 10 IN/m.
we 10 x 24 20
YR =
—1 8 El 8 EI El
Upward deflection at B due to reaction at C (Re) alone,
3 RC x 2
3 8 Rc
Y = RC L = - X --
B2 3 El 3 El 3 El
Net downward deflection of the cantilever AB at B
20 8 Rc
YB = YB 1 — Y„ = x
-2 El 3 El
Again we know that the downward deflection of the beam CD at C due to the
reaction
•L3 Rc •13 RC
R=
C 3 EI 3 El 3 El
Since both the deflections at B and C are equal
20 _ 8 Rc _ Rc
x
El 3 3 El — 3 EI
20
R- = 3 kN.

Problem 12.6 A cantilever of length L is subjected to a point load w at its

free end. The cantilever is also propped with an elastic prop at its free end. The
prop sinks down in proportion to the load applied on it. Determine the value of
proportionality k for sinking, when the reaction on the prop is half of the load W.
Solution:

Reaction at the prop =

w
2
kW
Sinking of the prop =
2
290 Strength of Materials

The downward deflection of the cantilever due to load W at its free end
WL3
Y1 = 3 El
The upward deflection of the cantilever due to prop reaction R
W 3
2xL
RL3
Y2 =
3 El 3 El 6 El
Sinking of the prop = yi - Y2
kW WL3 WL3 WL3
2 3E1 6 E1 6 E1

k=
3 El
Problem 12.7 A cantilever of length L carries a u.d.l. of w N/m throughout

its length. It is propped on a point 71,

1" from the free end and the level of the prop

is so adjusted that there is no deflection of the beam at the free end. What is
the reaction at the prop and the deflection of the beam at that point? Sketch the
bending moment and shear force diagram for the beam.

w N/m
411141Mittitittitat$11411
3L

4 L
16L
v 27 1
(a)

r(-) v e
—r A Atb,..
wL2
4 20(1)0 Tirt )v—e
1 729
coL2
(b) 32

Fig. 12.9 (a) S.F. diagram (b) B.M. diagram

Solution: The downward deflection of the cantilever at the free end B

without the prop
wL4
8 El
 Propped Cantilever 291

The upward deflection of the cantilever at the free end B considering only the
prop reaction at C
2
R (3L)
I. )3 —c 4 )
Rc (3LL 27 Rc x L3
= + x L=
3 El 2 El 4 128 El
As there is no deflection at B, equating the downward and upward deflection
wL4 = 27 Rc . L3 16 wL
... Rc =
8 El 128 El 27
The downward deflection at a distance x from A due to only u.d.l. is given by
[ L2 x2 Lx3 x4
w
El.y= +
2 2 3 12
3L
Putting x = — , the deflection at C due to only u.d.l. is given by
4
2
L X( 31 3 (14
171 wL4
L2 X(311
4 4 4
)11' = 2 El 2 3 12 2048 El

16 wL
The upward deflection at C due to only the prop reaction Rc = is
27

Rc ( 41.13
16 wL 27 L3
Ycl' = = x = wL4
3 El 27 x 3 El 64 12 El
171 we wL4 wL4
The net downward deflection = =
2048 El 12 El 6144 El
Shear Force
S.F. at B = 0, S.F.
wL 16 wL 37 wL
just before prop = — — + Rc = wL +
4 4 27 108
16 wL = 11 wL
S.F. at A = — wL + Rc = — wL +
27 27
S.F. is zero at a distance x from the free end B is given by
16wL 16 L
wx =0 x=
27 27
Bending Moment
2
B.M. at C = — —
w (L
2 ) = 2
— wL2 16 wL 3L wL2
B.M. at A = x =
2 27 4 18
292 Strength of Materials

16L
The bending moment is maximum at D where S.F. is zero, i.e. at x
27
w 16L 2 16 (16L L) 20 wL2
B.M. at D =
2(27 ) 27 27 4 729
Problem 12.8 A uniform beam of span 8 m carries a total load of 24 kN
uniformly distributed over its whole length. It is simply supported at the ends
and propped to the same level at the centre. Calculate the prop reaction and draw
the shear force and bending moment diagrams. If, however, due to the load the
prop sinks by 2 cm, determine the prop and the end reactions. Take E = 20 GPa
and 1 = 1000 cm4 (Fig. 12.10).

(a)

Due to u.d.l.
6 kNm
Due to
prop alone
3.375 kNm

(b)

Fig. 12.10 (a) S.F. diagram (b) B.M. diagram

Solution:
5 We
The down ward deflection at C due to u.d.l. Yc=
384 El

The upward deflection at C due to the prop reaction P yc! = PL3

48 El
Since the prop is at the same level as end supports, x.1 = y,,
PL3 5 WL3 5W 5x 24
= P = 15 IN
48 El 384 El 8 8
 Propped Cantilever 293

The reactions at A and B are equal

24215
—
R A = RB = = 4.5 kN
S.F. at B = 4.5 kN (+) ye
24
S.F. at (span BC) C = 4.5 — = — 7.5 kN.
2

24
S.F. at C (span AC) = 4.5 — —2— + 15 = 7.5 kN
S.F. at A = — 4.5 kN
S.F. at D is zero [From Fig. 12.10 (a)]
5 CD 4 — BD
From similarity triangles 7. BD = 1.5 m
4.5 — BD BD
WL = 24 x8 = 24 kNm
Bending moment at C due to u.d.l =
8 8
Bending moment at C due to only prop reaction P = 15 kN
PL —15 x 8
=— — = — 30 kNm
4 4
Bending moment at point
24
D = 4.5 x 1.5 — x(15)2 = 6.75 — 3.375 = 3.375 kNm
8 2
In the second case the prop sinks by 2 cm.
2
— yel = 2 cm =
100
5 WL3 PL3 _ 2
384 El 48 EI 100
5x24x103 x83 P x 83 _ 2
or
384 x 20 x 109 x 10-5 48 x 20 x 109 x 10-5 — 100
P = 14625 N = 14.625 kN
24 —14.625
Each end reaction = = 4.6875 kN.
2

REVIEW EXERCISES
Problems
12.1 A cantilever of length 8 m having uniform cross-section carries a uni-
formly distributed load of 10 kN/m. What upward force must be applied
at the free end to reduce the deflection there to zero? [Ans. 30 kN]
12.2 For a propped beam AB as shown in Fig. 12.11. Find RB and draw the
shear force and bending moment diagram.
[Ans. 9.18 kN]
294 Strength of Materials

10 kN/m

filtatititlretittitita
4m
10 m

Fig. 12.11

12.3 A horizontal cantilever beam of metres span carrries a point load of 12.5
kN at 2 metres from fixed end. If the beam is propped to the level of the
fixed end, find (i) the load on the prop and construct the S.F. and B.M.
diagrams. (ii) the position and magnitude of maximum deflection. Take E
= 10 GPa and /„. = 33750 cm4.
[Ans. 2.6 kN, 2.06 m from propped end, 0.346 cm]
12.4 A horizontal cantilever beam 6 metres long carries a u.d.1. of 5 kN/m over
a length of 2 metres from fixed end. If the beam is propped at the free end
to the level of the fixed end, find
(i) the load on the prop and construct S.F. and B.M. diagrams.
(iii) the position and magnitude of maximum deflection.
Take E = 10 GPa and It, = 11520 cm4.
[Ans. 510 N, 3.14 in, 0.455 cm]
12.5 A cantilever of length L is propped at its free end. The cantilever carries
a uniformly distributed load of per unit length over the entire span. It
the prop sinks by 6, find the prop reaction.

[ 3 El (wEl
1-111S. -
L3 8 El
12.6 A horizontal cantilever ABC 6 m long is built-in at A and simply supported
at B, 4 m from A by rigid prop so that AB is horizontal. If AB and BC carry
uniformly distributed loads of 20 kN/m and 30 kN/m respectively, find the
load taken by the prop. [Ans. 10 kN]
 -13
SHEAR STRESS IN BEAMS

13.1 VARIATION OF SHEAR STRESS

The shear stress developed due to the vertical shear force at a section of a
beam will vary across the transverse section of the beam. This vertical shear
stress is accompanied by a horizontal shear stress of equal magnitude. Thus, at
a particular point on the cross-section of a beam there are two sets of shear
stresses, both of equal magnitude; one vertical and the other horizontal which
jointly cause diagonal tension and compression inclined at 45° to the horizontal.
The variation of shear stress along the depth of the section is analysed below:
Consider two transverse sections AB and CD of a loaded beam at a distance
8X apart, as shown in Fig. 13.1(a).

Fig. 13.1

Let M and M + 3111 be the bending moments at sections AB and CD respectively.

Consider an elementary strip of area (5a at a distance y from the neutral axis.
The bending stress on the elementary area at point G
M • y.
= 61 = —
M + 3A4
The bending stress on the elementary area at point H = a2 = 3,
I
M •y•(5a, acting from left to right.
Shear force at G = 61 Sa =
(M
Shear force at H = a2 (5a = ISM) y (5a, acting from right to left
296 Strength of Materials

Therefore unbalanced shear force on GH

(M ISM)
Y — I 'Y E'a
= SM • y • Sa
Consider a layer El,' at a distance yi from the N.A. Let y2 be the distance of
the outer layer from the N.A.
Total unbalanced shear force above EF and between AB and CD
rY2 d M
= Y 8a
= SM r Y2 3M -
T j P5a = Ay (i)
This unbalanced shear force tends to make this portion of the beam to slide
over the surface EF. This tendency to slide must be resisted by shearing force
at the surface for equilibrium. Let r be the shear stress at the surface whose
width is b.
Shearing force = r x bx
Equating Equations (i) and (ii) we have
-
TX bx 3x = 8.41
—Ay

3M AY
T= • But SM = F
Etx lb erx
F Ay
T-
lb

It will be noted that for a particular cross-section of a beam remains

constant for any point along the depth of the beam. Therefore, the shear stress
at any point on the cross-section will be proportional to A y. As A y is maximum
at the neutral axis and zero at the extreme faces of the beam, the shear stress
will be maximum at the neutral axis and zero at the extreme faces of the beam.

13.2 SHEAR STRESS OVER A RECTANGULAR

SECTION
Consider a beam of rectangular section of width b and depth d as shown in
Fig. 13.2 (a). The shear stress on the layer CD is given by
F • A • yi
r=
/ .b
Now area of the hatched portion

A = b.(61 — y) and = (—d + y)

2 22
 Shear Stress in Beams 297

b (2
A y = b( —y
2 2 ) 2 4 _y2)
F x AY, F b (d 2 2)
Now = — x —y
lb Ib 2 4
F (d 2 _ 2) _ 12 F (d 2 2)
2/ 4 Y 2 bd 3 4 Y
6 F (d 2 y2
bd 3 4
The variation of .r with respect to y is a parabola.

At [4— b
= TA k
at N.A. y=0
c112
6 F d2
max bd 3 x 4 max
3vF
;lax= 2 — bd (a) (b)
F
But Fig. 13.2
bd = Taverage or ;lean
3
"rmax = 2 X Tay = 1.5 ;v.

The shear stress distribution is shown in Fig. 13.2. (b).

13.3 SHEAR STRESS OVER A CIRCULAR

SECTION
Consider an elementary strip of width b and thickness dy at a distance y from
the centre of a circular section of diameter d as shown in Fig. 13.3 (a)

I 1—y2
Width of the strip, b = 211r2 — y2 =2 I61
4

4017/1/144111711/1a.

Tmax

(a) (b)

Fig. 13.3
298 Strength of Materials

d 2 — y2
Area of the strip = b•dy. = 211— •dy.
4
d 2 — y2 •y•dy.
Moment of the strip about N.A. = b•dy.y. = 211—
4
= 2y V r 2 — y2 dy.
Moment of the shaded area about N.A. is given by
r,
Ay = .1.3 24r2 — y2 • dy = .1: b • y •dy (i)

But b = 2 ilr 2 — y2
or b2 = 4 (r2 — y2)
Differentiating both sides
2b•db = 4(-2y) dy = — 8y•dy
y•dy = — —1 b•db
4
Substituting the value of y•dy in Equation (i)
Ay = b•(— b • db) = b 2 • db
y 4 4
when y = y, b = b and when y = r, b = 0
0
1 f° 2
AY = — 4 b •db —_ --
1 b3 b3
b 4 3 i 12

F•Ay F b3 . Fb2
Now shear stress, 7- =
Ib lb x 12 12 1
= F x 4 (r2 — y2) = —F-- 0-2 — y2)
12 / 3/
Shear stress thus has parabolic variation.
The shear stress is maximum when y = 0.
F 2 F x 64 F x 64
;lax = 3 / ' ? = 4 x r2 = X r2
3 x ird 3 x ir x (2r)4
4
= x F 4 F
— x
3 Ic r2 3 Area
4 , ,
—
3 ^ s'average 2 1. average
nr 2 =

13.4 SHEAR STRESS OVER AN I-SECTION

Figure 13.4(a) shows a section of an I-beam. The breadth of flange and overall
depth are B and D respectively. The breadth and depth of web are b and d
respectively.
 Shear Stress in Beams 299

(a) (b)

Fig. 13.4

Shear Stress in Flange

Consider a layer in the flange at a distance y from the neutral axis.

Area of shaded portion = B (12 — y)

2

It's centre of gravity from the neutral axis, y = y + 2 2y I = 2

1 (D 1 (D
2 + y)

F
Shear stress, T.= x Ay,
I x width
x B (T) ) 1 (D + )
x
= B 2, y 2 2 y

(132 yz
2I 4
The variation of shear stress is parabolic.

At y= , z=0
2

At y= - = F ( 2 -d2) F (D2 d2)

2 2 I D4 4 8I

Shear Stress in the Web

Consider a layer in the web at a distance y from

the neutral axis as shown in Fig. 13.4(c). T o
Area of shaded portion = Area of flange portion
D
T d
d2 2
+ Area of shaded portion of web. A
i
Ay = Moment of flange area about N.A. +
Moment of shaded portion area of web about
N.A.
d Fig. 13.4c
Area of flange = B
(D
300 Strength of Materials

+d)
Its centre of gravity from the N.A. =
2 (D 2 J
Area of shaded portion of web = b I d — y)

Its centre of gravity from the N,A. = (Cf + y)

... Ay =B (D — d) x 1 (D + d) + b( d — y d + ,,)
2 ) 2 2 2 "
F
.. Shear stress, -c = x Ay
Lb
F X B (D2 — d2) b I d 2 2
Lb [ 8 2 4 ) /
The variation Of shear stress is parabolic.
, d
At junction with the flange, y = --i

F B (D2 —d 2 )
= F B (D2 —d)
4. • z= Lb 8 8I b
,,tle
At neutral axis whorey = 0, the shear stress is maximum
F [B (D2 — d 2) + b (d 2 )]
Tmax =
Ib 8 2 4
B x F (D2 d2) Fd 2
8/ 8/

F/' (D2 _ d 2 ) d 21
b
[
It is also parabolic.
The shear stress diagram is shown in Fig. 13.4 (b)

SOLVED PROBLEMS
Problem 13.1 In the I-beam shown in Fig, 13.5, t is small with respect to
b. Show that the maximum shear stress is 3.2 times the mean.
Solution: Moment of inertia of the section about N.A.
I = — b4 — (b — (b — 203
12 12
1 4—— 1 (b — t) [b3 — 8t3 — 6bt (b — 20]
=—
12 13 12
7b3 4
12 omitting terms involving t2, t3 and t4.
 Shear Stress in Beams 301

ti

•4.- •
N A

t 1
Fig. 13.5

At the neutral axis,

Ay = b• t • —b + t• 11 • 11 =
2 24
Maximum shear stress at the neutral axis,

5 b2t
F Fx 8
Tmax =
It 7 bat
xt
12
Area of the section = 21,4 + b•t = 3b.t

Mean shear stress = =

A 3 bt
15 F
max = bt _ 45 _ 3 2
T mean F — 14 — *
3 bt
Problem 13.2 A timber beam having a rectangular cross-section is loaded
with a uniform load of 10 w N/m (Fig. 13.6). If the allowable design stresses
are 8.5 MPa in bending and 0.85 MPa in shear, what will be the span to depth
ratio so that the allowable flexural and shear stresses occur simultaneously?

T
N Ah

b
(a) (b)

Fig. 13.6
302 Strength of Materials

Solution:
Let L = Length of the beam in cm
b = Width of beam section in cm
10 w x L2 wL2
Maximum bending moment = Nm.
8 x 104 8000
10 w x L wL
Maximum shear force = = N
2 x 100 20
we know
M
I y
We X h
MXh 8000 wL2 h
=
21 x 100 21x100 16 x105 I
wL bh h
X X
F x AY 20 200 400 wL hz
I•1) 1•b 16 x 105 I
wL =
= 8.5 x 1066 (i)
x 105 . /
wL h2
= 0.85 x 106
16 x 105 . 1
Dividing Equation (i) by Equation (ii), we have
L
= 10
h
Problem 13.3 A beam AB supported at its ends has a span of 2 metres and
carries a uniformly distributed load of 20 kN/m over the entire span. The cross-
section of the beam is a T-section having flange width of 125 mm, flange
thickness of 25 mm, web thickness of 25 mm and overall depth of 200 mm
(Fig. 13.7). Calculate the maximum shear stress in the beam. Also draw the
shear stress distribution diagram indicating the principal values.
Solution: Maximum shear force at the support is given by
20 x 103 x 2
F= wL = = 2 x 104 N
2 2
Let y be the distance of centre of gravity from top edge
Taking moment about the top edge
(12.5 x 2.5 + 17.5 x 2.5) 9 = 12.5 x 2.5 x 1.25 + 17.5 x 2.5 x 11.25
75 y, = 531.24
— 531.24
Y= = 7.08 cm
75
 Shear Stress in Beams 303

12.5 cm
2.5 cm

I
N 0 A

1'-
2.5 cm
(a) (b)

Fig. 13.7

Moment of inertia about N.A.,

12.5 x (2.5)3
I= + 12.5 x 2.5 (7.08 - 1.25)2
12
2.5 x (17.5)3
+ 2.5 x 17.5 (11.25 - 7.08)2
12
I = 2955.73 cm4
= 2955.73 x 10-8 m4
F Ay
Now =
/ •b

Shear stress in flange at the junction with web,

20 x 103 (12.5 x 2.5) (7.08 -1.25) x 10-6
= = 986.2 kN/m2
2955.73 x 10-8 x 0.125
Shear stress in web at the junction with flange,
20 x 103 (125 x 2.5) (7.08 - 1.25) x 10-6
r= = 4931.1 kN/m2
2955.73 x 10-8 x 0.025
Maximum shear stress at the N.A.
20 x 103 [(12.5 x 25) x 5.83 + (2.5 x 4.58) x 2.29] x 10-6
max
2955.73 x 0.025 x 10_8
= 5640.786 kN/m2
The shear stress distribution diagram is shown in Fig. 13.7 (b).
Problem 13.4 A T-section shown in Fig. 13.8 is subjected to a vertical
shear force of 100 kN. Calculate the shear stress at the neutral axis and at the
junction of the web and flanges. Moment of inertia about the horizontal neutral
axis is 11340 cm4.
304 Strength of Materials

Solution: Let us first calculate the posi- 20 cm

tion of the neutral axis. Let y be the distance
I 5 cm
of the neutral axis from the top of the flange.
_
=
20 x 5 x 2.5+ 20 x 5 x15
20 x 5 + 20 x 5
=8.75 cm.
I
0 A
Shear stress in flange at the junction with 0
web, considering the flange of the section
A = 20 x 5 cm2,
= 8.75 — 2.5 = 6.25 cm,
H-
b= 20 cm 5 cm
F• Ay Fig. 13.8
T=
1.b
100 x 103 x 20 x 5 x (8.75 — 2.5) x 10-6
= 2755731.9 N/m2
11340 x 10-8 x 0.2
Shear stress in web at the junction with flange,
0 2
T = 2755731.9 x 2 = 11022928 N/m .
5
Maximum shear stress will be at the neutral axis. Now considering the area
above the neutral axis

Ay = [ 20 x 5 (3.75 + —
5 ) + (3.75 x 5) x 335
2 • 2
100X 10 X [20 x 5 x 6.25 + 3.75 x 5 x 1.875] x 10-6
3
Truax =
11340 x 10-8 x 0.05
= 11642967 N/m2.
Problem 13.5 A beam of I-section, 50 cm deep and 19 cm wide, has
flanges 2.5 cm thick and web 1.5 cm thick. It carries a shearing force of
400 kN at a section (Fig. 13.9). Calculate the maximum intensity of shear stress
dY
H— 19 cm --0-11 3.68 MPa 19 cm 0-11
12.5 cm 2 5 cmT
46.6 MPa T
g
Lc)
,-4; 62.3385.1 _L
MPa N A
N- E

I 1 46.6 MPa
cm
3.68 MPa
(a) (b) (c)
Fig. 13.9
 Shear Stress in Beams 305

in the section, assuming the moment of inertia to be 64500 cm4. Also calculate
the total shear force carried by the web and sketch the shear stress distribution
across the section.
Solution: Shear stress in flange at the junction with web
400 x 103 x 19 x 25 x 23.75 x 10-6
= 3.68 MPa.
64500 x 10-8 x 0.19
Shear stress in web at the junction with flange
400 x 103 x 19 x 2.5 x 23.75 x 10-6
= 46.6 MPa.
64500 x 10-8 x 0.015
Maximum shear stress at the neutral axis,
400 x 103 [19 x 2.5 x 23.75 + 1.5 x 225 x 11.25 x 10-6
=
Amax 64500 x 10-8 X 0.015
= 62.3385 MPa.
The shear stress distribution is shown in Fig. 13.9 (b).
Consider a strip in the flange of thickness dy at a distance y from the neutral
axis (Fig. 13.9c)

400 x 103 [19 (25 — y) x (252+ 10-61

625 — y2
Shear stress, 2=
64500 x 10-8 x 0.19 3225 x 10-8
Shear force carried by the small strip
625 — y2
_ 8 x 19 dy x 10-4
3225 x
19 25
Shear force carried by one flange = (625 — y2) dy
3225 x 10-4 122.5
25
19 [ _ Y]
3
625
3225 x 10-4 3
22.5
= 613695.09 — 604796.51
= 8898.58 N
Shear force carried by the two flanges = 2 x 8898.58 = 17797.16 N
Shear force carried by the web = 400 x 103 — 17797.16 = 382202.84 N.
Problem 13.6 Two long wooden planks, each 20 cm x 6 cm are formed
into a T-beam section as shown in Fig. 13.10. It is used as a cantilever, fixed
at one end, with the top flange horizontal. It carries a concentrated load of 5 kN
at the free end. The top flange is nailed to the bottom one. Each nail can stand
a safe shear load of 700 N only. What should be the spacing of the nails along
the length of the beam?
Solution: Shear force at any section = 5000 N
306 Strength of Materials

20 cm

I 6 cm

1_ E—
o A

—'I
6 cm
Fig. 13.10

Taking moment about the top edge

(20 x 6 + 20 x 6) y = 20 x 6 x 3 + 20 x 6 x 16
= 9.5 cm.
1
/= — (20 x 9.53 — 14 x 3.53 + 6 x 16.53)
3
= 14500 cm4 = 14500 x 10-8 cm4.
In the plane of contact of the two planks, shear force per metre length
F x Ay 5000 x 20 x 6 x 6.5 x 10-6
= 26896.552 N
14500 x 10-8
700
Spacing of nails = 26896552 = 0.026 m = 2.6 cm.

Problem 13.7 A cantilever 3 m long is fab- H— 15 cm

ricated from five wooden planks 5 cm x 15 cm .
fastened together by vertical bolts of 19 mm T
1 5 cm
diameter, as indicated in Fig. 13.11, which
shows the cross-section of the cantilever. The 2 5 cm
bolts are provided at a spacing of 12.5 cm. The
cantilever carries a uniformly distributed load 3
—.5 cm
N A
of 3.3 kN/m including its own weight. Find the
shear stresses in a bolt located 1.5 m from 4 5 cm
the support. Make this at all the four planes of
contact of the planks. 5 5 cm

Solution: Shear force at 1.5 m from the

Bolt_
support
= 3.3 x 103 x 1.5 = 4950 N Fig. 13.11
253
/ — 15 — 19531 cm4 = 19531 x 10 m4
1
Area of the bolt = 4 (1.9)2 = 2.835 cm2 = 2.835 x 10-1 m
 Shear Stress in Beams 307

In the plane of contact of planks 1 and 2 (also 4 and 5), shear force per metre
F x Ay 4950 x 15 x 5 x 10 x 10-6
length = = 19008.24 N
19531x 10-8
Load carried by the bolt = 19008.24 x!2,5-5< 10-2 = 2376 N
Shear stress = 2376= 83-169.7 N/m2
2.835 x 10-4
In the plane of contact of hilts 2 and 3 (also planks 3 and 4), shear force per
metre length = 4950 15x 10x 7.5 x 10-6
= 28512.365 N
19531 x 10-8
Load carried by the bolt = 28512.365 x 12.5 x 10-2 = 3564 N
3564
Shear stress,s- = = 12571589 N/m2
2.835 x 10-4
= 12571.589 kN/m2.
Problem 13.8 The box beam shown in Fig. 13.12 is made up of four
15 cm x 2.5 cm wooden planks connected by screws. Each screw can safely
transmit a shear force of 1250 N. Estimate the minimum necessary spacing of
screws along the length of the beam if the maximum shear, force transmitted
by the cross-section is 5 kN. Sketch the corresponding shear stress distribution
across the section.

152 kN/m2
2.5 crn 456 kN/m2

2.5 cm
E
652.1739 kN/m2
10 A

2.5 cm , 456 kN/m2

15 cm T 152 kN/m'

(a) (b)

Fig. 13.12

Solution: Moment of inertia of the beam section,

I_ 15x203 10x153 = 7187.5 cm4
12 12
= 7187.5 x 10-8 m4.
Shear stress in the flange at 7.5 cm from the N.A.
5x 103 x15 x 2.5x 8.75 x10-6
= 152 kN/m2
7187.5 x 10-8 x 0.15
308 Strength of Materials

Shear stress in the web at 7.5 cm from the N.A.

= 152 x 51 = 456 IN/m2.
5
Shear stress at the neutral axis.
5x103 x[15 x 2.5x 8.75+ 2 x 2.5x 7.5x 3.75]x 10-6
Truax =
7187.5 x 10-8 x 2 x 0.025
= 652.1739 kN/m2.
Let p = pitch of screws in m
Considering one pitch
Horizontal shear force at this level for one pitch length
= 456 x 103 x 2 x 0.025 p= 22800 p
Equating the horizontal shear per pitch length to the shearing strength of two
bolts, we have
22800 p = 2 x 1250
p = 0.10964 m = 10.964 cm.
Problem 13.9 A rolled steel joist, simply supported across a span of 4 m and
carrying a uniformly distributed load of 80 kN/m, has the following dimensions:
Overall depth 35 cm, each flange 150 mm x 25 mm and web 300 mm x 12 mm
(Fig. 13.13). Determine the magnitude of bending and shearing stresses at the
junction of the web with the top flange at a section 1 m away from the support.

2.5 cm

IL T 80 kN/m
E
_ _ __ g
0, N A o
c9
1.2 cm

2.5 cm
1
15 cm
(a)
- - -1 T (b)
Fig. 13.13

Solution: At a section 1 m from the left support

Shear force, F = 160 x 103 - 80 x 103 = 80 x 103 N
Bending moment,
M = 160 x 103 x 1 - 80 x 103 x = 120 x 103 N-m.
2
Moment of inertia about N.A.,
1
1 = — [15 x 353 - 13.8 x 303] = 22543.75 cm4
12
= 22543.75 x 104 m4.
 Shear Stress in Beams 309

Bending stress, a = xy

120 x 103 x 0.15

= 79844.74 kN/m2 compressive.
22543.75 x 10_8
Shear stress in flange at the junction with web
80 x 103 x 15 x 2.5 x 16.25 x 10-6
= 1441641.3 N/m2
22543.75 x 10_8 x 0.15
= 1441.6413 kN/m2
Shear stress in web at the junction with flange
1441.6413 x 15
= 18020.516 kN/m2.
1.2
Problem 13.10 A cast iron bracket subjected to bending has a cross-
section of I-shape with unequal flanges as shown in Fig. 13.14(a). If the tensile
stress in top flange is not to exceed 17.5 MPa, what is the bending moment the
section can take? If the section is subjected to a shear force of 100 kN, draw
the shear stress distribution diagram over the depth of the section.

25 cm -id
1 1264.0376 kN/m2
5 cm
6520.1882 kN/m2

7354.4887 kN/m2
N A co

Li"

5172.693 kN/m2
1- -15 cm
1-4- 15 cm-id I 17.24.31 kN/m2
(a) (b)

Fig. 13.14

Solution: Taking moment about the top edge

(25 x 5 + 25 x 5 + 15 x5) y = 25 x 5 x 2.5 + 25 x 5 x 17.5 + 15 x 5 x 32.5
= 15.19 cm.
Moment of inertia,
25 x 53 2 5 x 253
I= + 25 x 5 (15.19 - 2.5) + + 5 x 25 (17.5 - 15.19)2
12 12

1512 53 + 15 x 5 (32.5 - 15.19)2

= 50196.29 cm4 = 50196.29 x 10 m4.
310 Strength of Materials

7.5 x 106
Bending moment, M= i c x I= 1 x 50196.29 x 10-8
y 0.1519
= 57829.827 N-m
Section subjected to an S.F. of 100 kN
Shear stress in the upper flange at the junction with web
100 x 103 (25 x 5) (15.19 — 25) x 10-6
= 1264.0376 kN/m2
50196.29 x 10-8 x 0.25
Shear stress in web at the junction with upper flange
100 x 103 x 25 x 5 x 12.69 x 10-6
= 6320.1882 kN/m2
50196.29 x 10-8 x 0.05
Maximum shear stress at the neutral axis
100 x 103 [25 x 5 x 12.69 + 5 x 10.19 x 5.095] x 10-6
;lax = = 7354.4887 kN/m2
50196.29 x 10-8 x 0.05
Shear stress in the lower flange at the junction with web
100 x 103 (5 x 15) (19.81— 2.5) x 10-6
— = 1724.231 kN/m2
50196.29 x 10-8 x 0.15
Shear stress in the web at the junction with lower flange
100 x 103 x 5 x 15 x 17.31x 10-6
= 5172.693 kN/m2
50196.29 x 0.05
The shear stress distribution diagram is shown in Fig. 13.14(b).
Problem 13.11 The section of a beam is a triangle with base b and height
h. It is placed with its base horizontal. At a certain cross-section the shear force
is F. Determine the maximum shear stress and the shear stress at the neutral
axis.

I2

17/3
V

Solution: The moment of inertia of the triangular section about N.A. =

bh3
/=
36
 Shear Stress in Beams 311

Let q be the shear stress at a depth y from the top. The width of the beam at

a depth y from top = b I = 12

hY
FAy
q.
Ib'
F r y b•y)(2
2 h 3 3 ") 12 F• y
— Ch —
(b1)(by) bh."
3 h
For q to be maximum, =
dq . 2
1 F h
2y) 0 y=
dy bh 3 2
12 F h h 3F
qmax= bh3 x 2 — 2 bh
2 b
For shear stress at the neutral axis, put y =
3
12 F 2 h 8F
qN.A = x hx =
bh3 3 3 3 bh

REVIEW EXERCISES
13.1 Show that the ratio of maximum shear to mean shear is 2.85 of a beam
of I-section 50 cm deep, 20 cm wide having flanges of 2 cm and 1 cm
thick web. It carries at a cross-section a shear force of 200 kN.
13.2 Find the ratio of the maximum to the mean intensity of shear stress in
the cross-section of a beam of hollow circular section; whose outside
diameter is twice the inside diameter. [Ans. 1.87]
13.3 A beam of square section is used as a beam with one diagonal horizontal.
Find the maximum shear stress in the cross-section of the beam. Draw
the shear stress distribution across the depth of the section.
11
[Ans. —
9Z
8 mean
13.4 The cross-section of a T-section is 19 cm x 61 cm with 2.7 cm thick
flanges and 1.5 cm thick web. Determine the maximum intensity of shear
stress at the section subjected to a shear force of 600 kN. Also sketch
the shear stress distribution diagram.
[Ans. 76.1 MPa]
13.5 A beam of inverted T-section of 60 mm x 90 mm flange and 60 mm x
20 mm web is subjected to a shear force of 13.6 kN at a particular
section. Find the value of maximum bending moment and draw the shear
distribution diagram across the depth of the section.
[Ans. 12.5 N/mm2]
312 Strength of Materials

13.6 A beam of circular section is of 15 cm diameter. Find the maximum shear

stress, if the beam is subjected to a shear force of 70 kN.
[Ans. 5.28 N/mm2]
13.7 Sketch the distribution of shear stress for an I.S. having unequal
angle of 9 cm x 6 cm, thickness of flange 0.6 cm and thickness of web
0.6 cm, when its section at a point is subjected to a shear force of
20 kN. For the angle Ix, = 70.6 cm4 and y 2.87 cm.
[Ans. max = 51 MPa]
13.8 The thickness of flanges and web of a 40 cm x 10 cm channel section
are 1.4 cm and 8 mm respectively. Find the maximum shear stress and
draw the shear stress distribution if the section is subjected to a
shear force of 200 kN. For the channel take 4, = 13989.5 cm4. Area =
58.25 cm2. [Ans. 7.3 kN/cm2]
13.9 A 40 cm x 14 cm R.S.J. of I-section, flanges 1.6 cm thick, web
0.89 cm thick, is subjected to a shearing force of 200 kN at its certain
cross-section. Find the ratio of the maximum to mean shear stress at this
section. Sketch the shear stress distribution curve. [Ans. 2.52]
13.10 A simply supported beam carries a uniformly distributed load of
300 N/m over the entire span of 1 metre. The cross-section of the beam
is a T-section 12.5 cm x 20 cm with 2.5 cm thickness. Calculate the
maximum shear stress for the section of the beam.
[Ans. 423.2 MPa]
 14
DAMS AND RETAINING WiU LS

14.1 DAM
A dam is a massive structure constructed mostly with reinforced concrete or
stone or earth across a river or stream to store a large amount of water for the
purpose of drinking, irrigation and power generation.
The side of the dam to which the water from the river or stream approaches
is called upstream and the other side is called the downstream.
A dam which resists the water pressure by its own weight only is termed as a
gravity dam, e.g. the Bhakra Dam.

14.2 ANALYSIS OF MASONRY DAM

14.2.1 Dams of Rectangular Section
Figure 14.1 shows the cross-section of a masonry dam of rectangular section
of width b. Consider a unit length of the dam, which holds water on one of its
vertical face.
Let b = Width of the dam
H = Height of the dam
h = Height of water retained by the dam
p = specific weight of masonry per unit volume
w = specific weight of water.
Weight of the dam, W = Volume of masonry x specific weight of masonry
W=bxHx 1 xp= pb H.
It will act through the centre of gravity of the dam section, i.e. through
point G. The intensity of the pressure of water is zero at the water surface and
maximum at the bottom, as shown in Fig. 14.1.
Total water pressure on unit length of the dam is given by,
p = Average pressure x height of free surfaz..•e
wh 2
= - X h = wh
2 2
314 Strength of Materials

b D
Water
surface

(oh

Fig. 14.1

h
This total water pressure acts at a height — above the base.
3
Let the resultant of P and W cut the base of the wall at point 0 at a distance
x from the centre of the section as shown. Since E M = 0, taking moment
about 0.
P h
P x — = Wx x =W x .
3 3
Let z be the distance between the toe `13' of the dam and the point 0.
b P h
Z= BE + EO Z= — + x = b + x
2 2 W 3
b
The eccentricity of the resultant, e = z— —
2
Moment on the base section = M = W.e
1 x b3 b3
Moment of inertia of the base section, / =
12 12
We know
M = b

Mxy W.e.x 2 — 6W.e

Bending stress = =
I b3 b2
12
Stress on the section due to direct load, ad =
A 1xb b
The stress across the base at C will be maximum.
w 6 W.e = W 1+ 6.e)
Maximum stress, 0-max = 6d + 61,=
b b2 b b)
 Dams and Retaining Walls 315

The stress across the base at B will be minimum

vy 6 W.e W( 6. e)
Minimum stress, amin = ad — al, = b 1
b2 b b )

14.2.2 Dams of Trapezoidal Section with Water

Face Vertical
Figure 14.2 shows the cross-section of a masonry dam of trapezoidal section.
Consider unit length of the dam.

Water
surface

El- Z -1.1

amax

Fig. 14.2

Let a = Top width of the dam

b = Bottom width of the dam
H = Height of the dam
p = Specific weight of masonry per unit volume
It = Height of water supported by the dam
w = specific weight of water
(a + b)
Weight of the dam = W = p x 2 x H

The weight of the dam acts at a distance Ye from the vertical face AB so that,
a 2 + a b + b2 a 3 — b3
X= =
3 (a + b) 3 (b2 — a2 )
316 Strength of Materials

At any depth x from the free surface of water, the intensity of water pressure
is wx. Therefore intensity of pressure increases uniformly from zero at the free
surface to wh at the bottom.
Total water pressure on unit length of the wall
= P = average pressure x height of free surface
wh
xh
2
wh2
2
h
This total water pressure acts at a height — above the base of the dam.
3
For the equilibrium of the dam, the resultant of P and W must be counteracted
by the reaction at the base. Let the resultant R of W and P meet the base at M.
This resultant force R acting at M can be resolved into its vertical and horizontal
components. These components of R acting at M are equal to W and P respec-
tively. The vertical component W of the force R acting at M is resisted by the
normal reaction at the base. The horizontal component P of the force R acting
at M is resisted by the friction between the bottom of the dam and the soil on
which it is resting. The vertical component W acting at M is an eccentric load.
Let '0' be the middle point of the base and BM = Z.
Eccentricity of the vertical component W = OM
Eccentricity = e = OM = BM — BO = Z —
2
The position of the point M where the resultant meets the base is determined
by taking moments of P and W about B, and equating this sum to the moment
of the resultant force R about B. i.e. Moment of W about B +Moment of P about
B = Moment of R about B.
Wx + P- = WZ .. Z= i + — x —
3 W 3
W W W
Stress on the section due to direct load = ad = = =
A bx1 b
Moment on the base section, M = W.e
1 x b3 b3
Moment of inertia of the base section, / = =
12 12
We know
M =

m X y W.ex 6 W.e
Bending stress = ab = = —
/ b3 b2
12
 Dams and Retaining Walls 317

The stress across the base at C will be maximum.

w 6 W. e ( 6.e )
Maximum stress, 6,„ = ad + 0-b= + 2 = 1+
b )
The stress across the base at B will be minimum
W 6 W.e _ W ( 1 _6.e)
Minimum stress, alla = ad — =
b b2 b b

14.2.3 Dams of Trapezoidal Section with Waterface

Battered
Figure 14.3 shows a trapezoidal dam section ABCD. The water face AB is at
with the vertical. Consider a unit length of the dam.

Water
surface

BJ

Fig.14.3

Let a = Top width of the dam

b = Bottom width of the dam
H = Height of the dam
p = Specific weight of dam masonry
// = Height of water retained by the dam
0= Inclination of the waterface with the vertical
w = Specific weight of water.
/ = Length of the sloping side BE

1= h = 1 cos 0
cos 0
The intensity of pressure of water is zero at E and wh at B
lh
Total water pressure on the dam = P = w2 acting normally to the water face

1
at F so that BF = — BE = — .
3 3
318 Strength of Materials

The line of action of P will be at 0 with the horizontal. Let G be the centre
of gravity of the dam section.
+b
Weight of the dam per unit length = W=px a xH
2
Let R be the resultant of P and W. Let the resultant R meet the base at M.
Let BM = Z. The diagonal ON of the parallelogram OSNK represents the
resultant R. Draw NQ perpendicular to OK produced.
Vertical component of R = OQ
Horizontal component of R = NQ
The vertical component will be resisted by the normal reaction at the base and
the horizontal component will be resisted by the frictional resistance.
b
Eccentricity = e = Z — —
The maximum stress across the base at C,

ainax .1(1+
The minimum stress across the base at B,
W( 6.e
crmin b b)

14.3 CONDITIONS FOR THE STABILITY OF A DAM

The dam may fail due to:
(a) sliding on the soil on which it rests
(b) overturning
(c) tensile stresses developed
(d) excessive compressive stress

(a) Failure due to sliding along its base In order that the failure by
sliding may not occur the maximum available frictional resistance should be
greater than the horizontal water pressure P. If the weight of the structure per
unit length is W the maximum available frictional resistance will be µW where
= coefficient of friction between the masonry dam and the soil on which it
rests. Therefore, for safety against sliding, the condition µW > P should be

satisfied. The ratio µW

— is called the factor of safety against sliding. The factor

of safety against sliding should be at least 1.5.

(b) Failure due to overturning The horizontal component PH of the water
pressure tends to overturn the wall about the toe C whereas the vertical
component of the water pressure Pi, and the weight W tend to counteract the
turning effect.
 Dams and Retaining Walls 319

Overturning moment = PH X 3

Restoring moment = Pv x Jc + W x its distance from C

Factor of safety against overturning = Restoring moment

Overturning moment
(c) Failure due to tension A failure may occur due to tensile stresses
induced in masonry. To safeguard the structure from this type of failure, the
dam section must be designed such that the resultant force on the base meets
the base within the middle third.
2
i.e. Z should not be greater than — b.
3
(d) Failure due to excessive compressive stress The condition to
prevent the crushing of masonry at the base of the dam is that the maximum
compressive stress should be less than the permissible compressive stress in the
masonry.

14.4 MIDDLE THIRD RULE

To secure no tension anywhere within the base the resultant of the lateral thrust
of the material retained and the gravity weight of the masonry wall must lie
within the middle third of the base.

14.5 MINIMUM BASE WIDTH OF A DAM

In order that tension may not be developed in the base section it is necessary
that the bottom width of the dam section shall not be less than a certain limit.
Let us now determine the minimum width required for different sections.

14.5.1 Dam of Trapezoidal Section

Figure 14.4 shows a trapezoidal section of a dam with top width AD = a, bottom
width BC = b and height H, with waterface vertical.
a+b
Weight of the dam = W = p x 2 j >H

a 2 + ab + b2
It is acting at X from face AB where X =
3(a + b)
When the reservoir is full, the maximum water pressure
wH 2
= P=
2
2
In order that tension is just avoided, the resultant should not fall beyond — rd
3
the base.
320 Strength of Materials

Water surface
a

Fig.14.4

2
i.e. BM=Z= b
3
_ P H
But Z= x + —•
W 3
2 a 2 +ab+b 2 wH 2 2 H
b=
3 3(a+b) 2 X (a + b) Hp x 3
+ w H2
2b (a + b) = a2 + ab + b2
p
p
b2 + ab — a2 = 11 where S = — = specific gravity of the material. (i)

From the above equation the bottom width b can be evaluated.

14.5.2 Triangular Section

For the case of triangular section, the top width a = 0.
Hence putting this in Equation (i), we have
H2
2 b
b =
S

14.5.3 Rectangular Section

For the case of rectangular section, a = b
 Dams and Retaining Walls 321

. Equation (i) becomes,

b2 b2 L2, H2 H2
b2 =
" s \ES'
Minimum width to avoid sliding
In order that the structure may not slide, the condition to be satisfied is,
µW > P.
(a+ 2
X xHx p> w H
2 2
, w H
a+>—x—
P
a+b>
pS
For critical condition
a+b= or b= —a
µS pS
Minimum width from consideration of maximum normal stress
The maximum compressive stress is given by
(1 + 6.e)
0, =
max b. b)
From this relation the width required, in order that the maximum normal stress
may not exceed a given limit, may be evaluated.
Therefore for the stability of the dam the minimum width b required (i) to
avoid tension (ii) to avoid sliding (iii) to avoid excessive normal stress, may thus
be evaluated.
For the structure to be safe the greatest of the three values of b may be
chosen in order that failure may not occur.

14.6 RETAINING WALLS

A retaining wall is a structure made of masonry, cement concrete or R.C.C. to
retain earth on its one side and not allowing it to slide. Conditions of stability,
the distribution of normal stress and intensity at the base are same as those
studied for dams. The only difference will be in the magnitude of lateral thrust,
which in the case of darns is due to water pressure, while in the case of retaining
walls it is due to retained material. There are different theories to determine the
magnitude of this thrust, the most well-known being Rankine's theory of earth
pressure.

14.7 RANKINE'S THEORY

Consider a cube of earth with' horizontal and vertical forces to be subjected to
a normal pressure p on the two horizontal faces. If the cube contains liquid
322 Strength of Materials

instead of earth, then it requires to exert horizontal pressure = p on the vertical

faces to maintain equilibrium (Fig. 14.5(a)). Rankine showed that in case of an
earth cube a pressure less than p on vertical faces would be sufficient to prevent
collapse of the cube. If the cube contains granular material, disruption of the
cube by slipping along internal planes is considerably hampered owing to the
frictional forces which the grains can exert on one another.
If p' is the necessary pressure applied horizontally to the vertical faces of the
cube to prevent spreading, a pressure of p is applied vertically to the top and
bottom faces (Fig. 14.5(b)). Rankine proved that p and p' are connected by the
following relationship.
[1 — sin 0
= P 1 + sin 0 where 0 = angle of repose for the earth
For liquids 0 = 0, then p = p'.

p
Lp

tp Liquid tp Earth
(a) (b)
Fig. 14.5

14.8 ANGLE OF REPOSE

The angle which the slant sides of the heap make with the horizontal is called
the angle of repose. Hence angle of repose is the natural slope of the materials
which they tend to take up if not acted upon by any external force.

14.9 RETAINING WALL OF TRAPEZOIDAL SECTION,

EARTH LEVEL WITH TOP
Figure 14.6 shows a retaining wall ABCD, trapezoidal in section. It retains earth
up to &height h against its vertical face AB. Let FBE be the angle of repose 0
of the retained material. Now in the absence of retaining wall, the retaining
material will slide down along a rough inclined plane such as 0, i.e. GBE whose
inclination will be greater than the angle of repose 0. Let P be the horizontal
force offered by the retaining wall to keep the wedge AGB in equilibrium.
Otherwise it will slide down.
Case-I When the body tends to slide down
The wedge AGB is in equilibrium under the action of the following forces:
 Dams and Retaining Walls 323

(b) (c)

(d)

1
(i) Weight of the wedge AGB, W = — w x AB x AG
2
2
wh
= 1XhXh cot 8= cot 0.
2 2
(ii) Horizontal force P offered by the retaining wall
(iii) Normal reaction R of the plane
(iv) Frictional resistance F = pR acting up the plane to prevent the body from
sliding down, as shown in Fig. 14.6 (b).
Resolving all the forces along and normal to the plane P cos 0 + pR = W
sin O.
P cos 0 = W sin 0 — µR
R= W cos 6+ P sin 0
P cos 0 = W sin 0 — p(W cos 0 + P sin 0)
P cos 0 + pP sin 0 = W sin 0 — pW cos
P (cos 0 + µ sin 0) = W (sin 0 — p. cos 6)
W (sin 0 — it cos 0)
P=
(cos 0 + p sin 0)
Putting = tan 0 we have
W (sin 0 — tan 0 cos 0) W (sin 0 x cos 0 — sin 0 • cos 0)
P=
(cos 0 + tan 0 sin 0) cos 0 x cos 0 + sin 0 sin 0
= W tan (0 — 0)
wh2
cot 0 tan (0 — 0)
2
324 Strength of Materials

Case-II When the body tends to heave up

Resolving the forces along and perpendicular to the plane, as shown in
Fig. 14.6(c), we have
R = W cos 0+ P sin 9 (iv)
P cos 0= W sin 0 + µR (v)
Treating the above equations as before we have
wh2
P = — cot 0 tan (0 + 0) (vi)
2
If the retaining wall is removed, the retained earth will lose its equilibrium
and failure will occur across a plane BI where the tendency of the material to
slide down is the greatest. This plane which is known as the plane of rupture
requires the maximum value of P to retain the wedge AGB. In order to locate
the plane BI, differentiate the equation for P and equate it to zero. There for
we have
d P [wh 2
{cot O. tan (0 — 0)}1 = 0
dO 2
wh 2
[cot 0-sec2 (0 — 0) — cosec2 0 tan (0 — 0)] = 0
2
••• cot 0•sec2 (0 — 0) — cosec2 0.tan (0 — 0) = 0
Put tan 0 = t and tan (0 — 0) = ti
1+ r 2 ( 1
1 1+ -) X t, =0
t t2
t (1 A- ti2) - (? ± 1) ti = 0
t2 - t1t2 - t1 = 0
(t - t1) - tt1 (t - t1) = 0
(t - t1) (1 - tt1) = 0
••• t - ti = 0 t = ti or 1 — tti = 0
But t # tl
i.e. tan 0 # tan (0 — 0)
1 — tti = 0
1 — tan 0 • tan (0 — 0) = 0

This is possible if 7 i.e. 0 = 74r: + 2

0 + (0 — 0) = i (vii)

Thus we see that the plane of rapture is inclined at an angle — + 4)

-- to the
4 2
horizontal. BI also bisects the angle ABF.
ir _ 0 = 1 ( _ 0)
Since IBF = IBE — FBE = + —
(1) — =
4 2 4 2 2
1
= LABF
2
 Dams and Retaining Walls 325

Now putting the value of 0 in Equation (vi) we have

wh2
P= cot 0 tan (0 - )
2
wh2
cot (4 + -1121 tan
2

wh2 tan ()
x
2
tan (i7 +

wh2 1- sin (/)

= x
2 1 + sin
Therefore for equilibrium of the retaining wall, the maximum pressure offered
by the wedge AGB will be equal and opposite to P, i.e. Earth pressure,
wh2 1- sin 4)
P x (viii)
2 1 + sin (/)
The intensity of pressure uniformly varies in a straight line law. It is zero
at the top a Id maximum at the bottom B and the total pressure acts at h/3
from base. Equation (viii) is Rankine's equation for determining the earth pres-
sure acting on retaining wall.
Rankine's theory is based on the following assumptions.
(i) The retained material is homogeneous and cohesionless.
(ii) The frictional resistance between the retaining wall and the retained
material is neglected.
(iii) If a failure takes place, it will occur in a plane called the plane of rupture.

SOLVED PROBLEMS
Problem 14.1 A rectangular masonry dam is 2 m at the base. If it retains
water up to full height, what is the maximum height when there is no tension
to occur at base? If factor of safety against sliding is 1.5, is the dam safe against
sliding? Density of masonry is 2.5 times the density of water and the coefficient
of friction it is 0.5.
[D.C.E. Part-H, 1996, W.B.]
Solution:

Let us consider 1 m length of the dam. Here b = 2 m, — = 2.5

w
Weight of the dam = W=2 x Hx 1 x p=2 Hp
Total water pressure on unit length of the dam is given by
2
P = wH
2
326 Strength of Materials

Water surface
A b=2m Ho

coH x C
B w
z
Fig. 14.7

H
This total water pressure acts at a height — above the base.
3
Let •k = Distance of line of action of W from waterface
= b= = 2 1 m
2 2
x = Distance of the point where the resultant cuts the base measured from
the line of action of W
P H ivH2 1 1 1 2
= — X— = =
X H X w X H2 = x xH
W 3 2 x 2Hp 3 12 p 12 2.5
H2
30
2
For no tension to occur at the base, Z = — b
3
2b
x+x=

1+ H2
232 H = 3.16 m.
30
Frictional resistance offered at the base = pW
= 0.5 x 2 x 3.16 x p = 3.16 p
14 2 W X (3.16)2
Total lateral pressure due to water, P = w- 2 = = 4.99 w
2
pW 3.16 p
Factor of safety against sliding =
P 4.99w
3.16
x 2.5 = 1.58 > 1.5
4.99
Hence, the masonry is safe against sliding.
 Dams and Retaining Walls 327

Problem 14.2 A masonry chimney of hollow circular section has external

and internal diameter of 2 m and 1.5 m respectively. It is subjected to a hori-
zontal uniform wind pressure of 1600 N/m2. Determine its height if no tension
is allowed to occur at base. Take weight of masonry = 19200 N/m3.
[D.C.E. Part-II, 1996, W.B.]

2m
1.4- 1.5 m
11.

P H

WI,
M
--11.1 X .11--
Z -1.1

Fig. 14.8

Solution: Let H metre be the maximum height of the chimney for which no
tension occurs at the base.

4 (22 — 1.52) x H x 19200 = 26400 H N,

Weight of the chimney = W = —
71.

acting through the centre of gravity of the chimney.

x = The eccentricity that can be allowed so that no tension occurs at the
D2 + d2 22 2
base = 1.5 = 0.39 m.
8D 8 +x 2
P = Lateral thrust of wind acting on the diametrical face (projection) of the

chimney at L m from base

2
=HxDx 1600 =Hx 2 x 1600 = 3200 HkN.
P x 3200 H 0.39 x 2
Now = or
W H 26400 H
2
H = 6.435 m.
Problem 14.3 A masonry dam 6 metres high, 1 metre wide at the top and
4 metres wide at the base has its water face vertical and retains water to a depth
328 Strength of Materials

of 5.5 metres. Find the maximum and minimum stress intensities at the base
and draw the stress diagram.
Take density of water as 10 kN/m3 and that of masonry as 22.4 kN/m3.
[D.C.E. Part-II, 1997, W.B.]

Free A
board = 0.5 m

E
CD E
up

Toe

Heel E FM C

2 -ems

b —4m

0.0 0.0
C 0M P R E SS V E

o-min = 55.65 kN/m2

0-max = 112.35 kN/m2

Fig. 14.9

Solution: Considering 1 metre length of the darn.

W= Weight of the darn = (1 2 x 6 x 1 x 22.4 = 336 kN

+4)
5.5
P = Lateral thrust acting at — m above from base
3
1
= — x 10 x 5.5 x 5.5 x 1 = 151.25 kl\T
2
Let be the distance of the line of action of W measured from vertical
face.
42 + 4 x 1 + 12
x = = 1.4 m
3 (4 + 1)
 Dams and Retaining Walls 329

x = The distance of the point where the resultant cuts the base from the line
of action of W.
P h 151.25 5.5
=—x = x — 0.825 m
W 3 336 3
e = Eccentricity = The distance of the point where the resultant cuts the base
from the centre
b _ b 4
= Z — 2 = x + x — — = 1.4 + 0.825 — — =0.225 m
2 2
Pressure at heel or Minimum pressure intensity at heel
B W (1 6e) 336 (i 6 x 0.2251
b b) 4 4
amin = 55.65 kN/m2 (compression)
Maximum stress intensity at toe C = max =
'IT,- (1+
( 6 x 0.225)
= 336 1+

= 112.35 kN/m2 (compression)

Problem 14.4 A masonry dam of trapezoidal section is subjected to water
throughout its vertical face. The dam is 10 m high, 5 m wide at the base and

Heel B
—.IX 1.1-
b/2 -01e
Z
b- 5m
90 kN/m

440 kN/m2

Fig. 14.10
330 Strength of Materials

2 m wide at the top. Masonry of dam weights 25 kN/m3. Take density of water
10 kN/m3. (i) Determine resultant thrust on the base per metre length of the dam
(ii) Draw the stress diagram.
[D.C.E. Part-II, 1998, W.B.]
Solution:
Let us consider 1 metre length of the dam.
(5 + 2 )
W = Weight of the dam = x 10 x 1 x 25 = 875 kN
2
10
P = Lateral thrust of water acting at — metre above the base of dam
3
= x 10 x 102 x 1 = 500 IN.
2
(i) Resultant thrust on the base
= R = P2 +W 2 = 115002 + 8752 = 1007.782 kN
= The distance of line of action of W from vertical face
52 + 5 x 2 + 22
= 1.857 m
3(5+2)
x = The distance of the point where the resultant cuts the base measured
from the line of action of W.
P H
—x— =
500 x10 = 1.905 m.
= W 3 875 3
e = The eccentricity of the point where the resultant cuts the base from the
centre of base
b _
=Z—— = x + x— = 1.857 + 1.905 — 2 = 1.262 Ill
2 2
Maximum intensity of stress across the base at toe C
(, 6.e) 875 ( 6 x 1.262)
= ax = 1+ = 440 kN/m2 (Compressive)
b 5 5
Minimum intensity of stress across the base at heel B
ri 6.e) 875 ri 6 x 1.262)
= 90 kN/m2 (Tensile)
b b )= 5 )
Problem 14.5 A masonry dam of trapezoidal section has a vertical water
face and a height of 30 m. Determine the widths at the top and bottom if the
normal pressure on the base varies from zero at one side to 880 kN/m2 at the
other. The depth of the water impounded is 29 metres. Take the density of water
and masonry as 9810 N/m3 and 22560 N/m3 respectively.
[D.C.E. Part-II, 1999, W.131
Solution:
Let us consider 1 metre length of the dam
 Dams and Retaining Walls 331

0.0

880 kN/m2

Fig. 14.11

Let a = Top width of the darn

b = Bottom width of the darn
Density of water = 9810 N/m3, Density of masonry = 22560 N/m3
W= Weight of the darn

W= a l b x 1 x 30 x 22.56 = 338.4 (a + b) kN (i)

29
P = Lateral thrust of water acting at m above from base

1
= — x 9.81 x 292 x 1 = 4125 kN
2
Pressure at heel B = 0. Since tension at the base has just been avoided,
b
e= —
6
W 4_ 6e
Pressure at toe C= ama = = (1 + 1) = 2 W = 880 kN/m2
t) )
or, W= 440 b
From Equation (i) 440 b = 338.4 (a + b)
or, 338.4 a = 440 b — 338.4 b = 101.6 b
or, b = 3.33 a
= The distance of centre of gravity of the dam measured from the vertical
face
a 2 + ab + b2 a 2 + a x 3.33 a + (3.33 a)2
= 1.187 a
3 (a + b) 3 (a + 3.33 a)
332 Strength of Materials

x = The distance of the point where the resultant cuts the base measured from
the line of action of W
P h
= — x—
W 3
4125 x 29 4125 29 27.214
= x =
440 b 3 440 x 3.33 a 3 a
Since tension has just been avoided
2
Z=— b
3

x+ x=— b
3
27.214 2 x 3.33 a
1.187 a+
a 3
or 2.22 a2 — 1.187 a2 = 27.214
Or 1.033 a2 = 27.214
a = 5.1327 m
b = 3.33 a = 3.33 x 5.1327 = 17.0918 m.
Problem 14.6 A masonry trapezoidal darn 4 m high, 1 m wide at its top
and 3 m wide at its bottom retains water on its vertical face.
Determine the maximum and minimum stresses at the base, (i) When the
reservoir is full and (ii) When the reservoir is empty. Take weight of water and
masonry as 9810 N/m3 and 19620 N/m3 respectively.

AH m

3m

(a) When the reservoir is full (b) When the reservoir is empty

Fig. 14.12
 Darns and Retaining Walls 333

Solution: Let us consider 1 metre length of the darn

(a + b + 3)
W= Weight of the dam= I xHxp= x 4 x 19620
2 C1 2 )
= 156960 N
4
P= Lateral thrust of water acting at - m above from base
3
9810 x 42
- - 78480 N
2
_ a 2 + ab+b2 12 +(1x 3) + 32 13
BE = x = = = = 1.08 m
3 (a+b) 3 (1+ 3) 12
P x-h- = 78480 x 4 ,,= 0.67 m
EM=x= —
W 3 156960 3
Eccentricity, e = FM=Z- i b = X +x- b = 1.08 + 0.67 - i 3
= 0.25 m
i.
6 >03.25)
Maximum stress = cr., = _W (1+ 6e = 15660 (1+ = 78480 N/
b)
M2
6 x 0.25)
Minimum stress = atnin = W (1 _ 6e) _ 156960 (1 = 26160 N/m2
b )- 3 3
Stresses at the base when the reservoir is empty
Eccentricity = e=Z- 11 = x - -I2 = 1.08 - -3- = - 0.42 m
2 2
Minus sign indicates aB > o-c.
6 x 0.42
Stress at C = cy, = W 1+ 6.e _ 156960 1 = 8371.2 N/m2
- b b - 3 3
6.e _ 156960 1 6 x (-0.42)
Stress at B= op= W 1 = 96268.8 N/m2
" b b - 3 3
Problem '14.7 A dam section is 8 metres high, the maximum depth of
water impounded being 7.5 metres. The top width is 1 metre. The water face
of the dam is vertical. The coefficient of friction between the base of the dam
and soil is 0.6. Find the minimum bottom width required. Take weight of
masonry and weight of water as 22400 N/m3 and 9810 N/m3 respectively.
Solution
Let 'b' be the base width. Consider 1 metre length of the dam.
(a +1) ) ....0.
Weight of the dam = W= , x ti (1+ 1 x 8 x 22400 N
2 ) 2
= 89600 (b +1)N

x= a +2 a b + b 2 1+b+b2
3(a+b) 3(1+b)
334 Strength of Materials

wh2 9810x 752

Total water pressure = P = — = = 275906.25 N
2 2
Minimum width to avoid tension at the base
For this condition
_ P h= 2
Z= x + —•— b
W 3 3
b2 + b + 1 275906.25 75
x = b
3 (b + 1) 89600 (b + 1) 3 3
b2 b + 275906.25 x 7.5
= 2b (b + 1)
89600
b2 + b + 1 + 23.09 = 2b2 + 2b
b2 + b = 24.09
(b + 0.5)2 = 24.09 + 0.25 = 24.34
b + 0.5 = 4.933
b = 4.433 metres.
Minimum width to avoid sliding
For this condition, p,W > P
0.6 x 89600 (b + 1) > 275906.25
b + 1 > 275906.25
0.6 x 89600
b + 1 > 5.132
b > 4.132 metres
Therefore the minimum bottom width is 4.433 metres.
Problem 14.8 A masonry dam of trapezoidal section is 10 m high. It has
a top width of 1 m and bottom width of 7 m. The face exposed to water has
a slope of 1 horizontal to 10 vertical, as shown in Fig. 14.11. Calculate the
maximum and minimum stresses on the base when the water level coincides
with the top of the dam. Take weight of masonry and water as 19620 N/m3 and
9810 N/m3 respectively.
Solution: Here H = 10 m, a = 1 m, b = 7 m, h = 10 m, p = 19620 N/m3,
w= 9810 N/m3.
wh2 _ 98102 102
Total water pressure, P = = 490500 N
2

Weight of the dam = W = /14, x 10 x1)+p(a+

2 b )xH
2

= (9810 x 5) + 19620 (1 + 7 ) x 10

= 833850 N.
 Dams and Retaining Walls 335

1m
E A D

To find out the position of centre of gravity of the dam section, taking moment
of the weight of the dam about B and equating the same
10 10
W x x =(9810x — x ) + (19620 x — x ) + (19620 x 10 x 1.5)
2 3 2 3
5 11)
+ (19620 x 102
3
833850 x x = 6523650
3
= 2.61 m
Using the relation,
P h 90500 10
x= W x = 48 x = 1.96 m
3 833 50
B M = Z = r + x = 2.61 + 1.96 = 4.57 m
7
Eccentricity, e = Z — = 4.57 — — = 1.07 m
2 2
6 x 1.07
Maximum stress = = W 1+ T
6e)= 833850
7 (1 + 7 )

= 228372.8 N/m2
W 6e) = 83 37850 ( 6 x 1.07
Minimum stress = amh, = —b— (1— T,
7
= 9870.06 N/m2
Problem 14.9 A masonry dam of trapezoidal section is 10 metres high with
top width of 2 metres. The water face has a batter of 1 in 10. Find the minimum
336 Strength of Materials

bottom width necessary so that tensile stresses are not induced on the base
section. Masonry weighs 22563 N/m3 and water weighs 9810 N/m3.

Water
surface .1
2 rn —`I
E A D

1414

E
0 112

W
i

B F

Fig. 14.14

Solution: Let the bottom width of the darn be b metres. The distance of the
point of application of the resultant load on the base from the edge
Total moment about B
B=Z=
Total vertical load
2
If tension is to be just avoided, Z = — b.
3
The various loads on the dam per metre run and their moments about B are
tabulated below:

Load due to Magnitude of Distance from Moment about

load (N) B (in) B (Nm)

2
1. W1 Triangle of masonry: 112815 75210
3

2 x 1 x 10 x 22563
2. W, Rectangle of masonry: 451260 2 902520
2x 10 x 22563
b+6
3. W3 Triangle of masonry: 112815 (b — 3) 37605 (b — 3)
3
1
2 (b — 3) x 10 x 22563
— x (b + 6)

Contd..
 Dams and Retaining Walls 337

Load due to Magiiitude of Distance from Moment about

load (N) B (m) B (Aim)

4. W4 Triangle of water: 49050 16350

3
x 1 x 10 x 9810
2
5. Moment of horizontal 1635000
water pressure
wH3 9810 x 103
6 6
Total 613125 + 2629080
112815 (b — 3) + 37605 (b — 3)
x (b + 6)

2629080 + 37605 (b— 3) (b+ 6) 2

Z= — 4 b.
613125 +112815(b— 3)
7887240 + 112815 (b2 + 3b — 18) = 1226250 b + 225630 b2 — 676890 b
7887240 + 112815 b2 + 338445 b— 2030670 = 225630 b2 + 549360 b
112815 b2 + 210915 b— 5856570 = 0
b2 + 1.8695 b— 51.91 = 0
Solving we get b = 6.34 m Ans.
Problem 14.10 A masonry retaining wall 6 metres high has vertical face
on the earth side and retains earth which has level surface. The wall has a top
width of 1 metre and bottom width of 3 metres The density of earth to be
retained is 16 kN/m3 and angle of repose is 30°. The weight of masonry is 22
kN/m3. In vestigate the stability of the wall against bearing and sliding. Coef-
ficient of friction is 0.5.
[D.C.E. Part-II, 1997, W.B.]
Solution: Considering 1 metre length of the retaining wall.
a + b) (1+ 3
Weight of the wall = W= xHxp= x 6 x 22 = 264 kN
( 2 2

Lateral thrust of earth = P — wh2 x 1— sin 0 _ 16 x162 x 1—sin 30°

2 l+sin0 2 1+ sin 30°
P = 8 x 36 x — = 96 kINT
3
6
which is acting at 4 = 2 m above base.

= Distance of the line of action of W from vertical face

a2 +ab+b2 12 +1x3+32
= 1.083 m.
3(n+b) 3 (1+ 3)
338 Strength of Materials

x = Distance of the point where the resultant cuts the base from the line of
action of
P h 96
W = — x3 —= 3 = 0.727 m
W 264x
e = Eccentricity, i.e. the distance between the point where the resultant cuts
the base from the centre of base
b _ b 3
=Z— +x— 1.083 + 0.727 — = 0.31 m.
x 2 2
b 3
Maximum eccentricity allowed =
6 = 6 = 0.5 m.
Hence, no tension occurs at base (since e < —
b)
6
Maximum compressive stress at toe
= b (1+ 61).1
264 (1 6 x 0.31)
3 3 )
= 142.56 kN/m2
which is less than the permissible compressive stress for the material of the
masonry = 200 kN/m2. So, it is safe against bearing.
Frictional resistance = µW = 0.5 x 264 = 132 kN
But P = 96 1(1\1
••• µW > P so, it is safe against sliding.
Problem 14.11 A masonry retaining wall of trapezoidal section is 8 m high,
top and bottom width being 1 metre and 4.5 metre respectively. The vertical face
retains earth. Taking weight of earth and masonry to be 20 kN/m3 and 24 kN/
m3 respectively, check the stability of the wall and draw the pressure diagram
showing the maximum and minimum pressure at the base.
Take—Angle of repose of soil = 30°
Bearing capacity of soil = 120 kN/m2
Coefficient of friction = 0.6
[D.C.E. Part-II, 1998, W.B.]
Solution:
Let us consider 1 metre length of the retaining wall.
a +b
Weight of the wall = W= ( ) X H X p= (1+45) x 8 x 24 = 528 IcIsl
2 2
1— sin (fr
K = Rankine's coefficient of earth pressure — 1 + sin
4)
1— sin 30° 1
1+ sin 30° 3
P = Lateral pressure of earth acting at m from base
3
 Dams and Retaining Walls 339

0.0 0.0

56.79 kN/m2

177.88 kN/m2

Fig. 14.15

2
wH 2 X K= 20 x 8 1
x — 213.33 IN
2 2 3
= Distance of line of action of W from vertical face
a2 +ab+b2 12+1x4.5+4.52
= 1.56 m
3 (a + b) 3 (1+ 4.5)
x = Distance of the point where the resultant of P and W cuts the base,
measured from the line of action of W
= PxH — =
213.33 8
x — 1.077 m
W 3 528 3
e = Eccentricity, i.e. the distance of the point where the resultant cuts the
b _
base from the centre of base = Z — — = x +x— = 1.56 + 1.077
2 2
4.5
— = 0.387 m
2
W 6e ) 528 0.3 87
Pressure at heel, B = — 1— — h = 1 = 56.79 kN/m2
4.5 6 x4.5
(compressive)
340 Strength of Materials

vv r1+ 6e ) _ 528 (1+ 6 x 0.387 )

Pressure at toe, C = 177.88 kl\l/m2
b b 4.5 4.5 J
(compressive)
which is greater than 120 kl\l/m2, so, it is unsafe with respect to the bearing
capacity of the soil.
Problem 14.12 A masonry retaining wall of trapezoidal section is 6 m high,
1.5 m wide at the top and 3.5 m wide at the bottom. The earth face of the
wall is vertical. The soil is level with the top of the wall. Find the maximum
and minimum pressure intensities at the base of the wall. Soil density and
masomy densities are 16 kN/m3 and 22.5 kN/m3 respectively. Angle of repose
of soil is 30°.
[D.C.E. Part-II, 1999, W.B.]

= 1.5

E
cp

P P

H
3

FEM
-4- T(

b — 3.5 m

0.0 0.0

73.95 kN/m2

118.9 kN/m2

Fig. 14.16

Solution: Let us consider 1 metre length of the wall

(a + b)
Weight of the wall = W = x H x p = (1.5+3.5) x 6 x 22.5
2 2
= 337.5 Ic1\1.
 Darns and Retaining Walls 341

P = Lateral pressure of earth acting at or 2 m from base

3
wH2 1— sin 0 16 x 62 1— sin 30°
x x = 96 kN
2 l+sm 0 2 1+ sin 30°
= Distance of centre of gravity of the masonry measured from the vertical
face
a 2 ab + b2 '0.5)-2 + 1.5 x 3.5 + (3.5) 2
= 1.317 m.
3 (a +b) 3 (1.5 + 3.5)
x = Distance of the point where the resultant cuts the base from the line of
action of
PH — = 96 x 6 = 0.569 m
W=Wx 3 3375 3
b b 3.5
e = Eccentricity = Z — — = + x— — = 1.317 + 0.569 — = 0.136 m
2 2 2
Gel
Pressure at heel B = W (1 _
b

— 337.5 (1 6 x 0.136) — 73.95 kN/m2

—3.5 3.5 )
(1 + 6e)
Pressure at toe C=
b b)
6x 0.136)
3355 (1 + = 118.9 kN/m2
3.5
Problem 14.13 A masonry retaining wall of trapezoidal section with a
vertical face on the earth side is 1 m wide at the top, 3 m wide at the bottom
and 6 m high. It retains sand over the entire height with an angle of surcharge
of 20°. Determine the distribution of pressure at the base of the wall. The
sand weighs 18 kN/m3 and has an angle of repose of 30°. The masonry weighs
24 kN/m3.
[A.M.I.E. Winter 1984]
Solution: Consider 1 metre length of the wall.
P = Total pressure on the wall
wh 2 cos a — Jcos2 a— cos2
2 cos a x
cos a+ Vcos2 a — cos2
18 x 62 cos 20° — Icos2 20° — cos2 30°
x cos 20° x
2 cos 20° + Jcos2 20° — cos2 30°
= 134.2 kN.
The horizontal component of pressure,
PH = 134.2 cos 20° = 126.1 kN
342 Strength of Materials

F
I-4— 3 m
Fig. 14.17

The vertical component of the pressure,

Pv = 134.2 sin 20° = 45.9 kN.
1 3
Weight of the retaining wall, W = (--) x 6 x 24 = 288 kN.

Total weight acting vertically downwards = 288 + 45.9 = 333.9 kN

Taking moments of the vertical loads about B

Wx X = Pv x0+(24 x 1 x6 x0.5)+ (24x 6 2 2 x2)

333.9 x X = 360 x_ = 360 = 1.08 m

333.9

Now using the relation, x = PH x h =

126.1
x 6 = 0.75 m
W 3 333.9 3
Eccentricity = e=Z— 11 = X +x— = 1.08 + 0.75 — = 0.33 in
2 2 2
(1+ 6 e) . 333.9 6x 0.33)
Pressure at toe C= crmax = 147 (1+
b 3 )
= 184.75 kN/m2
_ (1 _ 6ej _ 333.9 (1 6 x 0.33)
Pressure at heel B = amin = W
b b — 3 3
= 37.84 kN/m2
 Dams and Retaining Walls 343

REVIEW EXERCISES
14.1 A masonry dam 6 metres high and 3 metres wide has water level with
its top. Find:
(a) total pressure on one metre length of the dam.
(b) depth of the centre of pressure
(c) the point at which resultant cuts the base.
Assuming the weight of masonry as 20 kN/m3
[Ans. 176.6 kN, 2 m, 0.98 m]
14.2 A concrete dam of rectangular section, 15 metres high and 6 metres
wide has water standing 2 metres below its top. Find
(a) total pressure of water on one metre length of the dam,
(b) height of the centre of pressure abose base
(c) the point at which the resultant cuts the base.
Assume the weight of concrete as 24820 N/m3.
[Ans. 828945 N, 4.33 m, 1.61 m]
14.3 A masonry dam 5 m high, 1 m wide at the top and 3.5 m wide at the
base has a vertical water face. Calculate the maximum and minimum
stresses at the base for the tank full and tank empty conditions. Density
of masonry = 19620 N/m3.
[Ans. Tankfull 6max = 107910 N/m2 comp.
°min = 17658 N/m2 comp.
Tank empty o-ina,, = 117720 N/m2 comp.
amin = 8142.3 N/m2 comp.]
14.4 A masonry dam 10 m high, 2 m wide at the top and 6 m wide at the
base has its water face vertical and retains water to a depth of 9 m.
Calculate the maximum and minimum stress intensities induced at
the base if the density of masonry is 21975 N/m3 and that of water is
9810 N/m3. [Ans. 222687 N/m2 Compt. 70337 N/m2 Comp.]
14.5 A trapezoidal concrete dam 61.5 m high and 4.5 m wide at the top has
its water face vertical and retains water to a depth of 60 m. Calculate the
necessary minimum width at the base to ensure that no tension shall be
developed. Draw the pressure diagram at the base of the dam for this
condition and indicate the maximum pressure developed.
Density of concrete = 2400 kg/m3
Density of water = 1010 kg/m3
[Ans. 31 m, 1611.4 kN/m2]
14.6 A trapezoidal masonry wall is 0.6 m wide at the top, 2 m wide at the base
and 4 m high and has to support a bank of earth level with the top of the
wall along its one vertical face. Determine the total pressure on one metre
length of the wall and also determine whether tension is produced in
344 Strength of Materials

masonry at the base? Earth weighs 18933.3 N/m3 and angle of repose
is 27°. Masonry weighs 22072.5 N/m3.
[Ans. 57388.5 N, o-rna„ = 123802.2 N/m2 comp.
amin = 27075.6 N/m2 tensile]
14.7 A masonry retaining wall is trapezoidal in cross-section with the
earth face vertical. The top width is 2 m, bottom width is 4 in and depth
8 in. It retains earth without any surcharge. The weight of masonry is
21974.4 N/m3 and the weight of earth is 15696 N/m3, angle of repose
30°. Find the maximum and minimum stresses developed in the masonry
at the base.
[Ans. cr. = 210.954 kN/m2, min = 52.738 IN/m2 both comp.]
 -15
N CYLINDRICAL SHELL

15.1 INTRODUCTION
Boilers, tanks, steam pipes, water pipes, etc. are usually considered as thin
cylinders. Cylindrical vessels may be thin or thick depending upon the thickness

of the plate in relation to the internal diameter of the cylinder. The ratio —
d=

20 can be considered as the suitable line of demarcation between thin and thick
1
cylinders. If the wall thickness is equal to or less than — of the internal
20
diameter, the cylinder is said to be thin walled otherwise it is taken to be a thick
cylinder. In thin cylinders the stress may be assumed uniformly distributed over
the wall thickness. Thin cylinders are frequently required to operate under
pressure up to 300 bar or more.

15.2 DESIGN OF THIN CYLINDERS

The cylinders are designed considering the ways in which they fail. A thin
cylinder may fail in the following two ways.
1. It may fail along the longitudinal seam [Fig. 15.1(a)].
2. It may fail across a transverse section [Fig. 15.1(b)].
Due to internal fluid pressure p the stresses set up are divided into the three
classes as follows:
1. Hoop or circumferential stresses acting across longitudinal section as
shown in Fig. 15.1 (a).
2. Longitudinal or axial stresses acting across sections at right angles to the
longitudinal axis of the cylinder as shown in Fig. 15.1(b).
3. Radial stresses which are small compared to the previous two stresses and
can be neglected.
346 Strength of Materials

(a) Failure along longitudinal section

(b) Failure across transverse section

Fig.15.1

These three stresses are mutually perpendicular and they are principal stresses.
Let D = Internal diameter of the cylinder
t = Thickness of the cylindrical shell
p = Internal (gauge) pressure in the cylinder
a, = Tangential or hoop or circumferential stress
= Axial or longitudinal stress
For hoop stress determination
pD
p DI = 2 a, x t x / or a,= (i)
2t
For longitudinal stress determination

1--r D2 x p = x IrD x t
4

pD = 4t•oi or ai = PD
4t
Thus we see that a, = 20,
Both the stresses are tensile and are independent of the length of the cylinder.
When the water in a closed pipe freezes, the pipe will rupture along a line running
longitudinally along the pipe. The thickness of the cylinder is determined by the
first formula.
D
Then t= p
2o-,
 Thin Cylindrical Shell 347

In constructing large pressure vessels or storage tanks such as boilers, coal

bunkers, air receivers, etc. several plates may be used which necessitate the use
of welded or riveted joints in joining together the ends of the plate. So while
designing the thickness of the pressure vessels, we must consider the efficiency
of the joints. If t1 be the efficiency of the longitudinal joint,
pD
then t
= 2o-, • II

15.3 STRAINS IN THIN CYLINDRICAL SHELL DUE

TO INTERNAL PRESSURE
The lateral strain is always accompanied by a linear strain. In a thin cylindrical
shell subjected to an internal pressure, its walls will also be subjected to lateral
strain. The effect of the lateral strains is to cause some change in the dimen-
sions. Consider a thin cylindrical shell subjected to an internal pressure.
Let 1= Length of the shell
D = Diameter of the shell
t = Thickness of the shell and
p = Intensity of internal fluid pressure
The circumferential stress,
pD
= 2t
Longitudinal stress,
pD
62= 4t
Now let SD = Change in diameter of the shell
SL= Change in length of the shell and
1
— = Poisson's ratio
Circumferential strains,
SD al a2 pD pD pD ( 1 1 )
e = = —
1 D E mE — 2t E 4t E.m 2t E 2m)
and longitudinal strain,
_ SL _ 0-2 a1 _ pD pD
e2 — L — E — mE — 4t E 2t mE
pD 1 1
—
2t E m)
Now changes in length and diameter may be found out from the above equations

SD = ei x D = 2tE(1 1) xD
2m )
348 Strength of Materials

- pD2 ( 1)
2t E 2m)

and SL =e2 L= PD ( 1 — 1 ) x L
2t E 2 in
pDL ( 1 1)
2t E L2 m.

7r D2 x L
Volume of cylinder is V= —
Volume
4
dV = — x 2D x L x dD + D2 X dL
4 4
Volumetric strain,
dV dD dL
ev = = +
V D L
= 2 x circumferential strain + Longitudinal strain
= 2 e1 + e2
pD ( 1 ) 4. pD ( 1 1)
—
- tEL E L 2m) 2t E L2 m/
= pD ( 5 21
2t E L 2 m)

15.4 THIN SPHERICAL SHELL

Consider a thin spherical shell of internal
radius r and wall thickness t subjected to an
internal pressure p as shown in Fig. 15.2.
By symmetry the stresses at every point X
in the shell is the same. Total force normal
to the diametral plane, p = p x nr2
For equilibrium, Bursting force p = Re-
sisting force
Let 61 be the tensile stress induced at the Y
section XX Fig. 15.2
Resisting force = 61 27trt

p x tcr 2 = 61 x 27crt _ Pr
2t

The strain in any section = e = al a2 = al al

E mE E mE
 Thin Cylindrical Shell 349

The increase in the diameter due to pressure p

Sd pd ( 1 1)
=e=
d 4t E trt)
. 4 ( )3 rd 3
Original volume = V = —
4 irr3 7r =
3 3 2 6
37rd 2
8V = Sd
6
511 817 _ 3d p ( 1_ m1))
=3 d S = 3e :.
V V — 4t E
From the above relation, the change in volume may be determined. If the
pd
shell is riveted, then the stress in the plate, a = where 17= Joint efficiency.
4t n

15.5 WIRE WOUND THIN CYLINDERS

Whenever a thin pipe is wound with a wire under tension, at a close pitch,
compressive stresses will be initially set up in the pipe section. If, now, the pipe
is subjected to internal fluid pressure, the bursting force will be resisted by the
pipe as well as the wire each offering tensile stresses. The final hoop stress in
the pipe material will be the hoop stress due to internal fluid pressure minus the
initial compressive stress. Hence the final stress will be less than if the pipe was
unwound one.
The final tensile stress in the wire is equal to the tensile stress due to the
internal fluid pressure plus the initial tensile winding stress since the wire is
initially under tension. Thus the wire wound pipe will be stronger as it will carry
a greater internal pressure for a given permissible tensile stress. Consider a
cylinder of diameter D and wall thickness t around which a wire of diameter d
is wound closely under a tensile stress of aw. The cylinder is subjected to an
internal fluid pressure p.
Let Ew = Modulus of elasticity for the material of wire
E = Modulus of elasticity for the material of pipe
Let us consider a unit length of the cylinder. Number of turns of the wire

per unit length of cylinder = —

d.
Cross-sectional area of the winding wire (both sides) per unit length of
2
cylinder = 2 x 4 d x d= .
If au, is the tensile stress in the winding wire without fluid pressure inside the

cylinder, then total tensile force in the wire x

This tensile force induces a compressive stress ap in the cylinder.
350 Strength of Materials

(a) (b)

Fig. 15.3

Total cross-sectional area subjected to compression = 2 x t x 1 = 2t.

Total compressive force in cylinder resisting the total tension of the wire =
2t x
ird
2t x a = — x
P 2
or a= aw
4t
When the fluid is admitted inside the cylinder the bursting force is resisted
by newly developed tensile stresses a and cr in the cylinder and in the wire
respectively.
Bursting force = Resisting force of pipe + resisting force of wire rings.
MI
pXDX1=apl X2tX1-1- a x —
2
pD = 6P x 2t + a„ x rd
2
Initial strain of cylinder (without internal pressure) due to winding of wire
a
EP
If aL is the longitudinal stress then final strain in the cylinder

= aP 1 x crL
E m E
Change in strain on the surface of cylinder

6P 1X
6L 6P
E m E E
 Thin Cylindrical Shell 351

But change in strain of winding wire due to internal pressure

6x Cr Iv 1
= - aw)
En, Ew E„,
Since the changes in strains in the cylinder and in the winding wire are equal

1 [a 6L 1
0- P ] = (v)
E " m

If a„,2 and 6,,2 be the final stress in the wire and in the cylinder, then we have
= 6,, + a„, both are tensile
and t tensile and o is compressive.
a1,2 =0-P1 — aP a is

SOLVED PROBLEMS

Problem 15.1 A cylindrical thin shell, 80 cm in diameter and 3 m long, is

having 1 cm metal thickness. If the shell is subjected to an internal pressure of
2.5 MPa, determine (a) change in diameter (b) Change in length (c) Change in

volume. E = 200 GPa, Poisson's ratio = .

4
Solution:
p• D 2.5 x 106 x 0.8 8
Hoop stress, ci = = 10 N/m2
2•t 2 x 0.01
pD 6
Longitudinal stress, a2 = = 50 x 10 1N/M
4t

1 1 [108 50 x 106 875 x 105

Hoop strain, el = — a =
E l m E 4

1 8] 25 x 106
Longitudinal strain, e2 = 62 al i = E
l [50 x 106 10
E m 4 E

875 X 105 X 0.8

Increase in diameter = el x D = = 0.035 cm
200 x 109

25 x 106 x 3
Increase in length = e2 x L = = 0.0375 cm
200 x 109

2 x 108
Volumetric strain = 2e1 + e2 = E

2 x 108
Increase in volume = X g x (0.8)2 x 3 = 1507.964 cm3.
200 x 109 4
352 Strength of Materials

Problem 15.2 A water main 80 cm in diameter contains water at a pressure

head of 100 m. If the weight of water is 10 kN/m3, find the thickness of the
metal required for the water main. Take the permissible stress as 20 MPa.
Solution: Pressure of water inside the water main
p = wh = 10 x 103 x 100 = 106 N/m2
Permissible stress is equal to circumferential stress, o. = 20 x 106 N/m2
Using the relation
pD
a=
t 2t
pD 106 x0.8
t= = 0.02 m = 2 cm Ans.
2.a, 2 x 20 x 106
Problem 15.3 A boiler is subjected to an internal steam pressure of 2 MPa.
The thickness of boiler plate is 2 cm and permissible tensile stress is 120 MPa.
Find out the maximum diameter, when the efficiency of longitudinal joint is 90%
and that of circumferential joint is 40%.
Solution: The maximum diameter for circumferential stress is calculated by
using the equation
pD
=
r 2 xtxn
A 2 x106 xD
120 x 10- = D = 2.16 m
2 x 0.02 x 0.9
The maximum diameter for longitudinal stress is calculated by using the
equation
pD
=
4 xtxne
6 2 x 106 x D
120 x 10 = D = 1.92 m (ii)
4 x 0.02 x 0.4
Maximum diameter of the boiler is equal to the minimum value of the diameter
given by Equations (i) and (ii).
Hence maximum diameter, D = 1.92 m Ans.
Problem 15.4 A cylindrical shell 90 cm long and 20 cm in internal diameter
having thickness of metal as 8 mm, is filled with fluid at atmospheric pressure.
If an additional 20 cm3 of fluid is pumped into the cylinder, find (i) the pressure
exerted by the fluid on the cylinder and (ii) the hoop stress induced.
1
Take E = 200 GPa and — = 0.3.
Solution:
Volume of cylinder = D2 x L = x (0.2)2 x 0.9
= 28274.33 x 10-6 m3
 Thin Cylindrical Shell 353

Increase in volume, dV = Volume of additional fluid

= 20 cm3 = 20 x 10-6 m3.
Now volumetric strain is given by
dV
— = Lei + e2
V
20 x 10-6
= 2ei + e2 (i)
28274.33 x 10-6
Now circumferential strain
pD 11
ci =
2 Et [ 2m]
and longitudinal strain
pD Fi 1
e2 =
2 Et L2 tnj
Substituting these values in Equation (i) we have
20 pP[i_ 2 1 + 2pD
28274.33 2 Et 2m] Et [2 m]
2 xpx 0 2
1 1 x0.3
2 x 200 x 109 x 0.008 [ 2
p x 02
1 0.3
2 x 200 x 109 x 0.008 [2
p= 5956.677 kN/m2.
(ii) Hoop stress is given by
pD 5956.677 x 0.2
a - =
t 2t 2 x 0.008
= 74458.463 kN/m2.
Problem 15.5 A boiler shell is to be made of 15 mm thick plate having a
limiting tensile stress of 120 MPa. If the efficiencies of the longitudinal and
circumferential joints are 70% and 30% respectively, determine:
(i) the maximum permissible diameter of the shell, for an internal pressure of
2 MPa and
(ii) permissible intensity of internal pressure when the shell diameter is 1.5 m.
Solution:
(i) Taking limiting tensile stress = circumferential stress
o-- -120 MPa
pD
Now 6t =
2t x rli
A 2 x 106 x D
120 x 10- = D = 1.26 m
2 x 0.015 x 0.7
354 Strength of Materials

Taking limiting tensile stress = longitudinal stress

= 120 MPa.
pD
Now
4t x n,
6 2 x 106 x D
120 x 10 = D = 1.08 m
4 x 0.015 x 0.3
Thus the maximum diameter of the shell is the minimum value of the above
two cases
D = 1.08 in. Ans.
Taking limiting tensile stress = circumferential stress
a, = 120 MPa.
Using the relation,
pD
a—
2xtxth
x 1.5
120 x 106 — p = 1.68 MPa.
2 x 0.015 x 0.7
Taking limiting tensile stress = Longitudinal stress
crL = 120 MPa.
Using the relation,
_ pD
CrL— 4t x ric
p X 15
120 x 106 = p = 1.44 MPa.
4 x 0.015 x 0.3
Hence in order that both the conditions may be satisfied the maximum
permissible internal pressure is equal to the minimum of the above two
values.
Maximum permissible internal pressure = 1.44 MPa.
Problem 15.6 A cylindrical shell 3 m long which is closed at the ends
has an internal diameter of 1 m and a wall thickness of 15 mm. Calculate
the circumferential and longitudinal stresses induced and also changes in the
dimensions of the shell, if it is subjected to an internal pressure of 1.5 MPa.
1
Take E = 200 GPa and — = 0.3.
P11

Solution:
Using the relation for hoop stress,

a = pD = 1.5 x 106 x 1 = 50 MPa.

2t 2 x 0.015
 Thin Cylindrical Shell 355

Using the relation for longitudinal stress,

pD 1.5 x 106 1
25 MPa.
=4 4 x 0.015 =
The change in diameter dD is given by

dD = PD2 [1 1 1
2t E L j
1.5 x 106 x 12
n [1 2
1 x0.3 = 0.02125 cm
2 x 0.015 x 200 x 10'
The change in length dL is given by
pDL ri 11
dL =
2t E L 2 m
1.5 x 106 x 1 x 3
n 0.3 = 0.015 cm.
2 x 0.015 x 200 x 10'
The change in volume dV is given by
pD r5 2
dV = — xV
2t E L2 m
1.5 x 106 x 1
„ (2.5 — 0.6) x — 7r x 12 x 3
2 x 0.015 x 200 x 10' 4
= 1119.192 cm3.
Problem 15.7 A copper cylinder, 90 cm long, 40 cm in external diameter
and wall thickness of 6 mm has its both ends closed by rigid blank flanges.
It is initially full of oil at atmospheric pressure. Calculate the additional volume
of oil which must be pumped into it in order to raise the oil pressure to 5 MPa
above atmospheric pressure. For copper, assume E = 100 GPa and Poisson's

ratio = 1 Take bulk modulus of oil as 2.6 GPa.

Solution:
Let dVi = Increase in volume of cylinder.

The volumetric strain = dVI

Vi
But volumetric strain due to fluid pressure is given by the equation
dV1 _ pD F 5 21 _ 5 x 106 x (0.4 — 2 x 0.006) [2.5 _ 2
Vi 2t E L2 mj 2 x 0.006 x 100 x 109 3
= 0.00296

dVi = 0.00296 x x (0.388)2 x 0.9 = 314.98 cm3

4
356 Strength of Materials

Let dV2 = Decrease in volume of oil due to increase of pressure

But due to bulk modulus (k), the volume of oil will decrease.
Increase in pressure of oil
Bulk modulus, k =
Decrease in Volume
Original Volume
p
dV2
V1
dV2 = P
V1 k
5x 106 x x (0.388)2 x 0.9
dV2 = x = =204.64 cm3
k 2.6 x 109 x 4
Resultant additional space created in the cylinder
= Increase in volume of cylinder + Decrease in volume of oil
= dVi + dV2 = 314.98 + 204.64 = 519.62 cm3
Additional quantity of oil which must be pumped inorder to raise the oil
pressure to 5 MPa = 519.62 cm3 Ans.
Problem 15.8 A steam boiler generates steam 1600 kg/hr at a pressure of
1 MPa gauge. The specific volume of steam is 0.24 m3/kg. If the permissible
tensile stress intensity in the pipe material is 4 MPa, calculate the diameter and
thickness of the steel pipe to carry the steam from this boiler at the velocity of
30 m/s.
Solution: Amount of steam generated = 1600 kg/hr.
Specific volume of steam = 0.24 m3/kg.
Volume of steam flow in the pipe
1600 x 0.24
= 0.107 m3/s
60 x 60
Let `D' be the diameter of the pipe, then
1r D2 x 30 = 0.107
4
4 x 0.107
D= = 0.0672 m
11 30 x
= 6.72 cm
The thickness of the pipe is given by
pD 1 x 106 x 0.0672
t= = 0.84 cm
2a, 2x4x106
Problem 15.9 A steel tube is plugged at the ends and fitted with an exten-
someter to measure the axial elongation produced by (a) internal pressure (b)
axial pull applied to the plugs. When an axial pull of 14 kN is applied to the plugs,
 Thin Cylindrical Shell 357

the elongation of a 25 cm gauge length is 0.0084 cm. The axial pull is removed
and an internal pressure of 7 MPa is applied. The elongation is then 0.0034 cm.
The tube is of 5 cm external diameter and 4.75 cm internal diameter. Determine
the value of Poisson's ratio for the material of the tube.
= 5-4.75
Solution: The thickness of the tube, t = 0.125 cm.
2
7C (52 4.752)
Area of cross-section of tube, A = -
4
= 1.914 cm2 = 1.914 x 10-4 m
Under axial Load

Stress, a= 14 x 103= 73.145 x 106 N/m2

1.914 x 10-4
Strain, e = 0.0084 = 0.000336
25
73.145 x 106
— E= a = = 217.69 x 109 N/m2
e 0.000336
Under internal pressure
pD = 7 x106 x 4.75 x 10-2
Hoop stress, al = = 133 MPa.
2t 2 x 0.125 x 10-2
pD 133 =
Longitudinal stress, r2 = 66 5 MPa
4t = 2 . .

Longitudinal strain = —1 2 - —
al = dL
E a m
1 133 x106 0.0034 x 10-2
Q 665x10-
217.69 x 10' * m 0.25
1
— = 0.278
Problem 15.10 A spherical vessel 80 cm in diameter and of 1 cm shell
thickness is filled with a fluid at atmospheric pressure. Additional fluid is then
pumped in till the pressure increases by 5 MPa. Find the volume of this addi-
tional fluid. Take it = 0.25 and E = 200 GPa for shell material.
SClUtiOn:
d 5 x 106 x 0.8
al = cr2 = p = = 108 N/m2
4t 4 x 0.01
0i 02 = 108 0.25 x 108
el = = 0.000375
E mE 200 x 109 200 x 109
ev = 3e1 = 0.00125
358 Strength of Materials

Increase in volume, 5, = ev•V = 0.001125 x r (0.4)3 m3

3
= 301.592 cm3
Volume of additional fluid = 301.592 c.c. Ans.
Problem 15.11 A cast-iron pipe having an internal diameter of 30 cm has
walls 6 mm thick and is closely wound with a single layer of steel wire of 0.3
cm diameter under a stress of 8 MPa. Calculate the stresses in the pipe and the
wire when the internal pressure in the pipe is 1 MPa. E for steel Es = 200 GPa,
E for cast iron Ec = 100 GPa. Poisson's ratio = 0.3.
Solution: Consider 1 m length of the pipe. Let the initial stresses be o tensile
in the wire and a compressive hoop stress in the pipe.
2 x dz = 2rd x aw
Then ap X 2t x—
v d 4
or a x 2 x 0.006 = 8 x 106 x — 7C x 0.3 x 10-2
2
ap = 3.14 MN/m2 compressive
When the internal pressure, p is applied, Let the stresses be a'w tensile in the wire
and 0:,
1 tensile hoop in the pipe.
2 ir 2
Then ap x 2t -F 6y x x d = pD.
rd
or apl x 2t + awl x = pD
2
x 0.003
or al x2 x 0.006 + x = 0.3 x 106
2
or 1.2 Cri,l + 0.471 o = 3000 (1)
Final longitudinal stress in the pipe
pD 106 x 0.3
= 4t = 12.5 x 106 N/m2
4 x 0.006

Change in hoop strain of pipe = —1— 116I — (-1-) + Cr p

Ec ) in
1
Change in strain of wire =
Es (aul, aw)
Since the change of strain at the common surface must be the same for the pipe
and the wire

.'. 1 [(at _ a1)+ a 1, 1

Ec m ES (aw — aw)
1
[(a — 12.5 x 106 x 0.3) + 3.14 x 106]
100 x 109
1
n (6„ — 8 x 106)
200 x 10'
 Thin Cylindrical Shell 359

Solving Equations (i) and (ii)

6-1 = 12.51 MN/m2 tensile
= 31.8 MN/m2 tensile.
Problem 15.12 A copper tube of 3.8 cm external diameter and 3.5 cm
internal diameter, is closely wound with steel wire of 0.08 cm diameter. Estimate
the tension at which the wire must have been wound if an internal pressure of
2 MPa produces a tensile circumferential stress of 7 MPa in the tube.
Es = 1.6 Ec
Poisson's ratio = 0.3
Solution: Suffixes t and w refer to tube and wire respectively.
3.8 - 3.5
Thickness t= = 0.15 cm
2
2 7r d2 ird
cr, x 2t = 6,v x —d x 4 = 2 x crw

x 0.08 x 10-2
or 6, x 2 x 0.0015 = x
2
or o-, = 0.419 aw (1)
2 it-
o- t x 2t + 6,;, x -d- x d2 = pD

rcx 0.08 x 10-2

or 7 x 106x 2 x 0.0015 + 6„1, x - 2 x 106 x 0.035
2
oily = 38992961 N/m2 tensile
Final longitudinal stress in the tube
6
pD _ 2 x 106 x 0.035 = 35 x 10
N/m2
al= 4t - 4 x 0.0015 3
; _ a/ ) 1
Change in hoop strain of tube = 1 [(a ai
Ec in

Change in strain of wire =

Es 61%1, - crw)
Since the change of strain at the common surface must be the same for the tube
and the wire
1 cr1
+ 1 - 1 (a„, aw)
in)
Es ' - Es
6 ,, , 35 x 106
1.6 7 x 10- - u:s x
[ + a, = 38992961 - 6,vv
3

35 x 106
or 1.6 7106
x- 3 +0.419 ow J = 38992961 -

= 20 MPa tensile Ans.

360 Strength of Materials

REVIEW EXERCISES
15.1 The diameter of a cylindrical shell made of steel is 3 m. The shell is
subjected to an internal pressure of 1 MPa gauge. Find out the thickness
of the shell plate if ultimate tensile stress of m.s. is 480 MPa. Longitudinal
joint efficiency of the shell is 80% and factor of safety is 6.
[Ans. 2.4 cm]
15.2 A water main of 2 metres diameter and 2 cm thickness is subjected to
an internal pressure of 1.5 MPa. Calculate the circumferential stress and
longitudinal stress induced in the pipe.
[Ans. 75 MPa, 37.5 MPa]
15.3 A thin cylindrical shell 2.4 metres long is of 0.6 m diameter. Determine
the changes in length and diameter, if the shell is subjected to an internal
1
pressure of 2 MPa. Take E = 20 x 105 MN/m2 and — = 0.3.
The thickness of plate is 1.5 cm [Ans. 0.0096 cm, 0.01 cm]
15.4 A cylindrical shell 90 cm long, of 15 cm internal diameter having thick-
ness of metal = 8 mm is filled with fluid at atmospheric pressure. If
an additional 20 cm3 of fluid is pumped into the cylinder, find (i) the
pressure exerted by the fluid on the cylinder and (ii) hoop stress induced.

E = 2 x 105 MN/m2, 1 = 0.3.

[Ans. 14.114 MN/m2, 132.317 MN/m2]
15.5 A cylindrical thin drum 80 cm in diameter and 3 m long has a shell
thickness of 1 cm. If the drum is subjected to an internal pressure of 2.5
MN/m2, determine (i) change in diameter (ii) change in length (iii) change
in volume. E = 200 GPa, Poisson's ratio = 0.25
[Ans. 3d = 0.035 cm, Si = 0.0375 cm, 811 = 1508.57CC]
15.6 A boiler is subjected to an internal steam pressure of 2 MPa. The thick-
ness of boiler plate is 2 cm and permissible tensile stress is 120 MPa.
Find out the maximum permissible diameter when efficiency of longitu-
dinal joint is 85% and that of circumferential joint is 35%.
15.7 A copper tube of 4.7 cm inside diameter and 5 cm outside diameter is
closely wound with steel wire of 0.075 cm diameter. Find the tension at
which the wire must be wound on the tube if an internal pressure of 2
MPa is required before the copper is subjected to tensile stress, the tube
being free to expand or contract axially. Es = 210 GPa, Ec = 120 GPa,
Poisson's ratio = 0.3. [Ans. 52149120 N/m2]
15.8 A thin cylinder of 15 cm internal diameter and 0.2 cm thickness hasits
ends closed by rigid plates and is then filled with water. When an external
axial pull of 16.5 kN is applied to the ends the water pressure is observed
to fall by 50 kN/m2. Determine the value of poisson's ratio for the metal.
E for the metal = 150 GPa., for water K = 2.2 GPa.
[Ans. 0.297]
RIVETED JOINTS

16.1 INTRODUCTION
Different parts of a machine or structure may required to be connected together
in various conditions. The devices by which the parts are joined or fastened
together are called fastenings. Fastenings are of two types: (1) Temporary
fastenings (2) Permanent fastenings.
The parts which are fastened together temporarily and can be unfastened
easily without breaking any part of them are called temporary fastenings. Bolts
and nuts, studs and nuts, screws, keys, cotter pins are examples of temporary
fastenings.
The parts which are fastened together permanently and cannot be unfastened
are called permanent fastenings. Riveting, welding, soldering, brazing are
examples of permanent fastenings.
Head

16.2 RIVET

A rivet is a round rod having a head at its one end; the head Shank
at the other end is formed by forming when it is assembled
to fasten the parts. The portion between the two heads is
called the shank. Diameter of the rivet shank is known as fa Tail
nominal diameter and the diameter of the hole drilled for
rivets is known as gross diameter or effective diameter of
the rivet. Fig.16.1 Rivet
Rivets are widely used in structural work such as roof trusses, bridges,
boilers, ship building and other engineering works. Snap head, counter sunk
head, pan head etc. are the most common types of rivet heads.

16.3 TYPES OF RIVETED JOINTS

There are two types of riveted joints:

(a) Lap joint and (b) Butt joint
362 Strength of Materials

(a) Lap Joint In case of lap joint, the two plates are fastened one over the
other and are joined by a common rivet. If a single row of rivets is used for
joining, then it is called single riveted joint; when two and three rows of rivets,
they are called double riveted and triple riveted joints. Single riveted and double
riveted lap joints are shown in Figs 16.2 and 16.3.

Fig. 16.2 Single riveted lap joint Fig. 16.3 Double riveted lap joint

(b) Buff Joint In case of butt joint, the two plates to be fastened are butted
together and covered with plates, either on one face only or on both faces and
are then joined by rivets. These cover plates are known as straps. Depending
upon the rows of rivets used in each plate, they are called single riveted, double
riveted, triple riveted and so on. Single cover and double cover butt joints are
shown in Figs 16.4 and 16.5.

Fig. 16.4 Single cover single Fig. 16.5 Double cover double
riveted butt joint riveted butt joint
 Riveted Joints 363

16.4 CAULKING AND FULLERING

Tightness of riveted joints is achieved by caulking and fullering operation. For
caulking operation a narrow blunt tool (caulking tool) about 5 mm thick and
40 mm in breadth, with the edge of tool ground to an angle of 80° is used. The
edges of the plates are usually bevelled to an angle of 80° to facilitate the forcing
down of edge. The edges are then driven by this blunt tool to close the joint.
The joint is made steam tight by turning down the heads of the rivets with a
caulking tool.

80°
AM\
Ni
11
111
7
(a) Caulking (b) Fullering

Fig. 16.6

16.5 FAILURE OF RIVETED JOINT

The possible failures of a riveted joint are the following: (i) Tearing of plates at
the edges (ii) Shearing of rivets (iii) Tearing of plates across the pitch length
(iv) crushing of rivets or plates.

16.5.1 Tearing of Plates at the Edges

When a rivet in a connected plate is very close
to its edge and the edge distance (margin) is not
sufficient, the plate may crack in the margin
portion under the action of the load, as shown
in Fig. 16.7. This type of failure can be avoided
by keeping sufficient margin at the end of the Fig. 16.7 Fracture at margin
plate beyond the last line of rivets. Usually a
margin of 1.5 times the rivet diameter is recommended for avoiding this type
of failure. Therefore marginal distance, M = 1.5 d.

16.5.2 Shearing of Rivets

In this case the pull exerts a radial pressure on the rivet—on the upper part of
rivet in the upper plate and lower part of rivet in the lower plate. This may cause
shearing of the rivet. In case of lap joints and butt joints with single cover strap,
the rivets will be in single shear, while in case of butt joints with two butt straps
the rivets will be in double shear.
Area of rivet in single shear = 4r- d2
364 Strength of Materials

Ank
11111
ANY A
MI
Nur
(a) Single shear (b) Double shear
Fig.16.8

g d2
Area of rivet in double shear = 2 x —
4
Let n = Number of rivets per pitch length

Shearing resistance in single shear, Ps = n x d2 x Cs

4
Shearing resistance in double shear, Ps =2xnx — 7r d2 xo-s
4
But in actual practice a factor of 1.875 is used instead of 2. Therefore shearing

resistance in double shear Ps = 1.875 x n x r d2 x Cs

4

16.5.3 Tearing of Plates r

If the applied pull exceeds the resisting
tensile force provided by the net sectional
area of the plate in a pitch length, the plate
will be torn off as shown in Fig. 16.9.
Tearing resistance, P1 = (p — d) t x 0.1.

16.5.4 Crushing of Rivets or

Plates Fig. 16.9 Tearing of plate
The rivet or the plate gets crushed due to
excessively large pressure between the
rivet and the plate resulting failure as
shown in Fig. 16.10.
Let d= Diameter of rivet
t = Thickness of plate
n = Number of rivets
cc = Crushing stress
Crushing resistance, Pc =nxdxtx Cc

16.6 EFFICIENCY OF A RIVETED Fig. 16.10 Crushing of rivet

JOINT
The efficiency of the joint is defined as the ratio of the actual strength of the
joint to the strength of the solid plate. It is calculated on a pitch length.
 Riveted Joints 365

Tearing efficiency = Tearing resistance of the weakest part of the strip (P, )
(i)
Tearing resistance of undrilled plate
(p—d)txcr, p—d
pXtX0",
Shearing resistance of rivets in a strip
(ii) Shearing efficiency —
Tearing resistance of undrilled plate
Ps
pX1- X61
Crushing resistance of rivets or holes in a strip
(iii) Crushing efficiency =
Tearing resistance of undrilled plate
Pc
pXt x a t
The lowest of the three efficiencies is taken as the joint efficiency.

16.7 UNWIN'S FORMULA

If the thickness of the plate is greater than 8 mm, then by using Unwin's
formula, the diameter of rivet hole is taken as
d=6 mm where t is the thickness of the plate in mm.
If the plate thickness is less than 8 mm the diameter of the rivet hole is
determined by equating the shearing resistance of a rivet to its crushing
resistance.

16.8 LOZENGE JOINT

!C ! B ! A
Figure 16.11 shows a riveted joint for
two plates of a girder for roof or bridge
work and such a joint is called the loz-
enge joint. This is the joint of greatest
economy in which the section of the
bar is not reduced by more than one
rivet hole. The plates to be connected I I I I i I
are either butted together and riveted, ic je iA
as shown in Fig. 16.11, to a single or Fig. 16.11 Lozenge joint
double butt strap.
Let 'b' and 't' be the width and thickness of the plate to be connected and
`d' be the diameter of rivet. We assume that the plates are connected by double
butt strap.
Before the joint can fail across BB, one rivet must be sheared and the plate
must tear through a section of area (b — 2d) x t.

Resistance along BB = 1.75 x i7 d2 X as + (b — 2d) x t x

366 Strength of Materials

Similarly before the joint can fail across CC, three rivets must be sheared and
the plate must tear through a section of area (b — 3d) xt.

Resistance along CC = 3 x 1.75 x d2 x o-, + (b — 3d) xt x a,

The following procedure for design of lozenge joint is followed. From the
thickness of the plate, the diameter of the rivet is determined. Shearing resis-
tance as well as crushing resistance of the rivet is calculated. The lower of the
two values is taken to fix the number of rivets. It is assumed ,that a rivet in
double shear is 1.75 times that in single shear in order to allow for possible
eccentricity of load or defective workmanship. The strap thickness t1 equals.
0.75 t for double cover plate joints. For single cover plate joints, t1 = 1.25t. Pitch
of rivets p 2.5 d < 6d. Marginal pitch in the direction of load ml 2d < 6d
Marginal pitch sideways ni2 1.5 d < 4 d.
b—d
The efficiency of the lozenge joint =

SOL'VED PROBLEMS
Problem 16.1 Find the suitable pitch for a riveted lap joint, of plates 1 cm
thick, if the safe working stress in tension in the plates, crushing and shearing
of the rivet material are respectively 150 MPa, 212.5 MPa and 94.5 MPa in the
following types of joint.
(i) Single riveted (ii) Double riveted
Find out the efficiency of the jointiir} the above two cases.
Solution:
(i) Consider one pitch length of the joint. Shearing strength per pitch length
is given by
Ps = g d2 X Crs = 1r d2 x 94.5 x 106 N
4
Crushing strength per pitch length is given by
Pc =dxtxac =dx 0.01 x 212.5 x 106 N
Strength of plate in tearing is given by
P,= (p — d)xtxat = (p — d) x 0.01 x 150 x 106 N
Comparing the strengths, Ps = Pc
d2 x 94.5 x 106 = d x 0.01 x 212.5 x 106
4
d= 2..863 cm
Pt= Pc
(p — d) x 0.01 x 150 x 106 = d x 0.01 x 212.5 x 106
p — d = 1.4166 d
p = 2.4166 d = 2.4166 x 2.863 = 6.919 cm Ans.
Strength of solid plate is given by, P = p x t x a,
P = 6.919 x 10-2 x 0.01 x 150 x 106 = 10378.5 N
 Riveted Joints 367

Efficiency of the joint,

p-d 6.919 - 2.863
= x 100 = x 100 = 58.62%. Ans.
6.919
Shearing strength of rivets is given by
Ps = 2 x d2 X (Ts = 2x d2 x 94.5 x 106 N
Crushing strength of rivets is given by
P c = 2 xdxtxcrc = 2 xdx 0.01 x212.5 x 106 N
Strength of the plate in tearing is given by
Pt = (p - d)x t x al = (p - d) x0.01 x 150 x 106 N
Comparing the strengths, Ps = Pc
2x — 7r d2 x 94.5 x 106 = 2 x d x 0.01 x 212.5 x 106
4
d = 2.863 cm
Pr= Pc
(p- d) x t x at = 2 xdx tx ac
(p- d) x 0.01 x 150 x 106 = 2 x d x 0.01 x 212.5 x 106
p - d = 2.833 d
p = 3.833 d = 3.833 x 2.863 = 10.974 cm
Efficiency of the joint,
p-d 10.974 - 2.863
= x 100 = 73.91% Ans.
10.974
Problem 16.2 In a double riveted lap joint, the pitch of the rivets is 7.5 cm,
thickness of the plate is 1.5 cm and rivet diameter is 2.5 cm. What minimum
force per pitch length will rapture the joint when ultimate stresses are a, = 400
MPa, 6s = 320 MPa, and ac = 640 MPa.
Solution:
(i) Tearing strength per pitch length is given by
P = (p - d) t x a, = (7.5 - 2.5) x 1.5 x 0- x 400 x 106
= 300000 N = 300 kN
Shearing strength per pitch length is given by
Ps = nx — d2 x as = 2 x 4 x (2.5)2 x x 320 x 106
4
= 314.2 kN
Crushing strength per pitch length is given by
Pc = n x dx tx crc = 2 x 2.5 x1.5 x 10-4 640 x 106
= 480 kN
Minimum force that will r9ture the joint is the least of P,, Ps and Po
i.e. 300 kN Ans. '
Problem 16.3 Double riveted lapioints are made in the following two ways:
(i) Diameter of rivets = 2 cm, Pitch of rivets = 6 cm
(ii) Diameter of rivets = 3 cm, Pitch of rivets = 8 cm
368 Strength of Materials

If a, = 120 MPa, as = 90 MPa and ac = 160 MPa, find out which of the two
joints has higher efficiency. The thickness of the plate is 1.2 cm in each case.
Solution:
(i) Tearing strength per pitch length is given by
= (p- d)t x = (6 - 2) x 1.2 x 10-4 x 120 x 106 = 57600 N
Shearing strength per pitch length is given by
Ps =nX 4 d2 X6s = 2 x 4 X(2)2 X10-1 X90 X106 = 56548 N
Crushing strength per pitch length is given by
Pc =nxdxtxac = 2 x 2 x 1.2 x 10 4 x 160 x 106 = 76800 N
Efficiency of the joint,
= 56548 56548
11 x 100 = x 100
pXtX61 6 x 1.2 x 10-4 x 120 x 10"
= 65.45% Ans.
(ii) Tearing strength per pitch length is given by
Pi = (p- d)t x a, = (8 - 3) x 1.2 x 10 x 120 x 106 = 72000 N
Shearing strength per pitch length is given by
Ps = n x 4 d2 x 6s = 2 x -74-
C x (3)2 x 90 x 106 = 127234.5 N
Curshing strength per pitch length is given by
P c =nxdxtxo-c = 2 x 3 x 1.2 x 10-4 x 160 x 106 = 115200 N
Strength of solid plate per pitch length
=pxtx cr,= 8 x 1.2 x 10-4 x 120 x 106
= 115200 N
Efficiency of the joint,
72000
11= x 100 = 62.5 %
115200
The first joint has higher efficiency. Ans.
Problem 16.4 Design a treble riveted lap joint in which the pitch of the
rivets in the outer rows is twice the pitch of the rivets in the inner row, for plates
18 mm in thickness. Determine the pitch and the diameter of the rivets so that
the tensile stress in the plates is 100 MPa and the shearing stress in the rivets
is 70 MPa.
Solution:
Diameter of rivet, d = 6 ji mm = 6,11i = 25.5 mm
Strength of one rivet in single shear
= 4 x (2.55)2 x 10-4 x 70 x 106 = 35749.36 N
Consider a strip of the joint equal to pitch p. Strength of plate against tearing
along 1 - 1 = (p - 2.55) x 1.8 x 10-4 x too x 106 = 18000 p - 45900 (i)
Strength of plate against tearing along 2-2 and shearing of rivets in 1-1
= (p -2 x 2.55) x 1.8 x 10-4 x 100 x 106 + 35749.36
= 18000 p 56050.64 (ii)
 Riveted Joints 369

Fig. 16.12

The value of Equation (ii) is smaller than that of Equation (i)

Strength of rivets in single shear = 4 x 35749.36 = 142997.44 N
Equating Equation (ii) to shearing value
18000 p - 56050.64 = 142997.44
p = 11.058 cm. Ans.
Adopt 11 cm pitch.
Problem 16.5 A single riveted, double cover butt joint in a structure is used
for connecting two plates 12 mm thick. The diameter of rivets is 24 mm. The.
permissible stresses are 120 MPa in tension, 100 MPa in single shear, 200 MPa
in double shear and in bearing. Calculate the necessary pitch and efficiency of
the joint.
Solution: Tearing strength per pitch length is given by
P = (p - d) x t x o- = (p - 2.4) x 1.2 x 10 4 x 120 x 106
= (p - 2.4) x 14400N
Shearing strength of rivet per pitch length in double shear is given by
Ps = n x 7—r d2 x as = 1 x — x (2.4)2 x 10-4 x 200 x 106
4 4
= 90477.868 N
Bearing strength per pitch length is given by
Pb =nxdxtx ab = 1 x 10-4 x 2.4 x 1.2 x 200 x 106
= 57600 N
Equating P to Ps. or Pb whichever is smaller
(p - 2.4) x 14400 = 57600
p = 6.4 cm
Minimum pitch = 2.5 d = 2.5 x 2.4 = 6 cm
Adopt 6.4 cm pitch
Strength of solid plate =1)xl>:, C71
370 Strength of Materials

Efficiency of the joint,

(p—d)tx o- p—d = 6.4 - 2.4
11 - pXtX , x 100= 6.4
x 100
= 62.5 % Ans.
Problem 16.6 Two plates of 12 mm thickness are connected by a double
riveted cover butt joint using 18 mm diameter rivets at a pitch of 8 cm. If the
ultimate tensile stress in plate and shearing and bearing stresses in the rivets are
460 MPa, 320 MPa and 640 MPa respectively, find the pull per pitch length at
which the joint will fail.
Solution: Tearing strength per pitch length is given by
P, = (p - d) x t x = (8 - 1.8) x 1.2 x 10-4 x 460 x 106 = 342240 N
Shearing strength per pitch length is given by
Ps = n x 2 x d2 X 0"s =2 x2 x x (1.8)2 x 10-4 x 320 x 106
= 325720.33 N
Bearing strength per pitch length is given by
Pb =nxdxtxab = 2 x 1.8 >.< 1.2 x 640 x 106 x 10-4 = 270480 N
The pull per pitch length at which the joint will fail is the least of the above three
forces.
The joint will fail at a pull of 276480 N Ans.
Strength of solid plate =pxtxo-,= 8 x 1.2 x 10-4 x 460 x 106
= 441600 N
Efficiency of the joint,
276480
= 441600 x 100 = 62.6 % Ans.
Problem 16.7 Design a double cover butt joint to with stand a load of 270
kN. The plates to be joined are 20 cm wide and 14 mm thick. 20 mm diameter
rivets are to be used in diamond formation of rivet rows so as to increase the
efficiency of the joint. Permissible stresses are shear 70 MPa, bearing 190 MPa
and tension 110 MPa. What is the efficiency of the joint?
Solution: Strength of one rivet in double shear = 1.75 x —
7r x 22 x 10-1 x
4
70 x 106 = 38484.5 N
Strength of one rivet in bearing = 2 x
1.4 x le x 190 x 106 = 53200 N
Number of rivets required
270 x 103
= 7.01
38484.5
Adopt 7 rivets as shown in Fig. 16.13.
(i) The plate may tear along section 1 -1
Permissible lo-ad = (20 - 4) x 1.4 x
10-4 x 111) x 106 = 246400 N
 Riveted Joints 371

(ii) The plate may tear along section 2-2, at the same time shearing the rivets
along 1-1,
Permissible load = (20 — 2 x 2) x 1.4 x lex 110 x 106+ 2 x 38484.5
= 323369 N
(iii) The plate may tear along section 3-3, at the same time shearing the 4 rivets
at 1-1 and 2-2.
Permissible load = (20 — 3 x 2) x 1.4 x 10-4 x 110 x 106 + 4 x 38484.5
= 369538 N.
(iv) Load to shear all the rivets = 7 x 38484.5 = 269391.5 N
(v) Load to crush all the rivets = 7 x 53200 = 372400 N
Load which can be carried by solid plate = 20 x 1.4 x 10-4 x 110 x 106
= 308000 N
246400
Efficiency of the joint, t1 = x 100 = 80% Ans.
308000
Problem 16.8 A boiler 1.5 m in diameter has longitudinal double riveted
butt joint with two cover plates. Efficiency of the joint is 75%. Design the joint
for a steam pressure of 1 MPa. The joint is to be equally strong for tension and
shearing. Find the thickness of plate, diameter and pitch of rivets. Take a, = 85
MPa. and as = 70 MPa.
Solution: The thickness of the boiler shell,
pD = 106 x 1.5
t — = 1.18 cm
Lai /I 2 x 85 x 106 x 0.75
Adopt 12 mm thick plate Ans.
The diameter of rivet, d = 6 f = 61/12 = 20.8 mm Ans.
Adopt 21 mm diameter rivet.
Strength of the plate against tearing
P,= (p — 2.1) x 1.2 x 10 x 85 x 106 = (p — 2.1) x 10200 N
Strength of rivets in double shear,

Ps = 1.875 x x (2.1)2 x 10-4 x 2 x 70 x 106 = 90919.655 N

4
(p — 2.1) x 10200 = 90919.655 N
p=11.01 cm Ans.

REVIEW EXERCISES
Multiple Choice Questions
16.1 Indicate the correct answer from the given alternatives.
1. In a double riveted lap joint (chain riveting) in a pitch length, there are:
(a) three rivets (b) two rivets
(c) four rivets (d) one rivet
372 Strength of Materials

2. In a double riveted joint there are

(a) two rows of rivets
(b) two rivets in a joint
(c) rivets subjected to double shear
(d) two cover plates
3. If d is the diameter of rivets in mm, and t is the thickness of the plates
to be connected, in mm,
(a) d = 7 Vi (b) d=
(c) d = (1.5t + 4) (d) d = St - 0.2
4. In a rivet joint, pitch is the centre to centre distance between
(a) two rivets between two rows
(b) two adjoining rivets
(c) two adjoining rivets in the adjoining rows
(d) two adjoining rivets along with the joint
5. In a single cover butt joint the thickness of the cover plate is
(a) t = 0.5 t (b) 0.625 t (c) 1.125 t
6. In a butt joint with two cover plates, the thickness of cover plate is
(a) 1.125 t (b) 0.625 t (c) 0.5 t
7. In case of zigzag riveting the distance between rows of rivets is
(a) 0.8 p (b) 0.7 p
(c) 0.5 p (d) 0.6 p
where p is the pitch of rivets.
8. In case of chain riveting the distance between rows of rivets is
(a) 0.6 p (b) 0.5 p
(c) 0.8 p (d) 0.7 p
where p is the pitch of rivets.
[Ans. 1. (b), 2. (a), 3. (b), 4. (d), 5. (c), 6. (b), 7. (d), 8. (c)]

Theory Questions
16.2 Describe the common types of riveted joints. Illustrate your answer with
neat sketches. Explain the term efficiency of the joint.
16.3 What are the different types of failures in a riveted joint ? Explain with
neat sketches.
16.4 Enumerate various causes of the failure of riveted joints.
16.5 Why is caulking and .fullering done in case of riveted joints?
16.6 What is diamond riveting? State reasons of adopting this arrangement in
structures.
 Riveted Joints 373

Problems
16.7 A triple riveted lap joint is to be made between 6 mm plates. Calculate
the rivet diameter, rivet pitch and distance between rows of rivets for the
joint. Zigzag riveting is to be used. Take a, = 84 N/mm2, as = 60 N/mm2,
ac = 120 N/mm2. State how the joint will fail.
[Ans. 15.3 mm, 8.7 cm, 5.22 cm, crushing]
16.8 Two 20 mm thick plates are joined by a single riveted lap joint by 2.5 cm
diameter rivets. Determine the shearing and crushing stress developed in
the rivet and the tensile stress produced in the plate. It carries a load of
1.3 MN/m width.
[Ans. 158.9 N/mm2, 156 N/mm2, 111.4 N/mm2]
16.9 In a double riveted lap joint, the pitch is 7.5 cm, thickness of plate 1.5
cm and rivet diameter 2.5 cm. What minimum force per pitch will
rupture the joint? Take o, = 40 N/mm2, crs = 32 N/mm2 ac = 64 N/mm2.
[Ans. 300 kN]
16.10 Two 15 mm thick plates are to be joined by a triple riveted double cover
butt strap joint. Assuming chain riveting determine (i) rivet diameter
(ii) rivet pitch (iii) distance between rows of rivet (iv) strap thickness
(v) efficiency of the joint. Take a, = 84 MPa, 6s = 63 MPa.
[Ans. 23 mm, 14 cm, 11.2 cm, 9.4 mm, 83.5%]
16.11 Determine the efficiency of a single riveted lap joint having a rivet
pitch 80 mm, rivet diameter 28.5 mm and plate thickness of 13 mm.
as = 0.8 a,.
[Ans. 50%]
16.12 A double riveted double cover butt joint is used for connecting two plates
12 mm thick. The diameter of rivets is 24 mm. The permissible stresses
are 110 N/mm2 in tension, 90 N/nun2 in shear, 180 N/mm2 in crushing.
Calculate the pitch and efficiency of the joint.
[Ans. 90 mm, 73.33%]
16.13 A tie member in a roof truss has to carry an axial load of 460 kN. The
member is a flat bar 15 mm thick and of constant width. Design and
sketch a double cover butt joint. Take a, = 150 N/mm2, as = 90 N/mm2,
ac = 180 N/mm2. Determine the efficiency of the joint.
16.14 A boiler shell of 2 m in diameter has a longitudinal joint double riveted
double cover butt joint. The diameter of rivet is 22 mm. The plate
thickness is 10 mm. If the efficiency of the joint is 70%, determine the
pitch of the rivets. Also find the magnitude of steam pressure in the
boiler, using a factor of safety as 4. The ultimate tensile stress of the plate
is 440 N/mm2, and ultimate stresses in shear and crushing for rivets are
320 N/mm2 and 680 N/mm2 respectively.
[Ans. 73.4 mm, 7.7 bar]
 17
WELDED JOINTS

17.1 INTRODUCTION
With the modern advances in welding techniques and processes, riveted joints
are being rapidly replaced by welded joints. Welded joints have higher efficiency.
Localised intimate union of metal parts by the method of fusion of parental and
deposited metals is known as welding. The surfaces to be joined are heated to
a high temperature and the fused material from the welding rod is deposited
between the surfaces to be joined. When the fused metals gets cooled, the parent
metals get joined together.
Welding may be defined as the joining of two pieces of metal by the appli-
cation of heat.

17.2 TYPES OF WELDED JOINTS

The most important types of welded joints are the following:

(a) Butt welds (b) Fillet welds
(c) Edge welds (b) Tackwelds

17.2.1 Butt Weld

A butt weld is obtained by butting together

the edges of two pieces having practically
the same cross-section and heating until
fused together. Figure 17.1 shows a butt
weld, in which the metal is deposited
between the edges to be joined. Fig. 17.1 Butt weld

17.2.2 Fillet Weld

A fillet weld is one which is placed in a corner made by two adjoining members.
They are made with equal legs so that the length of these legs is used to represent
 Welded Joints 375

the size of the weld. Figure 17.2 shows a fillet,

in which the weld metal is deposited in the corner
between the two surfaces.

17.2.3 Edge Weld

Figure 17.3 shows the edge weld where the weld Fig. 17.2 Fillet weld
metal is deposited on the edges of thin plates.

17.2.4 Tack Weld

Tack welds are used for holding metal parts in

positions while the major welding operation is in
process.

17.3 ADVANTAGES OF WELDING Fig. 17.3 Edge weld

OVER RIVETING

1. Welding is quicker and cheaper operation than riveting.

2. By welding it is easier to make the additions or alterations to the existing
structures.
3. Weight of welding metal is of the order of 1 to 1.5% of the entire weight
as compared to 3 to 4% of weight of rivets.
4. Welding causes lesser noise than riveting.
5. There is no weakening effect in welding because no hole is drilled as in the
case of riveting which reduces the effective section.
6. A welded joint has a higher strength and efficiency than a similar type of
riveted joint.
7. Perfect rigidity of joints is obtained in the case of welded connections.

17.4 DISADVANTAGES OF WELDING

1. Highly skilled labour is required for welding.

2. Welded joints are not easy to inspect.
3. Additional internal stresses may be developed due to excessive heating and
rapid cooling of welded parts.
4. Excessive deposit of weld metal causes inaccuracy.

17.5 STRENGTH OF WELDED JOINTS /

(I) Bu ff weld The load carrying capacity of/butt welds is given by

p = /xtxat /
where / = Effective length of weld
t = Effective throat thickness
at = Permissible tensile stress in the weld.
376 Strength of Materials

('I) Fillet weld For a joint connecting two parts with a fillet weld, the
sectional area of the weld resisting the applied force is 1 x t. Therefore the
strength of such a joint is
p=1 X t X Crs
where as = Permissible shear stress in the fillet weld.
Now throat thickness, t= k x S where S = size of the weld.
k varies from 0.7 to 0.5.

Table 17.1

Angle between 60° to 90° 91° to 1000 101° to 106° 107° to 113° 114° to 120°
fusion faces
Constant k 0.7 0.65 0.6 0.55 0.5

The strength of a double lap welded joint is given by

p= l•S•as

17.6 WELDED JOINTS FOR UNSYMMETRICAL SECTIONS

SUBJECT TO AXIAL LOAD
Sometimes unsymmetrical sections such as angles, channels, T-sections, etc.
welded on the flange edges are loaded axially as shown in Fig. 17.4.

Angle iron
Gusset F."— 11
plate IMMUNE
Angle
iron
a
Neutral axis
b

I.4- 12

(a) (b)
Gusset plate
Fig. 17.4

In such cases the lengths of weld should be proportioned in such a way that
the sum of resisting moments of the welds about the gravity axis is zero.
Consider an angle section as shown in Figs 17.4 (a) and (b).
Let /1 = Length of weld at the top
/2 = Length of weld at the bottom
1= Total length of weld = 11 + /2
P = Axial load
a = Distance of the top edge of the angle section from gravity axis or
neutral axis.
 Welded Joints 377

b = Distance of the bottom edge of the angle section from gravity axis or
neutral axis.
Moment of the top weld about gravity axis = /1 x Si x a
where S1 = Resistance offered by the weld per unit length.
Moment of the bottom weld about gravity axis = 4xs1 x b
Since the sum of the moments of the weld about the gravity axis must be zero,
therefore
11 x Si x a — 12 x Si x b = 0
or /1 x a= 12 x b But / = /1 + /2
From the above relations we get
/xb
11 =
a+ b
1xa
1
2 = a+ b

17.7 ECCENTRICALLY LOADED WELDED JOINTS

An eccentric load may be imposed on welded joints in many ways. The stresses
induced on the joint may be of different nature or of same nature. The induced
stresses are combined depending upon the nature of stresses. When the shear
and bending stresses are simultaneously present in a joint, the maximum stresses
are as follows:
Maximum normal stress, a = ab 1 1„2 + 4 _2
I (max) 2 2 .‘— b (-) S

1 ,2 „2
and maximum shear stress, -aS (max) = 2 \t"b "S
where ab = Bending stress
as = Shear stress
When the stresses are of the same nature, these may
be combined vectorially.
Now we discuss the two cases of eccentric loading
as follows:
Case 1 Consider a T-joint subjected to an eccentric
load P at a distance e as shown in Fig. 17.5.
Let S = Size of weld
Fig.17.5
1= Length of weld
The joint will be subjected to direct shear stress and the bending stress due to
the bending moment P x e. We know that
Sx
Area at the throat, = Al x 2 [For double fillet weld]

=Vixsx1
P= P
Shear stress •in the weld, as =
A sl
378 Strength of Materials

Section modulus of the weld metal through the throat,

2 S /2
Z=—X—n=
6 315
M Pxex3J
Bending stress, al, =
Z S 12
and maximum shear stress, 6s (max) = \a b2 4a2s

Case 2 When a welded joint is loaded

eccentrically as shown in Fig. 17.6,
the following two types of stresses are
induced.
1. Direct or primary shear stress and
2. Shear stress due to bending
moment
Let P = Eccentric load
e = Eccentricity Fig. 17.6
1= Length of single weld
S = size or leg of weld
Direct or primary shear stress,
Load P
as1 = Throat area =A = 2xSx/
P
,r2 x S.x /
11-
2-
S x /i
[... Throat area for single fillet =

Since the shear stress produced due to the bending moment (M = P•e) at any
section is proportional to its distance from G therefore stress due to P x e at
the point A is proportional to AG(r) and is in a direction at right angles to AG.
In other words
a .2 as
= = Constant (i)
r2
where as2 is the maximum shear stress at the maximum distance and as is the
shear stress at any distance r.
Consider a small section of the weld having area dA at a distance r from G.
• Shear force on this small section = as x dA
and moment of this shear force about G, dM = as x dA x r

dM = 6S2 x dA x r2 [From Equation (DJ

r2
• Total resisting moment over the whole weld area,

M=Pxe= as2 X dA x r2 = —
s a s2 x [.. I G = dA r 21
a 2 dA r2 = J
r2 r2
 Welded Joints 379

where IG = Polar moment of inertia of the throat area about G.

Shear stress due to the bending moment, i.e. secondary shear stress,
Mxr2 PXeXr2
6S2 =
Ic IG
In order to find the resultant stress, the primary and secondary shear stresses
are combined vectorially.
Resultant stress at A,
CrsA = ila2 ± a 2s, ÷ 2 as, x crs2 x cos 0

where 0= Angle between o-si and as2 and cos 0= ri

r2
IG = 2 [I.,„ + A xn

=2 [12+ A 41 = 2 A +4)

Sx/
where A = Throat area =

1= Length of weld
xi = Perpendicular distance between two parallel axes.

SOWED PROBLE/VIS
Problem 17.1 Two steel plates 12 cm wide and 1 cm thick are to be joined
by double transverse fillet weld. The maximum tensile stress is not to exceed
75 MPa. Find the length of the weld for static and dynamic loading.
SO/Ution: The maximum load which the plate can carry
P= Area x Stress =bxtx a,
= 12 x 1 x le x 75 x 106 = 90000 N
Length of the weld for static loading
Let 1= Length of the weld, S = size of weld = Thickness of plate = 1 cm
Then P=Jx/xSxat
90000 = Vi x/x 1 xlex 75 x 106
/ = 8.485 cm
Adding 1.25 cm in order to allow for starting and stopping of weld run
l= 8.485 + 1.25 = 9.735 cm.
Length of weld for dynamic loading
The stress concentration factor for transverse fillet weld is 1.5.
75
Permissible tensile stress, a = —1.5 = 50 MPa.

P= 127 x/xSxar
90000=J x/x 1 x 10-4 x 50 x 106
380 Strength of Materials

/ = 12.727 cm
Adding 1.25 cm 1= 12.727 + 1.25 = 13.977 cm. Ans.
Problem 17.2 A rod of 6 cm diameter is welded to a steel plate and acts
as a cantilever of length 40 cm, the loading being 12 kN. Determine the size of
the weld if the allowable stress is 180 MPa.
Solution:
Area of the rod = — x d2 Ir x 62= 97r cm2
4
Bending moment, M = 12 x 103 x 40 = 480 x 103 N cm
480 x 103
Force per unit cm of weld at top and bottom =
= 16976.52 N/cm
Assuming uniform distribution of shear force,
12 x 103
the vertical shear = x 6 = 636.6 N/cm

Resultant load = 4(1697652)2 + (636.6)2 = 16988.45 N/cm

45 x 100
Size of weld = 16988. = 0.943 cm
180 x 106
Adopt 9.5 mm weld.
Problem 17.3 A plate 12 cm wide and 1 cm thick is to be welded to another
plate by means of parallel fillet welds. The plates are subjected to a load of 50
IN. Find the length of the weld so that the maximum stress does not exceed
60 MPa. Consider the joint first under static loading and then under fatigue
loading.
Solution:
Under static loading
P= Vixixsxas
50x103 .-fixix1x10-4 x60x106 1= 5.89 cm.
Adding 1.25 cm for starting and stopping of weld run, we may take,
/ = 5.89 + 1.25 = 7.14 cm Ans.
Under fatigue loading
Stress concentration factor for parallel fillet welding is 2.7.
60
Permissible shear stress, as = 2 — 7 = 22.222 MPa.
50 x 103
and 1=
112xSxas = Jx1x10-4 x22.222x106
= 15.91 cm.
Adding 1.25 cm we have, 1= 15.91 + 1.25 = 17.16 cm. Ans.
 Welded Joints 381

Problem iI 7.4 A tie bar 12 cm x

1 cm welded to another tie bar 12 cm
X 1.5 cm is subjected to a load of 170
kN as shown in Fig. 17.7. Determine
the sizes of end fillets, such that the
stresses in both the fillets are the Fig. 17.7
same. Take allowable stress in the
weld as 100 MPa.
Solution: For equal stress in the welds A and B, the load shared by the fillet
welds will be proportional to their effective throat thickness or size of the weld.
Effective throat thickness is given by, t = 0.7 s
where S = size of weld (A) in the upper plate.
The throat thickness of the weld (B) in the lower plate = 1.5 x 0.7 s
= 1.05 s
For weld A
P1 = /. t•c, = 12 x 0.7 s x 10 4 x 100 x 106 = 84000 s N
For weld B
P2 = 12 x 1.05 s x le x x 106 126000 s N
Total force of resistance of the weld, P = P1 + P2 = 84000 s + 126000 s
= 210000 s N.
Equating the total force of the fillets to the load on the plates
210000 s = 170 x 103
s = 0.81 cm or 8.1 mm Ans.
Problem 17.5 A 10 cm x 1.2 cm plate is connected to another plate by fillet
welds around the end of the bar and also inside a machined slot as shown in Fig.
17.8. Determine the size of the weld, if the joint is subjected to a pull of 150
kN. The working stresses for the transverse welds and longitudinal welds are
100 MPa and 85 MPa respectively.

Fig. 17.8

Solution: Length of longitudinal weld, 1 = 2 x 10 + 2 x 5 = 30 cm

Length of transverse weld = 10 + 2 x 3 = 16 cm
Effective thickness of weld, t = 0.7 s
For transverse weld
Pi =ixtxot = 16 x 0.7 sx 1CI-4 x 100 x 106 = 112000 s N
382 Strength of Materials

Similarly for longitudinal weld

P2 = 30 x 0.7 s x le x 85 x 106 = 178500 s N
Total force of resistance of the weld
P = P1 + P2 = 112000 s + 178500 s = 290500 s N
Equating the total force of resistance to the pull of the joint
290500 s = 150 x 103
s= 0.516 cm = 5.16 mm Ans.
Problem 17..6 A 150 mm x 115 mm x 8 mm angle carrying a tensile force
of 20 kN is to be connected to a gusset plate by 6 mm fillet welds at the
extremities of the longer leg, the shorter leg being outstanding (Fig. 17.9). Find
the lengths of welds if the centre of gravity of the angle is 4.46 cm from the
top of the shorter leg. Take permissible shear stress in the welds as 102.5 MPa.

Gusset plate
Shorter leg
of angle

I
10.54 cm

- -a-
4.46 cm I
0.8 cm 1
1.5 cm
Fig. 17.9

Solution: Load carried by the angle, P = 200 kN = 200 x 103 N

size of weld, S = 6 mm = 0.6 cm
Distance of centre of gravity of the angle from the top shorter leg, b = 4.46 cm
Distance of centre of gravity of the angle from the top edge of the angle, i.e.
a = 15 - 4.46 = 10.54 cm
Let 11 = Length of the to p weld
= Length of the bottom weld
1 = ll + 12 = Total length of weld.
Using the relation,
P = (11 -i- 12) x 0.7 S x as
200 x 103 =(ll + /2) x 0.7 x 0.6 x 10-4 x 102.5 x 106
• /1 + /2 = 46.457 cm (i)
Using the relation
1xb 46.457 x 4.46
= 13.8 cm Ans.
'1= a +b = 1054 + 4.46
Substituting this value in Equation (i) we have
13.8 + l2 = 46.457
= 32.657 cm Ans.
 Welded JoInts 383

Problem 17.7 A bracket carrying a load of 12 kN is to be welded as shown

in Fig. 17.10. Find the size of the weld required if the allowable shear stress is
not to exceed 75 N/mm2.

Fig. 17.10

Solution: Let S = size of weld

P = P
Direct shear stress = A =
Sx/ NffxSx/
2x

12 x 103 16.97
= = „, MPa.
,/2 x 5xSx 10— 3
The polar moment of inertia of the weld about G,
IG S x 1 x (3b2 + 12 ) S x 5 (3x 2 + 52 )
= = 180.833 S cm4
6 68
(5)2
82
The maximum radius of the weld, r2 =1G) + i = 4.7 cm
.
Shear stress due to bending moment, i.e. secondary shear stress,
Pxexr2 _ 12 x 103 x 12 x 4.7 x 10-4 37.42
as2 = = MPa
/G 180.833 S x 10-8 S

cos 0 = 11 = = 0.532
r2 4.7
Now using the relation
as = \toil + a2s2 + 2 as1 •o-si • cos 0
,2
106) 2 = (16.97 X 10' ) ± (37.42 x 106 )2
(75 x
S S
16.97 x 106 37.42 X 106
+2x x x0.532
S S
384 Strength of Materials

5625 = 2363.8958
2
Or
S2
S2 = 0.42024
S = 0.648 cm = 6.5 mm Ans.

REVIVAT EXtRCISES
Theory Questions
17.1 What is welding?
17.2 State the various types of welded joints. Which types are commonly used
in which type of works?
17.3 What are the advantages of welded joints? Discuss butt and fillet type of
welded joints.
17.4 Sketch the shape of a fillet weld connecting angle to a plate.
17.5 Explain the method of calculating the strength of butt welds and fillet
welds.

Problems
17.6 Two 12 cm wide by 1.2 cm thick steel plates are butt welded at their
ends. If the allowable working stress in the weld is 87 N/mm2, determine
the allowable tensile load that may be applied to the plates.
(Ans. 125.28. kN)
17.7 Determine the strength per cm length for a 8 mm fillet weld when the
permissible shear stress in the weld is 102.5 N/mm2.
(Ans. 5740 N)
17.8 A 10 cm diameter solid shaft is joined by 1.5 cm fillet weld vertically to
a flat plate. Determine the maximum torque that the welded joint can
sustain if the permissible shear stress intensity in the weld material is not
to exceed 800 N/cm.
[Ans. 13326.3 N m]
17.9 Two steel plates 10 cm wide and 1.25 cm thick are to be joined by double
transverse fillet weld. The maximum tensile stress is not to exceed 70 N/
mm2. Find the length of the weld for static and dynamic loading.
[Ans. 8.32 cm, 11.85 cm]
17.10 A plate 10 cm wide and 1.25 cm thick is to be welded to another plate
by means of parallel fillet welds. The plates are subjected to a load of 50
kN. Find the length of the weld so that the maximum shear stress does
not exceed 56 N/mm2. Consider the joint first under static loading and
then under fatigue loading.
[Ans. 6.3 cm, 14.93 cm]
17.11 A bracket carrying a load of 20 'IN is to be welded as shown in
Fig. 17.11.
 Welded Joints 385

Fig. 17.11

Determine the size of the weld if the working shear stress is not to
exceed 80 N/mm2.
[Ans. 8.5 mm]
INDEX

Analytical method for location of cen- Circular spring I 99

troid 2 Column 223
Assumptions in simple bending I I 7 Classification of column 223
Assumptions made in torsion I 76 Core or kernel 271
Angle of repose 322 Condition for stability of dam 318
Advantages of welding 375 Caulking and fullering 362
Crushing of rivets 364
Bulk modulus of elasticity 47
Beam 75 Double integration method 146
Bending moment 78 Deficient frame 246
Bending moment diagram 79 Dam 313
Beams with oblique loading 86 Disadvantages of welding 375
Bending equation 118
Beams of uniform strength 132 Elasticity and elastic limit 46
Buckling factor 223 Equation of deflection cmve 143
Buckling load 223 Euler's formula 224
Butt joint 362 End conditions 224
Butt weld 374 Euler's assumptions 224
Eccentric load 268
Centre of gravity Eccentricity 268
Centroid I Efficiency of rivet joint 364
Centroids of regular areas 3 Edge weld 375
C.G. of regular solids 5
Factor of safety 47
C.G. of irregular bodies 7
Fixed beam 76
C.G. of composite sections 8
Functions of spring 198
Compressive stress 43
Flat spring 199
Compressive strain 45
Frame 246
Coefficient of elasticity 46
Failure of rivet joint 362
Change in volume 49
Fillet weld 374
Composite bar 53
Classification of beams 75 Gravity and gravitational force
Cantilever beam 75 Graphical method for location of cen-
Continuous beam 76 troid 2
Concentrated load 77 Gordon's formula 231
Cantilever beam with u.d.J. 81 Gravity dam 313
Composite or flitched beam 132
Composite circular shafts 180 Hooke's law 46
Close coiled helical spring 199 Hogging bending moment 78
 Index 387

Ho!Jow circular shaft 178 Polar modulus 121

Power transmitted by shaft 179
Im;1erfect frame 246 Proof load 20 I
Proof stress 20 I
Lo,;ation of the centroid 2
Proof resilience 20 I
Lo:ation of C.G. of solid 6
Perfect frame 246
Loads and forces 42
Plane frame 247
Longitudinal strain 48
Prop 280
Lateral strain 48
Plane of rapture 324
Leaf spring 199, 202
L•mg column 224 Radius of gyration 23
Lap joint 362 Rankine's formula 230
Lozenge joint 365 Redundant frame 247
Retaining wall 321
Moment of inertia 22
Rankine's theory 321
M.0.1. of lamina 22
Retaining wall trapezoid�) section 322
M.0.1. of rectangle 25
Riveted joints 361
M.0.1. of triangle 25
M.O.I. of circle 26 Section modulus 28
M.O.I. of hollow rectangle 27 Stress and strains 42
Mass moment of inertia 28 Shear stress 44
Mass moment of uniform rod 28 Shear strain 45
Mass moment of solid sphere 28 --.S_hear modulus 47
Mass moment of thin ring 28 Stress strain curve 47
Mass moment of solid cylinder 29 Simply supported beam 75·
Mass moment of hollow cylinder 29 Statically determinate beam 76
Modulus of elasticity 46 Statically indeterminate beam 76
Modulus of rigidity 47 Shear force 77
Moment of resistance 120 Sign convention 78
Macaulay's method 146 Sagging bending moment 78
Material for spring 198 Shear force diagram 79
M<:ctium column 224 Simply supported beam 82, 83
Method of joint 248 Simple bending 117
Method of sections 248 Slope and deflection 142
Mkdle third rule 319 Strain energy due to bending 145
Minimum width to avoid sliding 321 Shafts in seiies 180
Shafts in parallel 18 I
Overhanging beam 76, 87 Shaft coupling 182
Op,!n coiled helical spring 199 Spring 198
Ov,�rturning failure of dam 318 Spring constant 201
Springs in seiies 20 I
Procedure for locating the centroid 5 Stiffness of spring 201
Poiar moment of inertia 25, 28 Springs in parallel 202
Permissible stress 47 Safe load 223
Poisson's ratio 48 Secant formula 231
Point load 77
Position of neutral 1xis I 19 Space frame 2•17
388 Index

Shear stress 295 Truss 246

Sliding failure of dam 318 Tie 247
Spherical shell 348 Thin cylinder 345
�:hank 361 Thick cylinder 345
�traps 362 Tearing of plates 362
Shearing of rivets 362 Tack weld 375
S.:rength of weld 375
Ultimate stress 47
,heorem of parallel axis 23 Uniformly distributed load 77
Theorem of mutually perpendicular axis 24 Uniformly varying load 77
Tensile stress 43 Unwin's formula 365
Tensile strain 45
Temperature stress 52 Volumetric strain 46, 49
Torsion 176
Working load 47
Torsion equation 176
Working stress 47
Torsional rigidity 180
Wire wound thin cylinder 349
Torsional resilience 181
Weldedjoint 374
Types of spring 199
Torsion spring 199 · Yield stress 47

I .