AGRICULTURAL

ENGINEERING
FORMULA

Alexis T. Belonio

Department of Agricultural Engineering

and Environmental Management
College of Agriculture
Central Philippine University
Iloilo City, Philippines
2006
About the Author
Alexis T. Belonio is a Professional Agricultural Engineer.
Presently, he is an Associate Professor and Chairman of the
Department of Agricultural Engineering and Environmental
Management, College of Agriculture, Central Philippine
University, Iloilo City. He finished his Bachelor of Science in
Agricultural Engineering and Master of Science degrees from
Central Luzon State University, Muñoz, Nueva Ecija. He has
been deeply involved in teaching, research, project
development, and entrepreneurial activity on various
agricultural engineering projects since 1983.

He was awarded by the Philippine Society of Agricultural Engineers (PSAE) as Most

Outstanding Agricultural Engineer in the Field of Farm Power and Machinery and by the
Professional Regulation Commission (PRC) as Outstanding Professional in the Field of
Agricultural Engineering in 1993. In 1997, he was awarded by the TOYM Foundation
and the Jerry Roxas Foundation as the Outstanding Young Filipinos (TOYF) in the Field
of Agricultural Engineering. He is presently a PSAE Fellow Member.

As a dedicated professional, he serves as technical consultant to various agricultural

machinery manufacturers in Region VI. He also serves as a Reviewer of the TGIM
Foundation Review Center on the field of Agricultural Machinery and Allied Subjects,
and Agricultural Processing and Allied Subjects since 1998. He has written and
published several research and technical papers.

Other Books Available

Dictionary of Agricultural Engineering

Agricultural Engineering Design Data Handbook
Problems and Solutions in Agricultural Engineering
Agricultural Engineering Reviewer Volume I
Agricultural Engineering Reviewer Volume II
Rice Husk Gas Stove Handbook
Small Farm Irrigation Windpump Handbook
AGRICULTURAL
ENGINEERING
FORMULA

Alexis T. Belonio

Department of Agricultural Engineering

and Environmental Management
College of Agriculture
Central Philippine University
Iloilo City, Philippines

2006
Revised Edition

Copyright  2006 by Alexis T. Belonio

No part of this book is allowed to be photocopied or reproduced in any form without

written permission from the author.
Acknowledgement:
I would like to thank the Lord Jesus Christ for inspiring me to prepare this handbook on
agricultural engineering formula. Thank you Lord for the wisdom and strength you had given
me for the past several years in compiling various formula that is to be needed by our students.
May the glory and praise be with you Lord for ever!

I am also grateful to the Central Philippine University particularly to Dr. Juanito M. Acanto our
ever-supporting President of the University and to Dr. Reynaldo N. Dusaran my ever-dearest
Dean of the College of Agriculture for releasing the blessing and for motivation and
encouragement. Sirs, thank you very much!

Thank you also Dr. Norberto Orcullo of the TGIM Foundation Institute of Agricultural Engineers
for you served as a model to me and for encouraging me to write book for the sake of the
students who are preparing for a review for the professional agricultural engineering board
examination. It is my prayer that more students and professional agricultural engineers will be
touched by you.

To blessings from God: Salve, Mike, Happy, Humble, Jireh, Justly, Tenderly, and Wisdom thank
you so much! You prayers had done so much to me!

Thank you so much and God bless to you all!

 PREFACE
This handbook is a compilation of the various formulas that are commonly used in field
of agricultural engineering. I prepared this handbook so that students who are taking
the course will easily access on the various formula needed in solving problems during
their course of study. Students who are preparing for the board examination in the
Professional Agricultural Engineer Board Exam will find this handbook useful to you.
Practicing Agricultural Engineers and those who are working in the field of engineering
agriculture may find this book as a handy reference material.

The presentation of the formula in this book covers the different subject matter as
follows: agricultural power and energy, agricultural machinery and equipment,
agricultural processing and food engineering, farm electrification and instrumentation,
agricultural buildings and infrastructures, agricultural waste utilization and environmental
pollution, and soil and water engineering. The subject areas are arranged by topic for
ease of finding the formula needed. The parameters and units for each formula are
specified in the book and can be converted to, either English, Metric or SI system using
the conversion constants given at the end of the book.

This book is still in draft form. Additional subject matter, formula, and illustrations will be
included in the future to make this material more comprehensive. Comments and
suggestions are welcome for the future improvement of this book.

God bless and may this book become useful to you!

ALEXIS T. BELONIO
 TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page

Air Moving Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

Agricultural Building Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Agricultural Economics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Algebra . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Animal Space Requirement (Minimum) . . . . . . . . 20
Bearings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Biogas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Biomass Cookstove . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Biomass Furnace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Boarder Irrigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Chain Transmission. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
Conveyance Channel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
Corn Sheller . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
Cost Return Analysis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
Cyclone Separator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Differential Calculus. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
Drip Irrigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
Electricity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
Electric Motor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
Electrification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
Engine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
Engine Foundation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
Flat and V-Belt Belt Transmission . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
Fluid Mechanics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
Furrow Irrigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
Gas Cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
Gasifier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
Gears . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
Grain Dryer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
Grain Engineering Properties. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
Grain Seeder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
Grain Storage Loss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
Grain Storage Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
Heat Transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
Human and Animal Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
Hydraulic of Well . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
Hydraulics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
Hydro Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
Infiltration, Evaporation and Transpiration . . . . . . 102
Integral Calculus. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
Irrigation Efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
Irrigation Requirement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
Material Handling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
Pipe Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
Power Tiller . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
Pump . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
Pump Laws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
Rainfall and Runoff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
Reaper Harvester . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
Refrigeration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
Rice Milling . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
Rice Thresher . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
Shaft, Key, and Keyway . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
Soil, Water, Plant Relation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
Soil and Water Conservation Engineering . . . . . . . 136
Solar Thermal System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
Solid Geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
Sprayer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
Sprinkler Irrigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
Statistics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
Tillage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
Tractor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
Trigonometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
Water Treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
Weir, Flumes, and Orifice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
Wind Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
CONVERSION CONSTANTS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
 AIR MOVING DEVICES
Specific Speed Ns – specific speed, dmls
N - speed of air moving unit,
Ns = [ N Q 0.5 ] / [Ps 0.75] rpm
Q - airflow, cfm
Ps – pressure requirement, in.
H2O
Impeller Diameter D - diameter of impeller, in.
Ps – pressure requirement, in.
(2.35) 108 Ps H2O
D=  - pressure coefficient, 0.05 to
 N2 2.0
N - speed of impeller, rpm
Pitch Angle for Axial Fan  - pitch angle, deg
Q - airflow, cfm
350 Q N - speed of impeller, rpm
 = Sin –1 D - diameter of impeller, in.
 N D3  - flow coefficient, 0.01 to 0.80

Impeller Width (centrifugal and W – width of impeller, in.

mixed flow blower) Q - airflow, cfm
N - speed of impeller, rpm
175 Q D - diameter of impeller, in.
W =  - flow coefficient, 0.01 to 0.80
 N D2

Impeller Width (traverse flow) W – width of impeller, in.

Q - airflow, cfm
550 Q N - speed of impeller, rpm
W = D - diameter of impeller, in.
 N D2  - flow coefficient, 0.01 to 0.80

for 0.5  W/D  10

1
 AIR MOVING DEVICES
Casing Dimension (Forward Hc – height of casing, in.
Curved Centrifugal) Bc - breath of casing, in
Hc = 1.7 D Wc – width of casing, in.
Bc = 1.5 D D – diameter of impeller, in
Wc = 1.25 W + 0.1 D W - width of impeller, in
Casing Dimension (Narrow Hc – height of casing, in.
Backward Curved Centrifugal) Bc - breath of casing, in
Hc = 1.4 D Wc – width of casing, in.
Bc = 1.35 D D – diameter of impeller, in
Wc = W + 0.1 D W - width of impeller, in
Casing Dimension (Wide Hc – height of casing, in.
Backward Curved Centrifugal) Bc - breath of casing, in
Hc = 2.0 D Wc – width of casing, in.
Bc = 1.6 D D – diameter of impeller, in
Wc = W + 0.16 D W - width of impeller, in
Casing Dimension (Mixed Flow) Hc – height of casing, in.
Hc = 2.0 D Bc - breath of casing, in
Bc = 2.0 D Wc – width of casing, in.
Wc = 0.46 D D – diameter of impeller, in
Casing Dimension (Traverse Hc – height of casing, in.
Flow) Bc - breath of casing, in
Hc = 2.2 D Wc – width of casing, in.
Bc = 2.2 D D – diameter of impeller, in
Wc = W + [D/4]
Casing Dimension (Vane Axial Wc – width of casing, in.
Flow) D – diameter of impeller, in
Wc = 1.2 D
Casing Dimension (Tube Axial Wc – width of casing, in.
Flow) D – diameter of impeller, in
Wc = 1.0 D
Casing Dimension (Partially Wc – width of casing, in.
Cased Fan) D – diameter of impeller, in
Wc = 0.5 D

2
 AIR MOVING DEVICES
Air Horsepower AHP - air horsepower, hp
Q - airflow rate, cfm
Q V H V - specific weight of air, lb/ft3
AHP = ------------ H - total head, ft
33,000

Brake Horsepower BHP - brake horsepower, hp

Q - airflow rate, cfm
Q Pa Pa - static pressure, in. water
BHP = -------------- f - fan efficiency, decimal
6360 f

Mechanical Efficiency f - fan efficiency, decimal

AHP - air horsepower, hp
f = AHP / BHP BHP - brake horsepower, hp

Propeller Fan Pitch P - pitch in.

r - fan radius, in.
P = 2  r tan   - angle of fan blade twist, deg
Fan Laws D – impeller diameter, in.
H1 1/4 Q2 1/2 H - fan head, in. H20
D2 = D1 --------- --------- Q - air flow rate, cfm
Q1 1/2 H2 ¼
Fan Laws N – impeller speed, rpm
Q1 1/2 H2 3/4 H - fan head, in. H20
N2 = N1 --------- --------- Q - air flow rate, cfm
H1 3/4 Q2 ½
Fan Laws HP – fan horsepower, hp
D2 5 N2 3 D - fan diameter, in.
HP2 = HP1 -------- --------- N - speed of impeller, rpm
D1 5 N1 3

3
AGRICULTURAL BUILDING CONSTRUCTION
Volume of Cement/Sand/Gravel Vc - volume of cement, bags
(1:2:3) Vs - volume of sand, m3
Vg - volume of gravel, m3
Vc = 10.5 Vco Vco – volume of concrete, m3
Vs = 0.42 Vco
Vg = 0.84 Vco

Volume of Cement/Sand/Gravel Vc - volume of cement, bags

(1:2:4) Vs - volume of sand, m3
Vg - volume of gravel, m3
Vc = 7.84 Vco Vco – volume of concrete, m3
Vs = 0.44 Vco
Vg = 0.88 Vco

Volume of Cement/Sand/Gravel Vc - volume of cement, bags

(1:3:6) Vs - volume of sand, m3
Vg - volume of gravel, m3
Vc = 5.48 Vco Vco – volume of concrete, m3
Vs = 0.44 Vco
Vg = 0.88 Vco

Volume of Cement/Sand/Gravel Vc - volume of cement, bags

(1:3.5:7) Vs - volume of sand, m3
Vg - volume of gravel, m3
Vc = 5.00 Vco Vco – volume of concrete, m3
Vs = 0.45 Vco
Vg = 0.90 Vco

Number of Hallow Blocks per m2 NHB - number of hallow

Wall Area ( 8 in. x 16 in.) blocks, pieces
Aw – area of wall, m2
NHB = 13 Aw

4
AGRICULTURAL BUILDING CONSTRUCTION
Volume of Cement and Sand for Vc - volume of cement, bags
Mortar and Plaster per m3 of Vm – volume of mixture, m3
Mixture (1:2) Vs - volume of sand, m3

Vc = 14.5 Vm
Vs = 1.0 Vm
Volume of Cement and Sand for Vc - volume of cement, bags
Mortar and Plaster per m3 of Vm – volume of mixture, m3
Mixture (1:3) Vs - volume of sand, m3

Vc = 9.5 Vm
Vs = 1.0 Vm
Volume of Cement and Sand for Vc - volume of cement, bags
Mortar and Plaster per m3 Vm – volume of mixture, m3
Mixture (1:4) Vs - volume of sand, m3

Vc = 7.0 Vm
Vs = 1.0 Vm
Volume of Cement and Sand for Vc - volume of cement, bags
Mortar and Plaster per m3 Vm – volume of mixture, m3
Mixture (1:5) Vs - volume of sand, m3

Vc = 6.0 Vm
Vs = 1.0 Vm
Quantity of Cement and Sand for Vc - volume of cement, bags
Plastering per Face (50kg Vs - volume of sand, m3
Cement-Class B) Aw – area of wall, m2
Vc = 0.238 Aw
Vs = 0.025 Aw

5
AGRICULTURAL BUILDING CONSTRUCTION
Quantity of Cement and Sand for Vc - volume of cement, bags
Plastering per Face (50kg Vs - volume of sand, m3
Cement-Class C) Aw – area of wall, m2

Vc = 0.170 Aw
Vs = 0.025 Aw
Quantity of Cement and Sand for Vc - volume of cement, bags
Plastering per Face (50kg Vs - volume of sand, m3
Cement-Class D) Aw – area of wall, m2

Vc = 0.150 Aw
Vs = 0.025 Aw
Quantity of Cement and Sand Vc - volume of cement, bags
per 100 - 4 in. CHB Mortar Vs - volume of sand, m3
(50kg Cement-Class B) NHB – number of hallow
blocks
Vc = 3.328 NHB/100
Vs = 0.350 NHB /100
Quantity of Cement and Sand Vc - volume of cement, bags
per 100 - 6 in. CHB Mortar Vs - volume of sand, m3
(50kg Cement-Class B) NHB – number of hallow
Vc = 6.418 NHB/100 blocks
Vs = 0.675 NHB /100

Quantity of Cement and Sand Vc - volume of cement, bags

per 100 - 8 in. CHB Mortar Vs - volume of sand, m3
(50kg Cement-Class B) NHB – number of hallow
blocks
Vc = 9.504 NHB/100
Vs = 1.000 NHB /100

6
AGRICULTURAL BUILDING CONSTRUCTION
Quantity of Cement and Sand Vc - volume of cement, bags
per 100 - 8 in. CHB Mortar Vs - volume of sand, m3
(50kg Cement-Class B) NHB – number of hallow
blocks
Vc = 9.504 NHB /100
Vs = 1.000 NHB /100

Weight of Tie Wire (No. 16 GI Wtw – weight of tie wire, kg

wire) Wrb - weight of reinforcement
bar, tons
Wtw = 20 Wrb

Vertical Reinforcement Bar Lb - length of vertical bar

Requirement needed, m
Aw - area of wall, m2
Lb = 3.0 Aw (0.4 m spacing)
Lb = 2.1 Aw (0.6 m spacing)
Lb = 1.5 Aw (0.8 m spacing)

Horizontal Reinforcement Bar Lb - length of vertical bar

Requirement needed, m
Aw - area of wall, m2
Lb = 2.7 Aw (every 2 layers)

Lb = 1.9 Aw (every 3 layers)

Lb = 1.7 Aw (every 4 layers)

7
AGRICULTURAL BUILDING CONSTRUCTION
Board Feet of Lumber BF - number of board foot,
bd-ft
T W L T – thickness of wood, in.
BF = W - width of wood, in.
12 L - length of wood, ft

Number of Board Foot that can BF - number of board foot,

be Obtained from Log bd-ft
D – small diameter of log, in.
(D – 4) 2 L L - length of log, ft
BF =
16

Volume of Paint Needed for Pv - volume of paints needed,

Wood liters
Aw - area of wall, m2
Pv = 3.78 Aw / 20 (1st coating)

Pv = 3.78 Aw / 25 (2nd coating)

Nails Requirement Wn - weight of nail needed, kg

BFw – number of board foot of
Wn = 20 BFw / 1000 wood, bd-ft

Wood Preservation Vp - volume of preservatives,

gal
Vp = As / 9.3 As - area of surface, m2

8
 AGRICULTURAL ECONOMICS
Elasticity E – elasticity
% ΔQd Qd – quantity of demand
E = P - Price
% ΔP

Point Elasticity Q – quantity

ΔQ P - price
ΔQ – change in quantity
Q + Q2 / 2 ΔP – change in price
Έpa =
ΔP

P1 + P2 / 2

Simple Interest I – total interest earned for N

period
I=PiN i – interest rate
N – number of interest period
F=P+I P – principal or the present
value
F – future value or the total
amount to be repaid
Compound Interest F – future value or the total
amount to be repaid
F = P(1 + i)n P – principal or the present
value
i – interest rate
n – number of interest period
Effective Interest Rte EIR – effective interest rate
F – future value or the total
EIR = F – P amount to be repaid
P P – principal or the present
EIR= (1 + i)n - 1 value
i – nominal interest rate
n – interest period

9
 AGRICULTURAL ECONOMICS
Perpetuity P – principal or present value
1. To find for P given A: A – annuity
i – interest rate
P = (1 + i)n -1 n – interest period
i (1 + i)n F – Future value or the total
amount to be repaid

2. T find for A given P:

i (1 + i)n
A=P
(1 + i)n - 1

3. To find for F given A:

(1 + i)n - 1
A=P
i

4. To find for A given F:

A=F i
(1 + i)n - 1

10
 AGRICULTURAL ECONOMICS
Perpetuity and Capitalized Cost P – capitalized value of A
x – amount needed to provide
P= x i for replacement or maintenance
i (1 + i)n – 1 for K period

Arithmetic Gradient A – uniform periodic amount

equivalent to the arithmetic
A=G 1 - n gradient series.
i (1 = i)n – 1 G – arithmetic gradient change
in periodic amounts t the end
of each period.
P = 1 - (1 + i)n - n P – present with of G
i i (1 + i)n F – future worth of
accommodated G

P= G (1 + i)n -1 - n
i i (1 + i)n

F= G (1 + i)n – 1 - n
i i

Depreciation Cost d – annual depreciation

Co – original cost
Co - Cn n – useful life; years
d = Cn – salvage value or the scrap
n value
Dm – accrued total depreciation
Dm = m x d up to “m” years
m – age of property at any time
Cm = Co - Cm less than “n”
Cm – book value t the end of
“m” years

11
 AGRICULTURAL ECONOMICS
Sinking Fund Method d – annual depreciation
Co – original cost
d = ( C o – Cn ) i n – useful life; years
(1 + i)n - 1 Cn – salvage value or the scrap
i value
i – interest rate
d – annual depreciation
Co – original cost
(1 + i)m - 1 n – useful life; years
Cn – salvage value or the scrap
i value
Dm = (Co – Cn) Dm – accrued total depreciation
(1 + i)n -1 up to “m” years

Declining Balance Method d – annual depreciation

(Matheson Formula) Co – original cost
n – useful life; years
n
K=1– Cn /Co Cn – salvage value or the scrap
value
dm = K Cm – 1 m – age of property at any time
less than “n”
Cm = Co (1 - K)m Cm – book value t the end of
“m” years
Cn = Co (1 –K)n

Sum of the Years – Digits Co – original cost

(SYD) Method n – useful life; years
Cn – salvage value or the scrap
∑Years = n / 2 (n + 1) value

Annual Depreciation = (Co – Cn)

[n / ∑years]

12
 AGRICULTURAL ECONOMICS
Double Rate Declining Balance Co – original cost
n – useful life; years
Cm = Co (1 – 2 / n)m m – age of property at any time
less than “n”
Cm – book value t the end of
“m” years
Service Output Method T – total units of output produced during the life
of property
d1 = Co -Cn Qm – total units of output during year “m”
T d1 – depreciation per unit of output
Dm = Om d
or
Dm = (Co –Cn) Qm
T
Cm = Co - Dm

Fixed Cost CF – fixed cost

v – variable cost / unit
Ct = Cp + Cv D – units produced
Cv = vD CT – total cost
CT = CF + vD
Profit P – profit
P = TR – TC TR – total revenue
TC – total cost

13
 ALGEBRA
Laws of Exponents
If m > n
m n m+n
a .a =a m = n; a ≠ 0

am ÷ an = am-n

= ao
( m n
a ) = amn

(ab)m = am bm

(a/b)m = am / bm
Rational Exponents

a1/n = n√a

am/n = n√am or (n√a)m

Negative Exponents

a-m = 1/ am (a-m / b) = (b /a)m

1 = am
a-m

Radicals A – is called the radicand m, n

index (root)
a1/n = n√ a

am/n = n√am or (n√a)m

14
 ALGEBRA
Law of Radicals
n

√an = a
m n mn

√ √ = √a
m m m

√a . √b = √ab
m m

√a = √a/b
m

√b
Complex Number n is even

i = √-1 = i2 = -1
n n

√a = √a (i)
Power of i

(i = √-1)2

i2 = -1
Linear Equation in One Variable a≠0

ax + b = 0

15
 ALGEBRA
Special Products

Factor Types

1. Common factor

a ( x + y + z) = ax + ay + az

2. Square of binomial

(a ± b)2 = a2 ± 2ab + b2

3. Sum or difference of two numbers

(a + b) (a – b) = a2 – b2

4. Difference of two cubes

(x – y) (x2 + xy + y2) = x3 – y3

5. Sum of two cubes

(x + y) (x2 – xy + y2) = x3 + y3

6. Product of two similar numbers

(x + b) (x + d) = x2 + (b + d) x + bd

(ax + b) ( cx + d) = acx2 + (bc + ad)x + bd

Quadratic Trinomial

x2 + (b +d)x + bd = (x + b) (x +d)

acx2 + (bc + ad)x + bd = (ax+b)(ax+d

16
 ALGEBRA
Factoring of Polynomial Functions with Rational Roots

Form:

anxn + an-1 xn-1 + an-2 xn-2 + …ax + a0

Possible roots:

(r)=± factor of a0
factor of an

Quadratic Equation in One Variable

Form:

Ax2 + bx + c = 0

Method of Solutions: Note:

If b = 0, x = ±√ -c/a Avoid dividing an equation by

variable so as not to loose roots.
If factorable, use the theorem:

If ab = 0, a = 0 or b = 0

17
 ALGEBRA
Quadratic Formula

x = -b ± √ b2 – 4ac
2a

The Discriminant: D = 0 Two identical and real

roots
D = b2 – 4ac D > 0 Two distinct and real
roots
D < 0 Two complex conjugates
roots
Sum and Products of Roots

The sum (Xs) = -b/a X1 + X2

The product (Xp) = c/a X1X2

Linear Equation in Two Variables

Forms:
a1 x + b1y + c1 = 0

a2 x + b2y + c2 = 0

Method of Solution:

1. by elimination

2. by determinants

18
 ALGEBRA
Linear Equation of Three Variables

a1 x + b1y + c1z + d1 = 0

a2 x + b2y + c2z + d2 = 0

a3 x + b3y + c3z + d3 = 0

Method of Solution:

1. by elimination

2. by determinants

Quadratic Equations in Two Variable One Linear and One

Quadratic:

a1x + b1y = c1

a1x-2 + b1y2 = c2

Two Formulas Used in Solving a Problem in Arithmetic

Progression:

Last term (nth term)

an = a1 + (n – 1) d
Sum of all terms
S = n/2 ( a1 + an)
or
S = n/2 2a1 + (n-1) d

19
ANIMAL SPACE REQUIREMENT (Minimum)
Lairage SR - space requirement, m2
Na - number of animals
SR = 2.23 Na : large/loose type

SR = 3.30 Na : large/tie-up type

SR = 0.70 Na : swine less than

100kg

SR = 0.60 Na : swine more

than100kg

SR = 0.56 Na : small animals

Goat and Sheep (Solid Floor) SR - space requirement, m2

Na - number of animals
SR = 0.80 Na : 35 kg animal

SR = 1.10 Na : 50 kg animal

SR = 1.40 Na : 70 kg animal

SR = 0.45 Na : kid/lamb

SR = 3.00 Na : buck/ram

Goat and Sheep (Slatted Floor) SR - space requirement, m2

Na - number of animals
SR = 0.70 Na : 35 kg animal
SR = 0.90 Na : 50 kg animal
SR = 1.10 Na : 70 kg animal
SR = 0.35 Na : kid/lamb
SR = 2.60 Na : buck/ram

20
ANIMAL SPACE REQUIREMENT (Minimum)
Goat and Sheep (Open Yard) SR - space
requirement, m2
SR = 2.00 Na : 35 kg animal Na - number of animals

SR = 2.50 Na : 50 kg animal

SR = 3.00 Na : 70 kg animal

Goat and Sheep (Lactating) SR - space

requirement, m2
SR = 1.30 Na : 50-70 kg pregnant Na - number of animals

SR = 1.60 Na : over 70 kg pregnant

SR = 2.00 Na : 50-70 kg lactating

SR = 2.30 Na : over 70 kg lactating

Cattle Feed Lot SR - space

requirement, m2
SR = 4.00 Na : shed space Na - number of animals

SR = 5.00 Na : loafing area

Cattle Ranch (Holding Pen) SR - space

requirement, m2
SR = 1.30 Na : up to 270 kg Na - number of animals

SR = 1.60 Na : 270-540 kg

SR = 1.90 Na : over 540 kg

21
ANIMAL SPACE REQUIREMENT (Minimum)
Cattle Shed or Barn SR - space
requirement, m2
Na - number of animals
SR = 1.00 Na : calves up to 3 mo
SR = 2.00 Na : calves 2-3 mo
SR = 3.00 Na : calves 7 mo-1 yr
SR = 4.00 Na : yearling 1-2 yr
SR = 5.00 Na : heifer/steer 2-3 yr
SR = 6.00 Na : milking and dry cow
SR = 10.00 Na : cows in maternity
stall

Carabao Feedlot SR - space

requirement, m2
SR = 4.00 Na Na - number of animals

Laying Hens (Growing 7-22 Weeks) SR - space

requirement, m2
SR = 0.14 Na : litter floor Na - number of birds

SR = 0.06 Na : slotted floor

SR = 0.07 Na : slot-litter floor

Laying Hens (Laying Beyond 22 SR - space

Weeks) requirement, m2
Na - number of birds
SR = 0.17 Na : litter floor

SR = 0.09 Na : slotted floor

SR = 0.14 Na : slot-litter floor

22
ANIMAL SPACE REQUIREMENT (Minimum)
Broiler SR - space
requirement, m2
SR = 0.0625 Na : 4 week and below Na - number of birds

SR = 0.1250 Na : above 4 weeks

Swine (Group of Growing Swine) SR - space

requirement, m2
SR = 0.11 Na : up to 10 kg Na - number of
SR = 0.20 Na : 11 to 30 kg animals
SR = 0.35 Na : 21 to 40 kg
SR = 0.50 Na : 41 to 60 kg
SR = 0.70 Na : 61 to 80 kg
SR = 0.85 Na : 81 to 100 kg

Swine SR - space
requirement, m2
SR =
1.00 Na : Gilts up to mating Na - number of
SR =
2.50 Na : Adult pigs in group animals
SR =
1.20 Na : Gestating sows
SR =
7.50 Na : Boar in pens
SR =
7.40 Na : Lactating sows and
liters – individual
pen
SR = 5.60 Na : Lactating sows and
liters - multi-
suckling groups
SR = 1.80 Na : Dry sows

23
 BEARINGS
Bearing Life L – bearing life, million
revolution
C – basic dynamic capacity, N
C F – actual radial load, N
L=[ ]n n – 3 for ball bearing, and 3.33
F for roller bearing

Radial Load Acting on Shaft F – radial force on the shaft, N

P – power transmitted, kW
K – drive tension factor, 1 for
chain drive and gears; and
19.1 x 106 P K 1.5 for v-belt drive
F= Dp – pitch diameter of sheave,
Dp N sprocket, etc, mm
N – shaft speed, rpm

Bearing Load in Belt Ft – effective force transmitted

by belt or chain, kgf-mm
H – power transmitted, kW
974 000 H N – speed, rpm
Ft = r – effective radius of pulley or
N r sprocket, mm

24
 BEARINGS
Actual Load Applied to Pulley shaft La – actual load applied
to pulley shaft, kgf
fb – belt factor, 2 to 2.5
La = fb Ft for v-belt and 2.5 to
5 for flat belt; 1.25 to
1.5 for chain drive
Ft – effective force
transmitted by belt or
chain, kgf-mm

Rating Life of Ball Bearing in Hours Lh – rating life of ball

bearing, hours
106 0.33
C 3
N - speed, rpm
Lh = 500 C - basic load rating, kgf
3 x 104 N P P – bearing load, kgf

Rating Life of Roller Bearing in Hours Lh – rating life of roller

bearing, hours
106 0.3
C 3.33
N - speed, rpm
Lh = 500 C - basic load rating, kgf
3 x 104 N P P – bearing load kgf

25
 BIOGAS
Manure Production (Pig) Wm – weight of manure
produced, kg
Wm = 2.20 Na Nd: 3-8 mos Na - number of animals
Wm = 2.55 Na Nd: 18-36 kg Nd - number of days
Wm = 5.22 Na Nd: 36-55 kg
Wm = 6.67 Na Nd: 55-73 kg
Wm = 8.00 Na Nd: 73-91 kg

Manure Production (Cow) Wm – weight of manure

produced, kg
Wm = 14.0 Na Nd : Feedlot Na - number of animals
Wm = 13.0 Na Nd : Breeding Nd - number of days
Wm = 7.5 Na Nd : Work

Manure Production (Buffalo) Wm – weight of manure

produced, kg
Wm = 14.00 Na Nd : Breeding Na - number of animals
Wm = 8.00 Na Nd : Work Nd - number of days

Manure Production (Horse) Wm – weight of manure

produced, kg
Wm = 13.50 Na Nd : Breeding Na - number of animals
Wm = 7.75 Na Nd : Work Nd - number of days

Manure Production (Chicken) Wm – weight of manure

produced, kg
Wm = 0.075 Na Nd : Layer Na - number of birds
Wm = 0.025 Na Nd : Broiler Nd - number of days

26
 BIOGAS
Volume of Mixing Tank (15% Vmt - volume of mixing tank,
Freeboard) m3
wm - daily manure
Vmt = wm Na Tm MR production, kg/day-
animal
Na - number of animals
Tm – mixing time, day
MR – mixing ratio, 1 for 1:1
and 2 for 1:2
Volume of Digester Tank (15% Vdt - volume of digester
Freeboard) tank, m3
wm - daily manure
Vdt = wm Na Tr MR production, kg/day-
animal
Na - number of animals
Tr – retention time, day
MR – mixing ratio, 1 for 1:1
and 2 for 1:2
Digester Dimension (Floating Dd - inner diameter, m
Type-Cylindrical) Vd - effective digester
volume, m3
Dd = [(4.6 x Vd) / ( x r)]1/3 r – height to diameter ratio
Hd - digester height, m
Hd = r Dd

Digester Dimension (Floating Sd - inner side, m

Type-Square) Vd - effective digester
volume, m3
Sd = [(1.15 x Vd) / (r)]1/3 r – height to side ratio
Hd - digester height, m
Hd = r Sd

27
 BIOGAS
Digester Dimension (Floating Wd - inner width, m
Type-Rectangular) Vd - effective digester volume,
m3
Wd = [(1.15 Vd ) / ( r p2 )1/3 r – height to width ratio
p - desired width and length
Hd = r Ld proportion
Hd - digester height, m
Gas Chamber (Floating-Type Dg - inner diameter of gas
Cylindrical) chamber, m
Dd – inner diameter of digester,
Dg = (45 Dd – w ) / 50 : m
inner diameter Vs - effective gas chamber
volume, m3
h = Dg Tan 9.5 / 2 : w – gas chamber wall thickness,
height of pyramidal roof cm
h – height of pyramidal roof, m
Hs = 1.15[{4 Vs /  Ds) + Hp] : Hs - height of gas chamber, m
height of gas chamber Hp - desired pressure head, m

Gas Chamber (Floating-Type Lg - inner length of gas

Square/Rectangular) chamber, m
Wg - inner width of gas
Lg = (45 Ld – w ) / 50 : chamber, m
inner length Ld – inner length of digester, m
Wd – inner width of digester,m
Wg = (45 Ld – w ) / 50 : Vs - effective gas chamber
inner width volume, m3
w – gas chamber wall thickness,
h = Wg Tan 9.5 / 2 : cm
height of pyramidal roof h – height of pyramidal roof, m
Hg - height of gas chamber, m
Hg = 1.15[{Vg/LgWg) + Hp]: Hp - desired prressure head, m
height of gas chamber

28
 BIOMASS COOKSTOVE
Design Power Pd - design power, KCal/hr
Pc - chracoal power, KCal/hr
Pd = 0.7 ( Pc + Pv) Pv - max volatile, KCal/hr
Power Output Po - power output, KCal/hr
Fc - Fuel charges, kg
Po = Fc Hf / Tb Hf - heating value of fuel;
KCal/kg
Tb - total burning time, hr
Burning Rate BR - burning rate, kg/hr
Po - power output, KCal/hr
BR = Po / Hf Hf - heating value of fuel;
KCal/kg
Fuel Consumption Rate FCR - fuel consumption rate,
kg/hr
FCR = Wfc / To Wfc - Weight of fuel
consumed, kg
To – operating time, hr
Power Density PD - power density, kg/hr-
m2
PD = FCR / Ag FCR - fuel consumption rate,
kg/hr
Ag - area of grate, m2
Height of Fuel Bed Hfb - height of the fuel bed,
m
Hfb = Fc / (p f Ab ) Fc - fuel charges, kg
p - packing density, decimal
f - density of fuel, kg/h3
Ab - area of fuel bed, m2
Area of the Fuel Bed Afb - area of the fuel bed, m2
Pd - design power, KCal/hr
Afb = Pd / PD PD - power density,
KCal/hr-m2

29
 BIOMASS COOKSTOVE
Flame Height FH – flame height, mm
C – grate constant, 76 mm/KW
FH = C P2/5 for fire with grate, and 110
mm/KW for fire without
grate
P – power output, KCal/hr
Cooking Time CT - cooking time, sec
Mf - mass of food, kg
CT = 550 Mf 0.38
Maximum Power Pmax - maximum power, KCal/hr
Mf - mass of food, kg
Cp - specific heat of food,
Mf Cp (Tf – Ti) KCal/kg-C
Pmax = Tf - final temperature of food, C
Tc t Ti - initial temperature of food, C
Tc - cooking time, hr
 - thermal efficiency of the stove,
decimal
Thermal Efficiency t - thermal efficiency, %
Mw – mass of water, kg
Cp - specific heat of water, 1
Mw Cp (Tf – Ti) + We Hv KCal/kg-C
t = x Tf - final temperature of water, C
100 Ti - initial temperature of water,
WFC HVF C
We - weight of water evaporated,
kg
Hv – heat of vaporization of water,
540 KCal/kg
WFC – weight of fuel consumed,
kg
HVF – heating value of fuel,
KkCal/kg

30
 BIOMASS FURNACE
Sensible Heat Qs - sensible heat, KCal
M - mass of material, kg
Qs = M Cp (Tf – Ti) Cp – specific heat of material,
KCal/kg-C
Tf – final temperature of
material, C
Ti - initial temperature of
material, C

Latent Heat of Vaporization Ql - latent heat of vaporization,

KCal/hr
Ql = m Hfg m - mass of material, kg
Hfg - heat of vaporization of
material, KCal/kg
Design Fuel Consumption Rate FCRd - design fuel consumption
rate, kg/hr
FCRd = Qr / ( HVF t ) Qr - heat required for the
system, KCal/hr
HVF – heating value of fuel,
KCal/kg
t - thermal efficiency of the
furnace, decimal
Actual Fuel Consumption Rate FCRa - fuel consumption rate,
kg/hr
FCRa = Wfc / To Wfc - Weight of fuel consumed,
kg
To – operating time, hr

31
 BIOMASS FURNACE
Burning Rate BR - burning rate, kg/hr-m2
FCR – fuel consumption rate,
BR = FCR / Ag kg/hr
Ag - area of grate; m2
Power Density PD - power density, kg/hr-m2
FCR - fuel consumption rate,
PD = FCR / Ag kg/hr
Ag - area of grate, m2

Area of the Fuel Bed Afb - area of the fuel bed, m2

Pd - design power, KCal/hr
Afb = Pd / BR BR - burning rate, KCal/hr-m2

Air Flow Rate Requirement AFR - airflow rate, kg/hr

FCR - fuel consumption rate,
AFR = FCR Sa kg/hr
Sa - stoichiometric air
requirement, kg air per kg
fuel
Thermal Efficiency t - thermal efficiency, %
Qs – heat supplied, KCal/hr
Qs FCR – fuel consumption rate,
t = x 100 kg/hr
FCR HVF HVF – heating value of fuel,
KCal/kg

Burning Efficiency b - burning efficiency, %

Hv - heating value of fuel,
Hv - Hr KCal/kg
b = x 100 Hr - heating value of ash residue,
Hv KCal/kg

32
 BOARDER IRRIGATION
Maximum Stream Size per Foot Q max - maximum stream size
Width of Boarder Strip per foot of width of the
boarder strip, cfs
Q max = 0.06 S 0.75 S - slope, %

Minimum Stream size per Foot Qmin - minimum stream size per
Width of Boarder Strip foot of width of the
boarder strip, cfs
Qmin = 0.004 S 0.5 S - slope, %

333333333

33
 CHAIN TRANSMISSION
Speed and Number of Teeth Nr – speed of driver
sprocket, rpm
Nr Tr = Nn Tn Nn – speed of driven
sprocket, rpm
Tr – no. of teeth of
driver sprocket
Tn – no. of teeth of
driven sprocket
Length of Chain L – chain length, pitches
C – center distance
T2 + T1 T2 - T1 between sprockets,
L=2C + + pitches
2 42C T2 – no. of teeth on
larger sprocket
T1 – no. of teeth on
smaller sprocket

Length of Driving Chain L – length of chain in

pitches
T t T- t 1 Cp - center to center
L = 2Cp + + + distances in pitches
2 2 2 Cp T - no. of teeth on
larger sprocket
t - no. of teeth on
smaller sprocket

34
 CHAIN TRANSMISSION
Pitch Diameter of Sprocket PD – pitch diameter of sprocket,
inches
P P – pitch, inch
PD = Nt – number of teeth of sprockets
sin (180/Nt)

Chain Pull CP – chain pull, kg

P – chain power, watts
CP = 1000 (P / V ) V – chain velocity, m/s

Chain Speed V – chain speed, m/s

p – chain pitch, in
V = p T N / 376 T – number of teeth of sprocket
N – sprocket speed, rpm

Speed Ratio Rs – speed ratio

Tn – driven sprocket, inches
R s = T n / Tr Tr – driver sprocket, inches

Design Power DP - design power, Watts

Pt - power to be transmitted,
Watts
DP = Pt S / MSF S - service factor, 1.0 to 1.7
MSF – multiple strand factor, 1.7
to 3.3 @ 2 to 4 strands

35
 CHAIN TRANSMISSION
Power Rating Required PR - Power rating required,
Watts
DP DL DP - design power, Watts
PR = DL - design life, hours
15,000

Horsepower Capacity (At Lower Speed) HP – horsepower

capacity, hp
1.08 0.9 3
HP = 0.004 T1 N1 P - 0.007 P Tl – number of teeth of
smaller sprocket
N1- speed of smaller
sprocket, rpm
P – chain pitch, inches

Horsepower Capacity (At Higher Speed) HP – horsepower

capacity, hp
1.5 0.8
1700 T1 P Tl – number of teeth of
HP = smaller sprocket
N1 1.5 N1- speed of smaller
sprocket, rpm
P – chain pitch, inches

Center Distance C - center distance in

mm
P P - pitch of chain in mm
C= [ 2Lp – T – t Lp - length of chain in
8 pitches
T - number of teeth in
large sprocket
+ (2Lp - T- t )2 – 0.810 (T-t)2 ] t - number of teeth in
small sprocket

36
CONSERVATION STRUCTURES, DAMS AND RESREVIOR
Capacity of drop spillway q – discharge, cubic meter per
second
q = 0.55 C L h3/2 C – weir coefficient
L – weir length, meter
h – depth of flow over the crest,
meter
Total width of the dam W – top width, meters
H – maximum height of
W = 0.4 H + 1 embankment, meters

Wave height h – height of the wave from through

to crest under ,maximum wind
H = 0.014 (Df)1/2 velocity, meters
Df – fetch or exposure, meters
Compaction and settlement V = total in-place volume, m3
Vs = volume of solid particles, m3
V = Vs + V o Vo = volume of voids, either air or
water, m3

37
 CONVEYANCE CHANNEL
Continuity Equation Q - discharge, m3/sec
A – cross-sectional area
Q = AV of the channel, m2
V – velocity of water,
m/sec

Manning Equation V – velocity, m/sec

n – Manning’s coefficient,
0.010 to 0.035
V = (1.00 / n ) R 2/3 S 1/2 R – hydraulic radius, m
S – slope of water surface

Chezy Equation V – flow velocity

C - coefficient of
V = C ( R S )½ roughness, 50 to 180
R – hydraulic radius, m
S – slope of water surface,
decimal

Hydraulic Radius R – hydraulic radius, m

A – cross-sectional area of
R=A/P flow, m2
P – wetted perimeter, m

Best Hydraulic Cross-Section b - bottom width of

channel, m
b = 2 d tan ( / 2) d – depth of water in the
canal, m
 - angle between the side
slope and the
horizontal

38
 CONVEYANCE CHANNEL
Cross-Sectional Area of Channel A - cross sectional area,
m2
A = b d + z d2 : Trapezoidal b – base width of the
A = z d2 : Triangular channel, m
A = 2/3 + t d : Parabolic d – depth of water, m
z - canal slope h/d,
decimal
t - top width, m

Wetted Perimeter of Channel WP - wetted perimeter,

m
WP = b + 2d ( z2 + 1 ) ½ : b – base width of the
Trapezoidal channel, m
d – depth of water, m
WP = 2d ( z2 + 1 ) ½ : z - canal slope h/d,
Triangular decimal
t - top width, m
WP = t + ( 8 d2 / 3t ) :
Parabolic
Top Width t - top width, m
b – base width of the
t = b + 2 d z : Trapezoidal channel, m
t = 2dz : Triangular d – depth of water, m
t = A /(0.67 d) : Parabolic z - canal slope h/d,
decimal
A - cross sectional area,
m2
Discharge ( Float Method) Q - discharge, m3/s
C – coefficient, 2/3
Q = C A Vmax A - cross-sectional area of
the stream, m2
Vmax - average maximum
velocity of stream, m/s

39
 CORN SHELLER
Kernel-Ear Corn Ratio R – grain ratio, decimal
Wk – weight of kernel, grams
R = (Wk / Wec) Wec – weight of ear corn,
grams
Actual Capacity Ca – actual capacity, kg/hr
Ws -weight of shelled kernel,
C a = W s / To kg
To – operating time, hr

Corrected Capacity Cc – corrected capacity, kg/hr

MCo – observed moisture
100 - MCo content, %
Cc = -------------- x P Ca MCr – reference MC, 20%
100 - MCr P – kernel purity, %
Ca – actual capacity, kg/hr

Purity P – purity, %
Wu – weight of uncleaned
P = ( Wc / Wu ) 100 kernel, grams
Wc – weight of cleaned kernel,
grams

Total Losses Lt – total losses, kg

Lb – blower loss, kg
Lt = Lb + Ls + Lu + Lsc Ls – separation loss, kg
Lsc – scattering loss, kg
Lu – unthreshed loss, kg

40
 CORN SHELLER
Shelling Efficiency  s – shelling
efficiency,%
Wc + Lb + Ls + Lsc Wc – weight of clean
s = x 100 shelled kernel, kg
Wc + Lb + Ls + Lu + Ls Lb – blower loss, kg
Ls – separation loss, kg
Lsc – scattering loss, kg
Lu – unthreshed loss, kg

Fuel Consumption Fc – fuel consumption,

Lph
Fc = Fu / to Fu - amount of fuel
used, liters
To – operating time, hrs
Shelling Recovery Sr – threshing recovery,
%
Wc Wc – weight of clean
Sr = x 100 shelled kernels, kg
Wc + Lb + Ls + Lu + Ls Lb – blower loss, kg
Ls – separation loss, kg
Lsc – scattering loss, kg
Lu – unthreshed loss, kg

Cracked Kernels Ck – percentage cracked

kernel, %
Ck = Nck 100 / 100 kernel sample Nck – number of cracked
kernels

Mechnically Damaged Kernel Dk – percentage damage

kernel, %
Dk = Ndk 100 / 100 kernel sample Ndk – number of
damaged kernels

41
 COST-RETURN ANALYSIS
Investment Cost IC - investment cost, P
EC - equipment cost, P
IC = MC + PMC PMC – prime mover cost, P

Total Fixed Cost FC – total fixed cost, P/day

D - depreciation, P/day
FCt = D + I + RM + i I - interest on investment, P/day
RM - repair and maintenance,
P/day
i - insurance, P/day

Total Variable Cost VCt - total variable cost, P/day

L - labor cost, P/day
VCt = L + F + E F – fuel cost, P/day
E – electricity, P/day

Total Cost TC – total cost, P/day

FCt – total fixed cost, P/day
TC = FCt + VCt VCt - total variable cost, P/day

Operating Cost OC - operating cost, P/ha or

P/kg
OC = TC / C TC - total cost, P/day
C - capacity, Ha/day or Kg/day

42
 COST-RETURN ANALYSIS
Depreciation (Staight Line) D - depreciation, P/day
IC - investment cost, P
IC - 0.1 IC LS – life span, years
D=
365 LS

Interest on Investment I - interest on investment, P/day

Ri - interest rate, 0.24/year
I = Ri IC / 365 IC – investment cost, P

Repair and Maintenance RM – repair and maintenance,

P/day
RM = Rrm IC / 365 Rrm - repair and maintenance rate,
0.1/year
IC - investment cost, P
Insurance i - insurance, P/day
Ri - insurance rate, 0.03/year
i = Ri IC / 365 IC - investment cost, P

Labor Cost L - labor cost, P/day

NL – number of laborers
L = NL Sa Sa – salary, P/day

Fuel Cost F - fuel cost, P/day

Wf - weight of fuel used, kg
F = W f Cf Cf - cost of fuel, P/kg

43
 COST-RETURN ANALYSIS
Electricity E – cost of electricity, P/day
Ec - electrical consumption, KW-
E = Ec C e hr
Ce – cost of electricity, P/KW-hr

Net Income NI - net income, P/yr

CR – custom rate, P/ha or P/kg
NI = (CR - OC) C OP OC – operating cost, P/ha or P/kg
C - capacity, Ha/day or Kg/day
OP – operating period, days/year

Payback Period PBP – payback period, years

IC - investment cost, P
PBP = IC / NI NI - net income, P/yr

Benefit Cost Ratio BCR - benefit cost ratio, decimal

NI - net income, P/year
BCR = NI / (TC OP) TC – total cost, P/day
OP – operating period, days per
year

Return on Investment ROI - return on investment, %

TC - total cost, P/year
ROI = ( TC / NI ) 100 NI - net income, P/year

44
 CYCLONE SEPARATOR
Diameter of Cyclone Separator Dc - diameter of cyclone
separator, m
Q – airflow, m3/hr
Dc = ( Q / 0.1 Vt ) 0.5 Vt – velocity of air entering
the cyclone, m/s

Pressure Draft of the Cyclone Pd - pressure drop, mm

Da – air density, 1.25 kg/m3
Vt – velocity of air entering
6.5 Da Vt 2 Ad the cyclone, m/s
Pd = Ad – inlet area of the duct,
Ds m2
Ds - diameter of separator,
m

Cyclone Cylinder Height (High Hcy – cylinder height, m

Efficiency) Dc - cyclone diameter, m

Hcy = 1.5 Dc

Inverted Cone Height (High Hco - cone height, m

Efficiency) Dc - cyclone diameter, m

Hco = 2.5 Dc

Air Duct Outlet Diameter (High Do - air duct outlet

Efficiency) diameter, m
Dc - cyclone diameter, m
Do = 0.5 Dc

45
 CYCLONE SEPARATOR
Air Duct Outlet Lower Height (High HDOl - lower height of
Efficiency) air duct outlet, m
Dc - cyclone diameter,
HDOl = 1.5 Dc m

Air Duct Outlet Upper Height (High HDOu - upper height of

Efficiency) air duct outlet, m
Dc - cyclone diameter,
HDOu = 0.5 Dc m

Width of the Inlet Rectangular Square WD – width of the inlet

Duct (High Efficiency) duct, m
Dc – cyclone diameter,
WD = 0.2 Dc m

Height of the Inlet Rectangular Square HD – height of the inlet

Duct (High Efficiency) duct, m
Dc – cyclone diameter,
HD = 0.5 Dc m

Cylinder Height (Medium Efficiency) Hcy – cylinder height, m

Dc - cyclone diameter,
Hcy = 1.5 Dc m

Inverted Cone Height (Medium Hco - cone height, m

Efficiency) Dc - cyclone diameter,
m
Hco = 2.5 Dc

46
 CYCLONE SEPARATOR
Air Duct Outlet Diameter (Medium Do - air duct outlet
Efficiency) diameter, m
Dc - cyclone diameter,
Do = 0.75 Dc m

Air Duct Outlet Lower Height (Medium HDOl - lower height of

Efficiency) air duct outlet, m
Dc - cyclone diameter,
HDOl = 0.875 Dc m

Air Duct Outlet Upper Height (Medium HDOu - upper height of

Efficiency) air duct outlet, m
Dc - cyclone diameter,
HDOu = 0.5 Dc m

Width of the Inlet Rectangular Square WD – width of the inlet

Duct (Medium Efficiency) duct, m
Dc – cyclone diameter, m
WD = 0.375 Dc

Height of the Inlet Rectangular Square HD – height of the inlet

Duct and Upper Cyclone Cylinder duct, m
(Medium Efficiency) Dc – cyclone diameter, m

HD = 0.75 Dc

47
 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

d (u + v) = du + dv d (log 10u) = 0.4343 . du/dx

dx dx dx dx u
= du/dx . log 10e
d u/v = vdu - udv u
dx dx dx d (√u) = du/dx
v2 dx 2√u
d (xn) = nxn-1
dx d (sin u) = cos u.du/dx
dx
d u.v = vdu + udv
dx dx dx d (cos u) = -sin u.du/dx
dx
d (un) = nun-1 du
dx dx d (tan u) = sec2 u.du/dx
dx
d (ln u) = du/dx
dx u d (csc u) = -cscu.cot u.du/dx
dx
d (au) = au . ln a . du/dx
dx d (sec u) = secu.tan u.du/dx
dx
d (eu) = eu . du/dx
dx d (cot u) = csc2 u.du/dx
dx
eln u = u
d (arcsin u) = du/dx
0
e =1 dx √1-u2

48
 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

d (arctan u) = du/dx d (arccos u) = - du/dx

dx 1 + u2 dx √1-u2

d (arcsec u) = du/dx xm/n = (n√ x )m

dx u √u2-1
d (sin h u) = cos h u.du/dx
d (arccsc u) = - du/dx dx
dx u √u2-1
d (cos h u) = sin h u.du/dx
d (arccot u) = - du/dx dx
dx 1 + u2
d (tan h u) = sec h2 u.du/dx
u e
d (log a ) = du/dx . log a dx
dx du

d (csc h u) = -csc h u cot h u.du/dx

dx

d (sec h u) = -sec h u tn h u.du/dx

dx

d (cot h u) = -csc h2 u.du/dx

dx

49
 DRIP IRRIGATION
Maximum Depth of Irrigation Idn - maximum net depth of each
irrigation application, mm
Idn = Ds [ (Fc - Wp) / 100 ] Dd P Ds - depth of soil, m
Fc - field capacity, %
Wp - wilting point, %
Dd - portion of the available
moisture allowed to deplete,
mm
P - area wetted, % of total area

Irrigation Interval Ii - irrigation interval, days

Id - gross depth of irrigation,
Ii = [Id TR EU ] / 100T mm
TR - ratio of transpiration to
T = ET (min of PS/85) application, 0.9
EU - emission uniformity, %
ET - conventionally accepted
consumptive use rate of
crop, mm/day
PS - area of the crop as
percentage of the area, %

Gross Depth of Irrigation Id - gross depth of irrigation,

mm
Id = 100 Idn / [TR EU] Idn - maximum net depth of each
irrigation application, mm
TR - ratio of transpiration to
application, 0.9
EU - emission uniformity, %

50
 DRIP IRRIGATION
Average Emitter Discharge Qa - emitter discharge, m3/hr
k - constant, 1 for metric unit
Qa = k [Id Se Sl] / It Id - gross depth irrigation, m
Se - emitter spacing on line, m
Sl - average spacing between
lines, m
It - operational unit during
each of irrigation cycle, hrs
Lateral Flow Rate Ql - lateral flow rate, lps
Ne - number of emitters on
Ql = 3600 Ne Qa laterals
Qa - emitter discharge, m3/hr

51
 ELECTRICITY
Power (DC) P – power, Watts
V – voltage, volt
P = VI I – current, Ampere

Power (AC) P – power, volt-ampere

V – voltage, volt
P = VI I – current, Ampere

Power (AC) P – power, Watts

V – voltage, volt
P = V I pf I – current, Ampere
pf – power factor

Ohms Law (DC) I – current, Ampere

V– voltage, volt
I = V/R R – resistance, ohms

Ohms Law (AC) I – current, Ampere

V – voltage
I= V/Z Z – impedance

Power P – power, Watts

I – current, Ampere
P= I2 R R – resistance, ohms

Power P – power, Watts

V – voltage, volts
P = V2 / R R – resistance, ohms

52
 ELECTRICITY
Resistance P – power, Watts
I – current, Ampere
R = P / I2 R – resistance, ohms

Resistance P – power, Watts

V – voltage, volts
R = V2 / P R – resistance, ohms

Voltage V – voltage, volt

P – power, Watts
V=P/ I I – current, Ampere

Voltage (Series) Vt – total voltage, volt

V1 – voltage 1, volt
Vt = V1 + V2 + V3 … V2 – voltage 2, volt
V3 – voltage 3, volt

Resistance (Series) Rt – total resistance, ohms

R1 – resistance 1, ohms
Rt = R1 + R2 + R3 … R2 – resistance 2, ohms
R3 – resistance 3, ohms

Current (Series) It – total current, ampere

I1 – current 1, Ampere
It = I1 = I2 = I3 I2 – current 2, Ampere
I3 – current 3, Ampere

53
 ELECTRICITY
Voltage (Parallel) Vt – total voltage, volt
V1 – voltage 1, volt
Vt = V1 = V2 = V3 V2 – voltage 2, volt
V3 – voltage 3, volt

Resistance (Parallel) Rt – total resistance, ohms

1 R1 – resistance 1, ohms
Rt = R2 – resistance 2, ohms
1/R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R3 R3 – resistance 3, ohms

Current (Parallel) It – total current, Ampere

I1 – current 1, Ampere
It = I1 + I2 + I3 I2 – current 2, Ampere
I3 – current 3, Ampere
Energy E – energy, Watt-hour
P – power, Watts
E=PT T – time, hour

54
 ELECTRICITY
Current (Parallel) It – total current, Ampere
I1 – current 1, Ampere
It = I1 + I2 + I3 I2 – current 2, Ampere
I3 – current 3, Ampere
Energy E – energy, Watt-hour
P – power, Watts
E=PT T – time, hour
Power Factor pf – power factor
E – voltage, volt
Pr E I cos  I – current, ampere
pf = ------------ = ------------- Pr – real power, watts
Pa EI Pa – apparent power,
watts
= cos R/Z R – resistance, ohms
Z – impedance, ohms
KVA (Single Phase Circuit) KVA – kilovolt ampere
E – voltage, volt
E I I – current, ampere
KVA =
1000

KVA (Three-Phase Circuit) KVA – kilovolt ampere

E – voltage, volt
1.732 E I I – current, ampere
KVA =
1000
Horsepower Output (Single-Phase) HP – power output, hp
E – voltage, volt
 I E pf I – current, amperes
HP =  - efficiency, decimal
746 pf – power factor,
decimal

55
 ELECTRIC MOTOR
Horsepower Output (Three-Phase) HP – power output, hp
E – voltage, volt
 I E pf I – current, amperes
HP = 3  - efficiency, decimal
746 pf – power factor,
decimal

Power in Circuit (Single-Phase) P – power, watts

E – voltage, volts
P=EI I – current, ampere

Power in Circuit (Three Phase) P – power, watts

E – voltage, volts
P = 3 E I I – current, ampere

KVA (Single-Phase Circuit) KVA – kilovolt ampere

E – voltage, volt
E I I – current, ampere
KVA =
1000
KVA (Three-Phase Circuit) KVA – kilovolt ampere
E – voltage, volt
1.732 E I I – current, Ampere
KVA =
1000
Horsepower Output (Single-phase) HP – power output, hp
E – voltage, volt
 I E pf I – current, amperes
HP =  - efficiency, decimal
746 pf – power factor,
decimal

56
 ELECTRIC MOTOR
Horsepower Output (Three-phase) HP – power output, hp
E – voltage, volt
 I E pf I – current, amperes
HP = 3  - efficiency, decimal
746 pf – power factor, decimal

Slip (Three-Phase Motor) S - slip, decimal

Ns – motor synchronus
S = [Ns – N ] / Ns speed, rpm
N – actual motor speed,
rpm
Power in Circuit (Single-Phase) P – power, Watts
E – voltage, volts
P=EI I – current, Ampere
Power in Circuit (Three-Phase) P – power, Watts
E – voltage, volts
P = 3 E I I – current, Ampere
Rotr Speed (Synchronous Motor) Ns – rotor speed, rpm
F - frequency of stator
Ns = 120 [ f / P ] volatge, hertz
P–n umber of
pole
Motor Size to Replace Engine MHP - motor power, hp
EHP - engine power, hp
MHP = EHP 2/3

Motor Size to Replace Human MHP - motor power, hp

NH - number of human
MHP = NH 1/4

57
 ELECTRIFICATION
Energy Loss in Lines Le – energy loss, KW-hr
Vl - voltage loss in line, volt
Vl I To I - current flowing, Amp
Le = To - operating time, hr
1000

Area Circular Mill Acm - area, circular mill

D - diameter, mill or 1/1000 of
Acm = D 2 an inch

Energy Consumption (Disk EC = electrical consumption,

Meter) KW-hr
Kh - meter disk factor, 2.5
60 Kh Drev Drev – number of revolutions,
EC = rev
1000 tc Tc - counting period, min

Minimum Number of Nco - minimum number of

Convenience Outlet convenience outlet, pieces
of duplex receptacle
Nco = Pf / 20 Pf - floor perimeter, ft

No. of Branch Circuit (15-amp) Nbc - number of branch circuit

Af - floor area, ft2
Nbc = Af / 500 NOgp - number of general outlet

Nbc = NOgp / 10

58
 ELECTRIFICATION
No. of Branch Circuit (20 Nbc - number of branch circuit
Amp) NOsa - number of small appliance
Nbc = NOsa / 8 outlet
Resistance of Copper Wire R - resistance in wire, ohms
L – length of wire, ft
10.8 L A - cross sectional area of wire, cir
R = mil
A
Wire Size Selection A - area of wire, circular mill
Nw - number of wires
L - length of wire, ft
10.8 Nw L I I - current flowing, amp
A = ------------------ Vd - allowable voltage drop, decimal
Vd E equal to 0.02 adequate for all
conditions
E – voltage, volt
Lamp Lumen Required Ll - lamp lumen required, lumen
Li - light intensity, foot candle
Li Af Af - floor area, ft2
Ll = CU - coefficient of utilization, 0.04
CU SF to 0.72
SF - service factor, 0.7
Maximum Lamp Spacing MS - maximum lamp spacing, ft
(Florescent Lamp) Ci - lamp coefficient, 0.9 for RLM
standard-dome frosted lamp and
MS = C i MH 1.0 for RLM standard silvered-
bowl lamp
MH – Lamp height, ft
Maximum Lamp Spacing MS - maximum lamp spacing, ft
(Incandescent Lamp) Cf - lamp coefficient, 0.9 for Direct
RLM with louvers, 1.0 for direct
MS = C f MH RLM 2-40 watts, and 1.2 for
indirect-glass, plastic, metal
MH - lamp height, ft

59
 ENGINE
Indicated Horsepower IHP – indicated horsepower, hp
P – mean effective pressure, psi
PLANn L – length of stroke, ft
IHP = A – area of bore, in2
33000 c N – crankshaft speed, rpm
n – number of cylinder
c - 2 for four stroke engine and 1 for
two stroke engine
Piston Displacement PD – piston displacement, cm3
Dp – piston diameter, cm
 D2 L – length of stroke, cm
PD = L n n – number of cylinders
4

Piston Displacement Rate PDR – piston displacement rate,

cm3/min
PDR = 2  PD N PD – piston displacement, cm3
N – crankshaft speed, rpm

Compression Ratio CR – compression ratio

PD – piston displacement, cm3
PD + CV CV – clearance volume, cm3
CR =
CV

Brake Horsepower BHP – brake horsepower, hp

IHP – indicated horsepower, hp
BHP = IHP m or m – engine mechanical efficiency,
decimal
= IHP - FHP FHP – friction horsepower, hp

60
 ENGINE
Mechanical Efficiency BHP – brake horsepower, hp
IHP – indicated horsepower,
BHP hp
m = x 100 m – engine mechanical
IHP efficiency, decimal

Rate of Explosion ER – explosion rate, explosion

per minute
N N – crankshaft speed, rpm
ER = C – 2 for four stroke engine
c

Thermal Efficiency, Theoritical theo –theoretical thermal

efficiency, %
C Wt Wt – theoretical work, kg-m
theo = x 100 Qt – supplied heat quantity,
Qt Kcal/hr
C – conversion constant

Thermal Efficiency, Effective eff – effective thermal

efficiency, %
C Ne Ne – Effective output, watt
eff = x 100 Hu – calorific value of fuel,
Hu B kCal/kg
B - indicated work, kg/hr
C – conversion constant

61
 ENGINE
Specific Fuel Consumption SFC – specific fuel
consumption, kg/W-sec
V V – fuel consumption, m3
SFC = S Ne – Brake output
Ne t T – time, sec
S – specific gravity of fuel,
kg/m3

Break Mean Effective Pressure BMEP – brake mean effective

pressure, kg/cm2
(75) 50 BHP BHP – brake horsepower, hp
BMEP = L – piston stroke, m
LANn A – piston area, cm2
N – number of power stroke
per minute
N – number of cylinders

Number of Times Intake Valve TO – number of time intake

Open valve open
N – crankshaft speed, rpm
N C – 2 for four stroke engine -
TO = 0 for two stroke engine
c

Piston Area Ap - piston area, cm2

D – piston diameter, cm
 D2
Ap =
4

62
 ENGINE
Stroke to Bore Ratio R – stroke to bore ratio
S – piston stroke, cm
S B – piston diameter, cm
R=
B

BHP Correction Factor (Gasoline Kg – BHP correction factor.

Engine-Carburator or Injection) Dmls
T – ambient air temperature,
C
0.5
1013 T + 273 Pb – total atmospheric
Kg = -------- x ----------- pressure, mb
Pb 293

BHP Correction Factor (Diesel Kd – BHP correction factor.

Engine-4 Stroke Naturally Dmls
Aspirated) T – ambient air temperature,
C
Pb – total atmospheric
1013 0.65 T + 273 0.5
pressure, mb
Kd = ------- x ----------
Pb 293

Output Power Po – power output, KW

T – shaft torque, kg-m
T N N – shaft speed, rpm
Po =
974

63
 ENGINE
Fuel Consumption Fc – fuel consumption, lph
Fu – fuel used, liters
Fc = Fu / To To – total operating time, hrs

Specific Fuel Consumption SFC – specific fuel

consumption, g/KW-hr
SFC = Fc f / Ps Fc – fuel consumption, lph
f - fuel density, kg/liter
Ps – shaft power, KW
Fuel Equivalent Power Pfe - fuel equivalent power, kW
Hf - heating value of fuel, kJ/kg
Pfe = [Hf mf ] / 3600 mf - rate of fuel consumption,
kg/hr
Air Fuel Ratio A/F - mass of air required per
unit mass of fuel
137.3 [ x + y/4 – z/2 ] x, y, z – number of carbon,
A/F = hydrogen, and oxygen
 [ 12 x + y + 16 z ] atoms in the fuel molecule
 - equivalence ratio
Air Handling Capacity ma – air handling capacity, kg/hr
Ve – engine displacement, liters
ma = 0.03 Ve Ne a v Ne – engine speed, rpm
a - density of air, 1.19 kg/m3
v - air delviery ratio0.85 for
CI, 2.0 turbocharge engine
Engine Air Density a - density of inlet air, kg/m3
ex - density of engine exhaust,
a = p / 0.287  : inlet kg/m3
p – gas pressure, kPa
ex = p / 0.277  : exhaust  - gas temperature, K

64
 ENGINE FOUNDATION
Weight of Foundation Wf - weight of foundation, kg
 - empirical coefficient, 0.11
Wf =  We [ N ] 0.5 We - weight of engine and base
frame, kg
N - maximum engine speed, rpm

Volume of Foundation Vf - volume of foundation, m3

Wf - weight of foundation, kg
Vf = Wf / c c - density of concrete, 2,4006
kg/m3

Depth of Foundation Df - depth of foundation, m

Vf - volume of foundation, m3
Df = Vf / [ we + Le ] we - width of engine plus allowance,
m Le - length of engine plus
allowance, m

Exerted Soil Pressure at the Ps - soil pressure exerted at the

Foundation based of foundation, kg/m2
We - weight of engine, kg
Ps = [We + Wf ] / Af Wf - weight of foundation, kg
Af - area of foundation , kg

Factor of Safety FS - factor of safety, dmls

BCs - safe soil bearing capacity,
12,225 kg/m2
FS = BCs / Ps Ps - soil pressure exerted at the based
of foundation, kg/m2

65
 FLAT AND V-BELT TRANSMISSION
Width of Flat belt W – width of flat belt, in.
R – nameplate horsepower
R M rating of motor, hp
W= K – theoretical belt capacity
K P factor, 1.1 to 19.3
P – pulley correction factor,
0.5 to 0.1

Width of Belt W - width of belt, mm

H - power transmitted, Watts
H S S - service factor, 1.0 to 2.0
W = K - power rating of belt,
K C watts/mm
C - arc correction factor,
0.69 at 90 deg and 1.00
at 180 deg

Horespower Rating of Belt H – horsepower rating of

belt, hp
W K P W – width of belt, in
H= M – motor correction factor,
M 1.5 to 2.5
P – pulley correction factor,
0.5 to 1.0
K – theoretical belt capacity
factor, 1.1 to 19.3

66
 FLAT AND V-BELT TRANSMISSION
Speed and Diameter Nr – speed of driver
pulley, rpm
Nr Dr = Nn Dn Nn – speed of driven
pulley, rpm
Dr – diameter of driver
pulley, inches
Dn – diameter of driven
pulley, inches

Length of Belt (Open drive) L – length of belt, inches

C – center distance
(Dr – Dn) 2 between pulleys,
L = 2 C + 1.57 (Dr + Dn) + inches
4C Dr – diameter of driver
pulley, inches
Dn – diameter of driven
pulley, inches

Length of Belt (Cross drive) L – length of belt, inches

C – center distance
(Dr + Dn) 2 between pulleys,
L = 2 C + 1.57 (Dr + Dn) + inches
4C Dr – diameter of driver
pulley, inches
Dn – diameter of driven
pulley, inches

67
 FLAT AND V-BELT TRANSMISSION
Length of Belt (Quarter-Turn drive) L – length of belt, inches
C – center distance
between pulleys,
L = 1.57(Dr+Dn) +  C2+Dr2 +  C2+Dn2 inches
Dr – diameter of driver
pulley, inches
Dn – diameter of driven
pulley, inches

Belt Speed V – belt speed, fpm

Np – pulley speed, rpm
V = 0.262 Np Dp Dp – pulley diameter,
inches

Speed Ratio Rs – speed ratio

Nn – driven pulley,
Rs = Nn / Nr inches
Nd – driver pulley,
inches
Arc of Contact Arc – arc of contact,
degrees
(Dl – Ds) Dl – diameter of larger
Arc = 180 - 57.3 pulley, inches
C Ds – diameter of smaller
pulley, inches
C – center distance
between pulleys,
inches

68
 FLAT AND V-BELT TRANSMISSION
Effective Pull (T1-T2) - effective pull,
N
1000 P P – power, KW
(T1 – T2) = V – belt speed, m/s
V

Center Distance C – distance between

centers of pulley, mm
Ls – available belts
b + b2 - 32 (Dl – Ds) 2 standard length, mm
C = Dl – diameter of larger
16 pulley, mm
Ds – diameter of small
b = 4Ls – 6.28 (Dl + Ds) pulley, mm

Length of Arc La – length of arc, mm

D – diameter of pulley,
D A mm
La = A – angle in degrees
115 subtended by the arc
of belt contact on
pulley, deg

69
 FLUID MECHANICS
Density, ρ m – mass, kg, slug
ρ = m/v v – volume, m3, ft3
Specific volume, υ v – volume, m3, ft3
υ = v/m m – mss, kg, slug
Specific weight, γ, ω ρ – density, kg/m3, slug/ft3
γ = ω = ρg g – gravitational acceleration,
ft/sec2, m/sec2
Specific gravity, s subs – substance
ssubs = ρsubs std subs – standard substance

ρstd subs
= γsubs
γstd subs
Vapor Pressure, Pv Pv – vapor pressure
Pv α Ts Ts – saturation or boiling
Temperature
Viscosity v – kinematic viscosity, m2/sec
v = μ/ρ μ – absolute viscosity, Pasec
ρ – density, kg/m3
Ideal Gas P – absolute pressure, kPaa
Equation of State: v – total or absolute volume, m3
Pv = mRT R – gas constant, 8.3143 kJ/M
kg K, 1545.32 ft lb/M lb °R
M – molecular weight of gas
T – absolute temperature, K
Gas constant and specific heat Cp – specific heat at constant
pressure
R = Cp – Cv Cv – specific heat at constant
k = Cp/Cv > 1.0 volume
R – gas constant
k – specific heat ratio
Gay – Lussac’s Law P1 – initial absolute pressure, kPaa,psia
P2 – final absolute pressure, kPaa, psia
Pv = Pv T1 - initial absolute temperature, K, °R
mT mT T2 – final absolute temperature, K, °R
1 2 v1 – absolute initial volume, m3, ft3
m1 ≠ m2 v2 - absolute final volume, m3, ft3
P1v1 = P2v2 m1 – initial mass, kg, lb
m1T1 m2T2 m2 – final mass, kg, lb
m1 = m2
P1v1 = P2v2
T1 T2

70
 FLUID MECHANICS
Boyle’s Law υ1 – initial specific volume,
m3/kg
T1 = T2 υ2 – final specific volume,
P1v1 = P2v2 m3/kg
m1 m2

P1υ1 = P2υ2

Charles Law

Case I: @ v1 = v2 , m1 ≠ m2

P1 = P2
m1T1 m2T2

@ m1 = m2

P1 = P2
T1 T2
Case II: @ P1 = P2

v1 = v2
m1T1 m2T2
or
v1 = v2
T1 T2

@ m1 = m 2

v1 = v2
T1 T2

71
 FLUID MECHANICS
Bulk Modulus of Elasticity Ev - bulk modulus of elasticity or
- υ1 dP volume modulus of elasticity
Ev = υ1 – initial specific volume
dυ υ2 – final specific volume
dP – change in pressure
dυ – change in volume
Pressure Measurements Pabs – absolute pressure
Pg – vacuum pressure gage or
Pabs = Pg + Pb tensile pressure
Pb – pressure of atmospheric air
measured by the use of barometer
Forces on Plane Areas F – volume of pressure diagram
hc – vertical height from fluid
F = γhcA surface to neutral axis, m
A – plane area, m2
hp = hc + e
hp – vertical height from vertical
INA point of application of F to fluid
e= surface, m
hc A e – eccentricity, m
INA – centroidal moment of inertia
Common INA

Rectangle
BH3
INA = B – base of the rectangle
12 H – height of the rectangle

Triangle
BH3
INA = B – base of the triangle
36 H – height of the triangle

Circle
πD4
πR4 D – diameter
INA = = R – radius
64
4

72
 FLUID MECHANICS
Semi-circle

INA = 0.1098 R4 R – radius

Ellipse b a – horizontal distance from neutral

B b axis to end of ellipse
a a b – vertical distance from neutral
π axis to the end of ellipse
INA = ab3
4
b b

a a – vertical distance from the neutral

axis to the end of ellipse
b – horizontal distance from the
a neutral axis to the end of ellipse

π
INA = ba3
4
Archimedes Law BF – buoyant force
V – volume displaced
BF = Vγ γ – specific weight

73
 FLUID MECHANICS
Vertical Motions of Liquids a – vertical acceleration
g – 9.81 m/s2
For upward motion: - 32.2 ft/s2
PB = γh ( 1 + a/g ) h – height of fluid
γ – specific weight of fluid
For downward motion: PB – pressure exerted by fluid at
tank’s bottom
PB = γh ( a – a/g )

For horizontal motion θ – angle of inclination of fluids

of liquids surface where subjected to
horizontal motion
tan θ = a/g a – acceleration
g – 9.81 m/s2, 32.2 m/s2
Inclined plane motion ax - a cos β
ay – a sin β
Upward motion:
ax
tan θ =
g + ay

Downward motion:
ax
tan θ =
g - ay

74
 FURROW IRRIGATION
Size of Stream Qs - maximum non-erosive
furrow stream, gpm
Qs = 10 / S S - slope of land, %

Safe Length of Furrow Ls - safe length of furrow, ft

I - rainfall intensity, iph
Ls = 1000 / [ (I - F) W S ] F - infiltration rate of soil, iph
W - furrow spacing, ft
S - slope of furrow, %

75
 GAS CLEANING
Minimum Particle Size Diameter dmin - particle size that can be
for Horizontal Settling Chamber retained, m
(Particles smaller than 200 H - height of chamber, m
micron) V - gas velocity, m/s
 - viscosity, 220x10-7 kg/m-s
for producer gas
18 H V  p - particle density, 1000-
dmin = -------------------- 1500 kg/m3
p g L g - gravitational acceleration,
9.81 m/sec2
L - length of chamber, m
Diameter of Particles too be D50 - diameters of particles
Collected from Cyclone collected with 50%
Separator at 50% Collection efficiency, micron
Efficiency D - cyclone separator
diameter, m
d50 = 58.4 [ 0.2 D / V ] V - inlet gas velocity, m/s

76
 GASIFIER
Weight of Fuel FCR - weight of fuel, kg/hr
Qa – actual heat required,
FCR = Qa / [ g HVf ] kCal/hr
g - efficiency of gasifier,
decimal
HVf - heating value of fuel,
kCal/kg

Air Required for Gasification AFR – air flow rate, kg/hr

FCR – fuel consumption rate,
AFR = FCR SA e kg/hr
SA – stoichiometric air, kg
air/kg fuel
e - equivalence ratio, 0.3 to 0.4

Inner Reactor Diameter Di - reactor diameter , m

(Double Core Down Draft- FCR - fuel consumption rate,
Type) kg/hr
SGR - specific gasification rate,
Di = [ 1.27 FCR / SGR ] 0.5 kg fuel/m2-hr

Outer Reactor Diameter Do - outer core diameter of

(Double Core Down Draft Type) reactor, m
Di - inner core diameter of
Do = 1.414 Di reactor, m

77
 GASIFIER
Height of Reactor Hr - reactor height, m
FZR - fire zone rate, m/hr
Hr = FZR To To – operating time
Static Pressure Requirement Ps - static pressiure requirement
in fuel bed, cm H2O
Ps = Hr s Hr - reactor height, m
s - specific draft, cm H2O/m
depth of fuel
Char Discharge Rate Qc – char discharge rate, kg/hr
FCR – fuel consumption rate,
Qc = FCR c kg/hr
c – percentage char produced,
decimal

78
 GEARS
Gear Ratio GR - gear ratio
Tn - number of teeth of driven
GR = Tn / Tr gear
Tr - number of teeth of driver
gear
Design Power (Helical and Spur Pd - design power, kW
Gears) Pt - power to be transmitted, kw
SFlo - service factor for the type
Pd = Pt (SFlo + SFlu) of load, 1.0 -1.8
SFlu - service factor for type of
lubrication, 0.1-0.7
Center Distance CD - center distance
M - module
M (t1 + t2 ) t1 - number of teeth of the
CD = driven gear
2 t2 - number of teeth of the driver
gear
Design Power (Straight Bevel Pd - design power, KW
Gear) Pt - power to be transmitted,
KW
Pd = Pt SF / LDF SF – service factor, 1 to 2.5
LDF – load distribution factor,
1.0 to 1.4
Driver Gear Pitch Angle  - pitch angle for the driver
(Straight Bevel Gear) gear, deg
t1 – number of teeth of the
 = tan –1 t1 / t2 driver gear
t2 – number of teeth of the
driven gear
Driven Gear Pitch Angle  - pitch angle for the driven
(Straight Bevel) gear, deg
 - pitch angle for the driver
 = 90 -  gear, deg

79
 GRAIN DRYER
Drying Capacity Cd – drying capacity, kg/hr
Wi – initial weight of material,
Cd = (Wi / Td) kg
Td – drying time, hr

Final Weight of Dried Material Wf – final weight of dried

material, kg
Wi (100 – Mci) Wi – initial weight of material,
Wf = kg
(100 – MCf) Mci – initial moisture content, %
MCf – final moisture content, %
Moisture Reduction per Hour MRR – moisture reduction rate,
kg/hr
Wi – Wf Wi – initial weight, kg
MRR = Wf – final weight, kg
Td Td – drying time, hr

Heat Supplied to the Dryer Qsd – heat supplied to the dryer,

KJ/hr
60 (h2-h1) AR H2 – enthalpy of drying air,
Qsd = KJ/kg da
 H1 – enthalpy of ambient air,
KJ/kg da
AR – airflow rate, m3/min
 - specific volume, m3/kg da
Heat Available in the Fuel Qaf – heat available in the fuel,
KJ/hr
Qaf = FCR HVf FCR – fuel consumption rate,
kg/hr
HVf – heating value of fuel,
KJ/hr

80
 GRAIN DRYER
Heat System Efficiency hs – heating system efficiency, %
Qsd – heat supplied to the dryer,
hs = (Qsd / Qaf) 100 KJ/hr
Qaf – heat available in the fuel,
KJ/hr

Heat Utilization HU – heat utilization, KJ/kg

Qsd – heat supplied to the dryer,
HU = (Qsd x Td / MR) 100 KJ/hr
Td – drying time, hr
MR – amount of moisture
removed, kg

Heat Utilization Efficiency hu – heat utilization efficiency, %

THU – total heat utilized, KJ/hr
THU Qsd – heat supplied to the dryer,
hu = x 100 KJ/hr
Qsd

Volume of Grain to be Dried Vg – volume of grain to be dried,

m3
Vg = 1000 Wi / Dg Wi – initial weight of grain, tons
Dg – grain density, kg/m3

Drying Floor Area Af – floor area of bin, m2

Vg – volume of grain in bin, m3
Af = Vg / Dg Dg – depth of grain in bin, m

81
 GRAIN DRYER
Airflow Requirement Af – air flow rate, m3/min
C – dryer capacity, tons
Af = C SAF SAF – specific air flow rate,
m3/min-ton

Apparent Air Velocity in Grain Vapp – apparent air velocity,

Bed m/min
AF – total airflow, m3/min
Vapp = AF / Af Af – dryer floor area, m2

Blower Pressure Draft Pd – blower pressure draft, cm

Requirement of water
Ps – specific pressure draft, cm
Pd = Ps Dg water per meter depth of
grain
Dg – depth of grain in bed, m

Theoretical Heat Required Qr – theoretical heat required,

KJ/min
Hn AF Hn – net enthalpy, KJ/kg
Qr = Vs – specific volume of air,
Vs m3/kg

Theoretical Weight of Fuel WF – theoretical weight of

fuel, kg/min
WF = Qr / HVF Qr – total heat required,
KJ/min
HVF – heating value of fuel,
KJ/kg

82
 GRAIN DRYER
Theoretical Volume of Fuel Wf – theoretical volume of
fuel, lpm
Vf = WF / Df WF – total weight of fuel,
kg/min
Df – density of fuel, kg/liter

Actual Volume of Fuel FVa – actual volume of fuel,

lph
FVa = Vf / t Vf – theoretical volume of
fuel, lph
t –thermal efficiency, decimal

Weight of Moisture Removed WMR – weight of moisture

removed, kg
1 - Mci Wi – initial weight of grain to
WMR = Wi (1 - ) be dried, kg
1 – MCf MCi – initial moisture content,
decimal
MCf – final moisture content,
decimal

Drying Time DT – drying time, min

WMR – weight of moisture to
WMR be removed, kg
DT = AF – airflow rate mg/min
AF Vs HR Vs – air density, kg/m3
HR – humidity ratio, kg
moisture/kg da

83
 GRAIN ENGINEERING PROPERTIES
Paddy Porosity Pm – porosity for medium
paddy, %
Pm = 69.05 - 0.885 M Pl – porosity for long paddy,
Pl = 65.55 - 0.475 M %t
M – moisture content wet
basis, %
Thermal Conductivity of Paddy K – thermal conductivity,
Grains BTU/hr-ft-F
M – moisture content, % wet
K = 0.0500135 + 0.000767 M basis
Specific Heat of Paddy C – specific heat, BTU/lb-F
M – moisture content, % wet
C = 0.22008 + 0.01301 M basis

Length of Paddy (Short Grain) L - length of paddy, cm

11.21%M21.89% M – moisutre content of
paddy, %
L = 0.7318 + 0.00122 M
Width of Paddy (Short Grain) W - width of paddy, cm
11.21%M21.89% M – moisutre content of
paddy, %
W = 0.3358 + 0.00089 M

Thickness of Paddy (Short Grain) T - thickness of paddy, cm

10.40%M22.59% M – moisutre content of
paddy, %
T = 0.2187 + 0.000089 M

84
 GRAIN ENGINEERING PROPERTIES
Coefficient of Thermal Expansion Ck – coefficient of thermal
of Milled Rice (For Temp Below 53 expansion at storage
C) moisture over a
Ck = 0.0002403 per C temperature of 30-70
C

Coefficient of Thermal Expansion Ck – coefficient of thermal

of Milled Rice (For Temp Equal expansion at storage
and Above 53 C) moisture over a
Ck = 0.0003364 per C temperature of 30-70
C

Latent Heat of Vaporization of HV – latent heat of

Paddy vaporization, KJ/kg
T – air temperature, C
HV = 2.32 [1094-1.026 x M – moisture content,
(T+17.78)] x decimal dry basis
[1 + 2..4962 Exp (-21.73M)]

Equilibrium Moisture Content Md – moisture content,

decimal dry basis
Md = E – F ln [ -R ( T + C) ln RH ] E – constant, 0.0183212 to
0.480920
F – constant, 0.026383 to
0.066826
R – universal gas constant,
1.987
T – temperature, C
C – constant, 12.354 to
120.098
RH – relative humidity,
decimal

85
 GRAIN ENGINEERING PROPERTIES
Mass Transfer Coefficient of Kg – mass transfer
Paddy coefficient, moisture
decimal drybasi-cm2/h-
Kg = 0.008489-0.000225T m2-kg
+0.000236 RH – 0.00042 Q T – temperature of drying air,
C
RH – relative humidity, %
Q – airflow rate of drying air,
m3/min
Equilibrium Moisture Content Md – moisture content,
decimal dry basis
Md = E – F ln [ -R ( T + C) ln RH ] E – constant, 0.0183212 to
0.480920
F – constant, 0.026383 to
0.066826
R – universal gas constant,
1.987
T – temperature, C
C – constant, 12.354 to
120.098
RH – relative humidity,
decimal
Mass Transfer Coefficient of Kg – mass transfer
Paddy coefficient, moisture
decimal drybasi-cm2/h-
Kg = 0.008489-0.000225T m2-kg
+0.000236 RH – 0.00042 Q T – temperature of drying air,
C
RH – relative humidity, %
Q – airflow rate of drying air,
m3/min

86
 GRAIN SEEDER
Nominal Working Width W - working width, m
n - number of rows
W = n d d - row spacing, m

Effective Diameter of Ground De - effective diameter of

Wheel ground wheel under load,
m
d d - distance for a given N, m
De = N - number of revolution, rpm
 N

Delivery Rate Q - delivery rate, kg/ha

L - delivery for a given N, kg
L 10,000 De - effective diameter of
Q = ground wheel under load,
 De N W m
N – number of revolution, rpm
W - working with, m

Delivery Rate (PTO-Driven Q - delivery rate, kg/ha

Machine) L - delivery for a given N, kg
v - tractor speed, m/s
L 10,000 t – time for measuring
Q = delivery, s
v t W W - working with, m

Effective Field Capacity efc - effective field capacity,

m2/h
efc = A / t A - area covered, m2
t – time used during operation,
hr

87
 GRAIN SEEDER
Theoretical Field Capacity tfc - theoretical field capacity,
m2/hr
tfc = 0.36 w v w - working width, m
v - speed of operation, m/s
Field Efficiency Fe - field efficiency, %
efc - effective field capacity,
Fe = (efc / tfc) 100 m2/hr
tfc – theoretical field capacity,
m2/hr
Fuel Consumption Rate FC - fuel consumption, lph
V - volume of fuel consumed,
l
FC = V / t t - total operating time, hr
No. of Hills Planted Hn - number of hills
A - area planted, hectares
A 10,000 Sr - row spacing, m
Hn = Sh - hill spacing, m
Sr Sh
Wheel Slip Ws - wheel slip, %
No - sum of the revolutions of
No - Nl the driving wheel
Ws = x 100 without load, rev
No Nl - sum of the revolutions of
all driving wheel with
load, rev
Distance per Hill Dph - distance per hill, mm
Sr - speed ratio of ground
wheel and seed plate
Dph = Sr  Dg / Nc Dg - diameter of the ground
wheel, mm
Nc - number of cells in the
seed plate

88
 GRAIN SEEDER
Speed Ratio of Ground Wheel R - speed ratio
and Metering Device Nc - number of cells
Hs - hill spacing, m
Nc Hs Cgw - circumference of ground
R = wheel, m
Cgw

Total Weight of Seeds TWs - total weight of seeds

needed, kg
Nh Nsh Sw Nh - number of hills
TWs = Nsh – number of seeds per hill
1000 E Sw - specific weight of seeds,
g/seeds
E - emergence, decimal

89
 GRAIN STORAGE LOSS
Loss Due to Respiration (Medium Lres – weight loss due to
Grain) respiration, kg
Wg – weight of grain
Lres = Wp x DML stored, kg
DML – dry mater loss,
DML = 1-exp[[-AtC exp[D(T-60)] decimal
t – storage time, hr/1000
Exp [E (W-0.14)]] T – temperature, F
W – moisture content,
decimal wb
A – constant, 0.000914
C – constant, 0.6540
D – constant, 0.03756
E – constant, 33.61
Loss Due to Microorganism Lm - weight loss due to
microorganism, kg
Wi(100-Mi) Wi - weight of incoming
Lm = + 0.68x10 0.44Mi-11.08 D stock, tons
100 Mi - moisture content of
incoming stock, %
w.b.
D - storage period, days
Loss Due to Insect Li - weight loss due to
insects, kg
Li = 0.003 Id Id - percent insect
damaged kernels at
the end of the
storage period, %

90
 GRAIN STORAGE LOSS
Loss Due to Rodents Lr - weight loss due to
rodents, kg
Lr = C D C – coefficient, 0.0036,
0.020, 0.035 kg/day
for mice, small rats,
and big rats
respectively
D - storage period, days
Loss Due to Birds Lb - weight loss due to
birds, kg
Lb = 0.005 D P D - storage period, days
P - bird population

Loss Due to Spillage Ls - weight loss due to

spillage, kg
Ls = 0.005 Wg Hf Wg - weight of grain
handled, kg
Hf – number of times of
handling
Total Weight Loss Lt - total weight loss, kg
Lr - weight loss due to
Lt = Lr + Lm + Li + Lr + Lb + Ls respiration, kg
Lm - weight loss due to
microorganism, kg
Li - weight loss due to
insect, kg
Lr - weight loss due to
rodents, kg
Lb - weight loss due to
birds, kg
Ls – weight loss due to
spillage, kg

91
 GRAIN STORAGE STRUCTURE
Volumetric Capacity of Cylindrical V - bin capacity, m3
Grain Bins (Level Full Volume) D - bind diameter, m
EH - eave height of bin,
 D2 m
V = --------- EH
4

Volumetric Capacity of Cylindrical V - bin capacity, m3

Grain Bins (Peaked Storage Capacity) D - bin diameter, m
EH - eave height of bin,
 D2  D2 (D/2) tan  m
V = EH +  - maximum angle of
4 4 3 fill, deg

Volumetric Capacity of Cylindrical V - bin capacity, m3

Grain Bins (Hopper Bottom Bin) D - bin diameter, m
EH - eave height of bin,
 D2  D2 (D/2) tan  m
V = EH +  - maximum angle of
4 4 3 fill, deg
 - slope of the hopper
 D2 (D/2) tan  measured in deg
+ from horizontal
4 3

92
 GRAIN STORAGE STRUCTURE
Airflow Resistance P - airflow resistance,
Pa
a Q2 L - bed depth, m
P = L a - constant, 2.57x104
loge (1+ bQ) for rice; 2.104 for
shelled corn
Q - airflow, m3/s-m2
B - constant, 13.2 for
rice and 30.4 for
shelled corn
Flow of Grain through Horizontal Qh - volume flow, m3/hr
Orifice A - area of the orifice,
cm2
0.62
Qh = 0.028 A D (corn 12-15%wb) D - hydraulic diameter,
cm

Flow of Grain through Vertical Orifice Qh - volume flow, m3/hr

A - area of the orifice,
0.79
Qh = 0.016 A D (corn 13-165%wb) cm2
0.62
Qh = 0.024 A D (sorghum 12- D - hydraulic diameter,
18%wb) cm
0.72
Qh = 0.018 A D (soybean 12%wb)

Moisture Content, Wet Basis MC - moisture content,

% wb
Wi - Wo Wi - initial weight of
MC = -------------- x 100 sample, g
Wi Wo - oven dry weight of
the sample, g

93
 GRAIN STORAGE STRUCTURE
Moisture Content, Dry Basis MC - moisture content,
% wb
Wi - Wo Wi - initial weight of
MC = --------------- x 100 sample, g
Wo Wo - oven dry weight of
the sample, g
MC Wet to Dry Basis MCd - moisture content
dry basis, %
MCw MCw – moisture content
MCd = -------------- wet basis, %
100 - MCw

MC Dry to Wet Basis MCw – moisture content

wet basis, %
MCd MCd - moisture content
MCw = -------------- dry basis, %
100 + MCd

Warehouse Capacity (Height of Sack in Cwh - estimated

Pile = 0.225 m) warehouse
capacity, bags
Cwh = 15 (L W H) : Rice L - effective length of
warehouse, m
Cwh = 10 (L W H) : Palay W – effective width of
warehouse, m
Cwh = 12 (L W H) : Corn H - effective height of
warehouse, m

94
 HEAT TRANSFER
Conduction (Homogenous Wall) Qk - heat transfer rate,
W
Qk = k A (To – Ti) / x k - thermal conductivity,
W / K-m
A - surface area, m2
To - outside wall
temperature, K
Ti - inside wall
temperature, K
x - wall thickness, m
Conduction (Composite Wall) Qk - heat transfer rate,
W
A (T1 – T4) k - thermal conductivity,
Qk = W / K-m
x12/k12 + x23/k23 + x34/k34 A - surface area, m2
T4 - outside wall
temperature, K
T1 - inside wall
temperature, K
x - wall thickness, m
1,2,3,4 - represent wall
surfaces

95
 HEAT TRANSFER
Conduction (Homogenous Qk - heat transfer rate, W
Cylindrical Wall) K - thermal conductivity, W /
K-m
2  k L (Ti - To) A - surface area, m2
Qk = L - length of cylinder, m
Ln ro/ri To - outside wall temperature,
K
Ti - inside wall temperature, K
r - radius of wall, m
o, i – outside and inside wall
surfaces
Convection Qh - heat transfer rate, W
h - heat transfer coefficient,
Qh = h A (To – Ti ) W-m2-K
A - surface area, m2
Tf - fluid temperature, K
Ts - surface temperature, K

Radiation Qr - heat trabsfer rate, W

 - emmisivity
Qr =   A T 4  - Stefan-Boltzman constant,
5.7x104 W/m2-K4
A - surface area, m2
T - temperature of the surface
of the material, K

96
 HUMAN AND ANIMAL POWER
Human Power Pg – power generated, hp
t – time, minutes
Pg = 0.35 – 0.092 log t

Required Human Rest Period Tr - required rest period,

min/hr of work
Tr = 60 [1- 250/P ] P - actual rate of energy
consumption, watts
Animal Pull P – pull, kg
W – animal weight, kg
L1 - horizontal distance
between front foot
and center of gravity of
W L1  the animal, m
P=  - coefficient of friction
(L+h2) cos  + L2  sin  between hoof and
ground surface
L – horizontal distance
between front and rear
feet, m
L2 - horizontal distance of
the neck load point from
the front foot, m
h2 - height of neck load
point from the ground,
m
 - angle of line of pull from
horizontal, deg
Draft Force of Ox F - averge draft force, N
E - energy available for
F = [300 E /D ] - 0.6 M work, MJ
D - distance travelled, km
M - weight of ox, kg

97
 HUMAN AND ANIMAL POWER
Drawbar Horsepower DHP – draw bar horsepower,
hp
F – load, kg
DHP = F V V – speed of animal, m/sec

Total Draft Dt – total draft, kg

NA – number of animals
Ds – draft per animal
Dt = NA Ds f F – factor, 0.63 for 6 animals
and 0.95 for 2 animals

Animal Energy Used for Work E - extra energy used for

work, kJ
A - energy used to move 1 kg
E = A F M + B F L + W/C of body weight 1 m
horizontally, J
+ [9.81 H M] / D F – distance travelled, km
M - liveweight, kg
C = work done/energy used L - load carried, kg
B - energy used to move 1 kg
D = work done in raising body of applied load 1 m
wieght / energy used horizontally, J
W – work done in pulling load,
kJ
C – efficiency of doing
mechanical work, decimal
H – distance move vertically
upwards, km
D - efficiency of raising body
weight, decimal

98
 HYDRAULIC OF WELL
Rate of Flow (Gravity q - rate of flow, m3/s
Well) K - hydraulic conductivity, m/s
H - height of the static water level
 K (H2 – h2 ) above the bottom of the water-
q = bearing formation, m
loge R/r h - height of the water level at the
well measured from the bottom
of the water bearing formation,
m
R - radius of influence, m
r - radius of well, m

Rate of Flow (Artesian q - rate of flow, m3/s

Well) K - hydraulic conductivity, m/s
d - thickness of the confined layer,
2  Kd (H – h ) m
q = H - height of the static piezometric
loge R/r surface above the top of the
water-bearing formation, m
h - height of the water in the well
above the top of the water
bearing formation, m
R - radius of influence, m
r - radius of well, m

99
 HYDRAULICS
Static Pressure P - intensity of pressure, kg/m2
W - unit weight of liquid, 1000
P = WH kg/m3
H - depth of water, m
Continuity Equation Q - discharge, m3/sec
A - cross sectional area of pipe,
Q =A V m2
V - average velocity of water,
m/s
Velocity of Flow V - velocity of flow, m/s
g - gravitational acceleration,
V = [2 g H] 1/2 m/s2
H - height of water, m

Friction Loss in Pipe Hf - pressure loss in pipe, m

f - friction factor
Hf = [f L V2 ] / [2 g D] L - length of pipe, m
V - average velocity of water in
pipe, m/s
g - gravitational acceleration, 9.8
m/s2
D - pipe diameter, m

100
 HYDRO POWER
Water Power P – power output, watts
K – turbine efficiency, 0.25 to 0.9
P = 9810 K Q H Q – water flow rate, m3/sec
H – head, m
Turbine Specific Speed Ns – turbine specific speed, dmls
Nt Po 0.5 Nt – turbine speed, rpm
Ns = ----------------- Po – shaft Power, kW
H 1.25 H – pressure head across turbine, m
Jet Speed Vj – jet speed, m/s
Cv – nozzle coefficient of velocity,
Vj = Cv (2 g H)0.5 0.9-0.97
g – gravitational acceleration, 9 m/sec2
H – head, m
Bucket Speed Vb – bucket speed, m/s
Vj – jet speed, m/s
Vb = 0.46 Vj
Runner Diameter Drun – runner diameter, m
H 0.5 H – head, m
Drun = 39 -------------- Nt – shaft speed, rpm
Nt
Nozzle Diameter Dn – nozzle diameter, m
Q 0.5 Q – water flow rate, m3/s
Dn = 0.54 -------------- H – head, m
H 0.25
Number of Buckets Hb – number of buckets
Drun Drun – runner diameter, m
Nb = 0.5 ----------- + 15 Dn – nozzle diameter, m
Dn
Bucket Width Wb – bucket width, m
Dn – nozzle diameter, m
Wb = 3 Dn

101
INFILTRATION, EVAPORATION AND TRANSPIRATION
Infiltration Through Saturated q - flow rate, m3/s
Homogenous Soil K - hydraulic
conductivity of
q = KhA/L flow, m/s
h - head, m
A – cross-sectional area
of flow, m2
L - length of flow, m

Evaporation of Water (Pans and E - rate of evaporation,

Shallow Ponds) mm/day
W - average wind
E = (15 + 0.93 W) (Cs – Cd) velocity at 0.15 m,
kph
Cs – saturated vapor
pressure at the
temperature of the
water surface, mm
Hg
Cd - actual vapor
pressure of the air
(Cs x relative
humidity, mm Hg

102
INFILTRATION, EVAPORATION AND TRANSPIRATION
Evaporation of Water (Small E - rate of evaporation,
Lakes and Reservoirs) mm/day
W - average wind velocity at
0.15 m, kph
Cs – saturated vapor pressure
E = (11 + 0.68 W) (Cs – Cd) at the temperature of the
water surface, mm Hg
Cd - actual vapor pressure of
the air (Cs x relative
humidity, mm Hg

Evapotranspiration (Rice Crops – ET - evapotranspiration rate,

Wet Season) mm/day
E - pan evaporation, mm/day
ET = 0.8 E + 0.3 : vegetative
stage
E T = 0.9 E + 0.2 : reproductive
stage

Evapotranspiration (Rice Crops – ET - evapotranspiration rate,

Dry Season) mm/day
E - pan evaporation, mm/day
ET = 0.8 E + 0.5 : vegetative
stage
E T = 0.9 E + 0.5 : reproductive
stage

103
 INTEGRAL CALCULUS
Indefinite Integral ∫ = integral sign
x = integrand
∫f(x)dx = F (x) + C C = constant integration
Properties of Indefinite Integral u – is any function

A. definition of integral
∫du = u + C

B. ∫(du + dv + dw + …) = ∫du + ∫dv

+ ∫du + …

C. ∫Cdu = C ∫du C – constant factor

Fundamental Integration Formulas

A. Power formula
∫ un du = un+1 + C
n+1
B. Logarithm
∫ du = ln u + C
u
C. Exponential Function
∫ au du = au +C a – constant
ln a u – any function
D. Trigonometric function
∫ cos u du = sin u + C
∫ sin u du = -cos u + C
∫ sec2 u du = tan u + C
∫ csc2 u du = -cot u + C
∫ sec u tan u du = sec u + C
∫ csc u cot u du = -csc u + C
Integral of tan u, cot u, sec u and csc u:

∫ tan u du = -ln cos u + C

∫ cot u du = ln sin u + C
∫ sec u du = ln ( sec + tan u) + C
∫ csc u du = ln (csc u – cot u) + C
or
∫ csc u du = -ln (csc u + cot u) + C

104
 INTEGRAL CALCULUS
Transformation Using
Trigonometric Formulas

Type I
∫ sinm u cosn u du m or n – positive odd integer
if m = positive odd integer
∫ sinm u cosn-1 cos u du cos2u = 1-sin2u
if m = positive odd integer
∫cosn u sinm-1 sin u du sin2u = 1-cos2u

Type II
∫ tanmu du or ∫ cotm u du m = is positive even integer

∫tanm-2u tan2u du sec2u = 1 + tan 2u

∫ cotnu cscm-2u csc2u du csc2u = 1 + cot2u

Type IV
∫ sin mu cosnu du m and n = positive even integer
if m = n
∫ (sin u cos u)n du sin u cos u = ½ sin 2u

∫ sinmu du sin2u = ½ (1-cos2u)

∫ (sin2u)m/2 du

∫ cosnu du cos2u = ½ (1+cos2u)

Walli’s Formula
2
∫0π/2 sinmx cosnx dx = [(m-1)(m-3)(m-5)…, or ][(n-1)(n-3)]
1
2
[(m+n)(m+n-2)(m+n-4)… or ]
1

Inverse Trigonometric Functions

∫ du / a2 +u2 = 1/a arctan u/a + C

∫ du / √a2 – u2 = arcsin u/a + C

Integration by Parts

∫ u dv = uv - ∫ v du

105
 INTEGRAL CALCULUS
Partial Fractions ax + b – factor of the
denomination
A. Linear and Distinct Factors
A
ax + b
B. Linear and Repeated Factors

A + B + C +… Z (ax + b)n – factor of the

2 3 n
ax + b (ax + b) (ax + b) (ax + b) denominator

C. Quadratic and Distinct Factor

A(2ax + b) + B
ax2 + bx + c ax2 + bx + c – factor of
the denominator
- cannot be
- factored

Volume of Solids of Revolution

-
2
Volume of circular disk = πr t r – radius
dv = πr2t t - time
v = π ∫r2t
If using vertical element:
x2
v = π ∫ (yh– yl)2 dx
x1

If using horizontal element:

y2
v = π ∫ (xR– xL )2 dy
y1

106
 INTEGRAL CALCULUS
Volume Element: Circular Ring r0 – the distance from axis of
revolution to other end of the area element
Vol. of circular ring = πr02t – πri2t ri – the distance from axis of
dv = π ( r02 – ri2)t revolution to the nearest end of
v = π ∫(r02 – ri2)t area element
t – dx (if using vertical element)
t – dy (if using horizontal element)
Vol. of cylindrical shell = 2πrht r – distance from area element to
d v = 2πrht axis of revolution
v = 2π ∫ rht If using vertical element;
t= dx
h = yh yL
If using horizontal element;
t = dy
h = xR - xL

Pappu’s Theorem R – distance from centroid to axis

of revolution
Volume = area (2πR)

If y-axis the axis of revolution;

Volume = 2π x (area)
If y = b is the axis of revolution;
Volume = 2π (y – b) (area)
If x = a is the axis of revolution;
Volume = 2π (a – x ) (area)

107
 IRRIGATION EFFICIENCY
Water Conveyance Efficiency c - water conveyance efficiency,
%
c = 100 Wd / Wi Wd - water delivered to
distribution system, m3
Wi - water introduced to the
distribution system, m3

Water Application Efficiency a - water application efficiency,

%
a = 100 Ws / Wd Ws - water stored in the soil root
zone, m3
Wd - water delivered to the area
being irrigated, m3

Water Use Efficiency u - water use efficiency, %

Wu - water beneficially used, m3
u = 100 Wu / Wd Wd - water delivered to the area
being irrigated, m3

Water Storage Efficiency s - water storage efficiency, %

Ws - water stored in the root zone
s = 100 Ws / Wn during irrigation, m3
Wn - water needed in the root
zone prior to irrigation, m3

108
 IRRIGATION EFFICIENCY
Water Distribution Efficiency d - water distribution
efficiency, %
d = 100 ( 1 - y/d) y - average numerical
deviation in depth of
water stored from the
average stored during
irrigation, mm
d - average depth of water
stored during
irrigation, mm
Consumptive Use Efficiency s - consumptive use
efficiency, %
cu = 100 Wcu / Wdrz Wcu - normal consumptive
use of water, m3
Wdrz – net amount of water
depleted from the root
zoon, m3
Uniformity Coefficient UC - uniformity
coefficient
UC = 1 - (y/d) y - average of the absolute
values of the deviation
in depth of water
infiltrated or caught, m
d - average depth of water
infiltrated or caught, m

22222222
109
 IRRIGATION REQUIREMENT
Water Applied Q - size of stream, lps
A - area irrigated, hectares
Q = 27.8 A D / T D - depth of water applied, cm
T - time required to irrigate,
hours

Time of Application T - time of application, hours

Pw - soil moisture in dry
Pw As D A weight, %
T = As – apparent specific gravity,
100 C Q decimal
D - depth of root zone, cm
A – area irrigated, hectares
Q - size of stream, cubic m per
hour
C - constant equal to 100

Evapotranspiration ET – evapotranspiration,
mm/day
ET = E + T E – evaporation, mm/day
T - transpiration, mm/day

Water Requirement WR – water requirement,

mm/day
WR = ET + P ET - evapotranspiration.
mm/day
P - percolation, mm/day

110
 IRRIGATION REQUIREMENT
Irrigation Requirement IR – irrigation requirement,
mm/day
IR = WR + FW - ER WR – water requirement,
mm/day
FW - farm waste, mm/day
ER - effective rainfall,
mm/day

Farm Turnout Requirement FTR – farm turnout

requirement, mm/day
FTR = IR + FDL IR - irrigation requirement,
mm/day
FDL – farm ditch loss,
mm/day

Diversion Requirement DR – diversion requirement,

mm/day
DR = FTR + CL FTR – farm turnout
requirement, mm/day
CL – conveyance loss,
mm/day

111
 MATERIAL HANDLING
Belt Capacity C – capacity, bu/hr
A – Area of cross-
C = 1710 A S section of belt, m2
S – Belt speed, m/min
Horsepower to Drive Empty Belt HPe – horsepower
Conveyor (empty), hp
S – belt speed, m/min
S A+B (3.28L) A – constant, 0.20 to
HPe = + 0.48 @ 36-76 belt
0.3048 100 width
B – constant, 0.00140 to
0.00298 @ 36-76
belt width
L – belt length, m
Horsepower to Convey Materials in HPl – horsepower to
Belt Conveyor on Level Position drive belt conveyor
on level position, hp
0.48 + 0.01 L C – belt capacity, tph
HPl = C x L – belt length, m
100
Horsepower to Lift Materials in Belt HPh – horsepower to lift
Conveyor materials, hp
h – lift, m
h C C – capacity, tph
HPh = x 1.015 x
0.3048 1000

112
 MATERIAL HANDLING
Total Horsepower of Belt HPt – total horsepower, hp
Conveyor HPe – power to drive empty,
hp
HPt = HPe + HPl + HPh HPl – power to drive in level,
hp
HPh – power to lift materials,
hp
Capacity of Screw Conveyor C – capacity of screw
conveyor, ft3/hr
( D2 - d2 ) D – screw diameter, in.
C= x P x N D – shaft diameter, in
36.6 P – screw pitch, in (normally
equal to D)
N – shaft speed, rpm
Power Requirement of Screw HP – horsepower
Conveyor requirement, hp
L – overall length, ft
L (D S + Q K) D – bearing factor, 10 to 106
HP = for ball bearing @
1,000,000 conveyor diameter of 7.5
to 40 cm
S – Speed, rpm
Q – quantity of materials,
lbs/hr
K –material factor, 0.4 to 0.7
Motor Horsepower of Screw MHP – motor horsepower, hp
Conveyor HP – power requirement, hp
P – 2 when HP is less than 1;
HP P 1.5 when HP is between
MHP = 1 and 2
0.85

113
 MATERIAL HANDLING
Horsepower Requirement when HPi – power requirement when
Screw is Inclined Position screw is in inclined
position, hp
HPi = HPh sin  HPh – power requirement in
horizontal position,
hp
 - inclination of the screw,
deg
Bucket Elevator Speed N – speed of the head pulley,
rpm
54.19 R – radius of wheel plus ½ the
N= projection of bucket, ft
R 0.5

Bucket Velocity Vb - velocity of bucket, fpm

D - pulley diameter, feet
Vb =  D N N - pulley speed, rpm

Bucket Capacity C – elevator capacity, m3/hr

Qb – bucket capacity,
m3/1,000,000
C = 60 Qb nb Sb nb – number of buckets per
meter of belt
Sb – belt speed, m/min
Horsepower Requirement of HP – power requirement, hp
Bucket Elevator Q – bucket elevator capacity,
kg/min
Q H F H – lift, m
HP = F – 1.5 for elevator loaded in
4562 down side; 1.2 for elevator
loaded in up side

114
 PIPE FLOW
Flow from Vertical Pipe (50-200 mm Q - pipe discharge, lps
Pipe Diameter with H = 0.075 to 0.1m ) D - pipe diameter, mm
H - vertical rise of
0.87 D2 H 1/2 water jet, m
Q = --------------------
287

Flow from Vertical Pipe (50-200 mm Q - pipe discharge, lps

Pipe Diameter with H = 0.3 to 0.6m ) D - pipe diameter, mm
H - vertical rise of
0.97 D2 H 1/2 water jet, m
Q = --------------------
287

Flow from Horizontal Pipe Q - discharge, gpm

A - cross sectional area
A X of water at the end
Q = 3.6 ----------- of the pipe, in2
y½ X - coordinate of the
point on the surface
measured parallel to
the pipe, in
y - vertical coordinate,
in

115
 POWER TILLER
Belt Slip BS – belt slip, %
N0 – revolution per minute of
N0 - N1 the driven pulley without
%BS= x 100 slip, rpm
N0 N1 – revolution per minute of
the driven pulley under
load, rpm

Wheel Slip Nw1 – sum of the revolutions

of all driving wheels for
Nw1 – Nw0 a given distance with
% WS = x 100 slip, rpm
Nw1 Nw0 – sum of the revolutions
of all driving wheels for
the same distance
without slip, rpm
Average Swath or Width of Cut S – average swath, m
W – is the width of plot, m
W n – is the number of rounds
S= 2 – is the number of trips
2n per round

Total Distance Traveled D – distance traveled, m

A – is the area of plot, m2
A L – is the length of the plot,
D= = 2nL m
S S – average swath, m
n – is the number of rounds

116
 POWER TILLER
Effective Area Accomplished Ae – effective area
accomplished, m2
Ae = wD = 2nLw w – width of plow or rotary
tiller, m
The width of swath is less than the D – distance traveled, m
plow’s or rotary tiller’s width L – is the length of the plot,
m
A0 = Ae – A n – is the number of rounds
A0 – overlap (area which is
The width of swath is greater than the plowed or rototilled
plow’s or rotary tiller’s width twice), m2
Au – unplowed or rototilled
Au = A – Ae area (area missed), m2
A – area of the field, m2
Effective Field Capacity EFC – effective field
capacity, m2/hr
60Ae Ae – effective area
EFC = accomplished, m2
t t – time used during the
operation, min
Theoretical Field Capacity TFC – theoretical field
capacity, m2/hr
TFC = we v we – effective or theoretical
width of tillage, m
v – speed of operation, m/h

117
 POWER TILLER
Field Efficiency Feff – field efficiency, %
EFC – effective field
EFC capacity, ha/hr
Feff = x 100 TFC – theoretical field
TFC capacity, ha/hr

Fuel Consumption FC – fuel consumption,

lph
V V – volume of fuel
FC = consumed, L
t t – total operating time, h

Axle/Rotary Shaft Torque T – shaft torque, kg-m

F – axle or rotary shaft
T=F L load, kg
L – length of pony brake
arm, m
Axle/Rotary Shaft Power P – shaft power, KW
Ft – total axle or rotary
Ft N shaft load, kg
P= N – speed of axle or rotary
1340 shaft, rpm

Specified Fuel Consumption SFC – specific fuel

consumption, (g/KW-
Fc Pf h)
SFC = Fc – fuel consumption, L/h
P Pf – density of fuel, g/h
P – axle or rotary shaft
power, KW

118
 PUMP
Fluid Horsepower Fhp – fluid horsepower, hp
qH q – flow rate, cfs
Fhp =  – fluid specific weight, lb
550 per cu ft
H – total head, ft
Hydraulic Efficiency h – hydraulic efficiency, %
H – head, ft
H Q Q – mass flow rate, lb/min
h = x 100 P – power input, hp
P 33000

Pump Discharge Requirement Q – pump discharge

requirement, gpm
A D A – design irrigable area,
Q = 183.4 hectares
F H D – depth of irrigation,
inches
F – number of days permitted
for irrigation,
days
H – average number of hours
of operation,
hours per day
Water Horsepower Pw – water horsepower, hp
Q – discharge, lps
QH H – total head, m
Pw =
102

119
 PUMP
Pump Brake Horsepower BHP – pump brake horsepower, hp
Pw – water horsepower, hp
BHP = Pw / p p - pump efficiency, decimal

Pump Motor Horsepower MHP – motor horsepower, hp

BHP – pump brake horsepower, hp
MHP = BHP / m m - motor efficiency, decimal
Engine Horsepower EHP – engine horsepower, hp
BHP – pump brake horsepower, hp
EHP = BHP / m m - engine efficiency, decimal
80% for diesel and 70% for
gasoline
Overall System Efficiency s - overall system efficiency, %
Pw – water horsepower, hp
s = ( Pw / MHP ) 100 MHP – motor horsepower, hp
Total Pump Head Ht – total head loss, ft
Hs – head loss due to elevation, ft
Ht = Hs + (HLsp + HLf) HLsp – friction loss on straight pipe,
ft
HLf – head loss on fittings, ft
Input Power Delivered to Pi - power input delivered to pump,
Pump KW
q - discharge rate, m3/s
Pi = 9.8 q h / p h - total heat, m
p - pump efficiency, 0.20 to 0.75
Pump Specific Speed Ns - specific speed
C - 51.65
Ns = C N q ½ / h ¾ N – impeller speed, rpm
q - flow rate, m3/s
h - head, m

120
 PUMP LAWS
Speed vs Capacity N1 – pump speed, rpm
N2 – pump speed, rpm
N1/N2 = q1/q2 q1 – pump capacity, gpm
q2 – pump capacity, gpm

Speed vs Head N1 – pump speed, rpm

N2 – pump speed, rpm
N1 2 / N22 = H1 / H2 H1 – pump head, ft
H2 – pump head, ft

Speed vs Power N1 – pump speed, rpm

N2 – pump speed, rpm
N1 3 / N23 = Hp1 / Hp2 Hp1 – pump head, ft
Hp2 – pump head, ft

Impeller Diameter vs Capacity D1 – pump diameter, inches

D2 – pump diameter, inches
D1 3 / D23 = q1 / q2 q1 – pump capacity, gpm
q2 – pump capacity, gpm

Impeller Diameter vs Head D1 – pump diameter, inches

D2 – pump diameter, inches
D1 2 / D2 2 = H1 / H2 H1 – pump head, ft
H2 – pump head, ft

Impeller Diameter vs D1 – pump diameter, inches

Horsepower D2 – pump diameter, inches
Hp1 – pump power, hp
D1 5 / D2 5 = Hp1 / Hp2 Hp2 – pump power, hp

121
 PUMP LAWS
Capacity vs Speed and Diameter q1 – pump capacity, gpm
q2 – pump capacity, gpm
q1 / q2 = (N1 / N2 ) (D1 3 / D2 3 ) N1 – pump speed, rpm
N2 – pump speed, rpm
D1 – pump diameter,
inches
D2 – pump diameter,
inches
Head vs Speed and Diameter H1 – pump head, ft
H2 – pump head, ft
2 2 2 2
H1 / H2 = (N1 / N2 ) (D1 / D2 ) N1 – pump speed, rpm
N2 – pump speed, rpm
D1 – pump diameter,
inches
D2 – pump diameter,
inches
Horsepower vs Speed and Diameter Hp1 – pump power, hp
Hp2 – pump power, hp
3 3 5 5
Hp1 / Hp2 = (N1 / N2 ) (D1 / D2 ) N1 – pump speed, rpm
N2 – pump speed, rpm
D1 – pump diameter,
inches
D2 – pump diameter,
inches

122
 RAINFALL AND RUNOFF
Rainfall Intensity I - rainfall intensity,
mm/hr
I = (a Tb) / dc T – return period, years
d – storm duration, min
a, b, and c - constant for a
given location

Point Rainfall Analysis (Simple Rave – average rainfall,

Arithmetic Method) mm
R - rainfall record, mm
Rave =  R / n n - number of rainfall
stations
Point Rainfall Analysis (Thiessen Rave – average rainfall, mm
Method) R - rainfall depth, mm
A1R1 + A2R2 + … + AnRn A 1-n - area within the
Rave = polygon, m2
At At – entire area of the
basin, m2
Runoff (Rational Method) Q - peak discharge,
m3/sec
Q = C I A / 360 C - runoff constant, 0.05
to 0.95
I - rainfall intensity,
mm/hr
A – drainage area, hectare

Time of Concentration Tc - time of

concentration, min
Tc = 0.0196 L1.15 H -0.385 L – length of channel, m
H - difference in
elevation, m

123
 REAPER HARVESTER
Star Wheel Velocity Vw - average star wheel
velocity, m/s
Vw = Vf / cos  Vf - machine forward velocity,
m/s
 - angle of inclination of star
wheel, 22 deg

Flat Belt Conveyor Velocity Vb - flat belt conveyor velocity,

m/s
Vb = Vwo P N /  Vwo - velocity of outer tip of
star wheel lugs, m/s
Vb = 1.4 Vf P - pitch of the flat belt lugs, m
N – number of star wheel lugs
Vf - machine forward velocity,
m/s

Pitch of the Flat belt Lugs P - pitch of the flat belt lugs, m
D - diameter of star wheel, m
P < D sin ( / N) N - Number of star wheels

Velocity Ratio K - velocity ratio

Vk - average knife velocity,
K = Vk / Vf m/s
k falls 1.3 to 1.4 Vf - average forward velocity,
m/s

124
 REFRIGERATION
Heat Gain on Walls Qw - heat gain from walls, W
A - wall surface area, m2
Qw = A Rt (To – Ti) Rt - thermal transmittance,
W/m-C
To – wall outside
temperature, C
Ti - wall inside temperature,
C
Air Infiltration Load Qai - air infiltration loss, W
Vr - room volume, m3
Vr Hf AC Hf - heat factor, J
Qai = AC - Air changes, KJ/m3
86400

Product Load Qp - product load, W

Wp - weight of the product,
Qp = Wp Cp (Ti – Tf) / 86400 kg
Cp - specific heat of the
product, J/kg-C
Ti – product initial
temperature, C
Tf – product final
temperature, C
Heat of Respiration Load Qr - heat of respiration load,
W
Qr = Wp HRp / 86400 Wp – weight of the product,
kg
HRp – product heat of
respiration, J/kg-day

125
 REFRIGERATION
Light Load Ql - light load, W
Lr - lamp rating, W
Ql = Lr

Human Heat Load Qh - human heat load, W

Nh - number of human
Qh = Nh HRh / 86400 HRh - heat of respiration of
human, J/man-day
Tons of Refrigeration TR - refrigeration capacity, tons
of ref
TR = TL / 12,000 TL – total load, BTU/hr

Latent Heat of Freezing Qlf - latent heat of freezing

water, KJ
Qlf = Mw LHF Mw - mass of water, kg
LHF - Latent heat of freezing,
336 KJ/kg

126
 RICE MILLING
Hulling Coefficient Ch – hulling coefficient, decimal
Wbr – weight of brown rice,
Ch = Wbr / Wp grams
Wp – weight of paddy, grams
Wholeness Coefficient Cw – wholeness coefficient,
decimal
Cw = Wwbr / Wbr Wwbr – weight of whole brown
rice, grams
Wbr – weight of brown rice,
grams
Hulling Efficiency h – hulling efficiency, decimal
Ch – hulling coefficient, decimal
h = Ch Cw Cw – wholeness coefficient,
decimal
Percentage Brown Rice %BRR – percentage brown rice
Recovery recovery, %
Wbrr – weight of brown rice, kg
% BRR = (Wbrr / Wp ) x 100 Wp – weight of paddy, kg

Percentage Broken Milled Rice %BR – percentage broken rice,

%
%BR = (Wbr / Wmr) 100 Wbr – weight of broken rice, kg
Wmr – weight of milled rice, kg

Throughput Capacity Ct - throughput capacity, kg/hr

Wp – weigh t paddy input, kg
Ct = 0.2 Wp / To : brown rice To - operating time, hr
Ct = [Wp MR]/To: milled rice MR – milling recovery, decimal
0.60 to 0.69

127
 RICE MILLING
Percentage Brewer’s Rice %BrR – percentage
brewer’s rice, %
%BrR = (Wbrr / Wmr ) 100 Wbrr – weight of brewer’s
rice, kg
Wmr – weight of milled rice,
kg
Hear Rice Recovery %HR – head rice recovery,
%
%HR = (Whr / Wmr ) 100 Whr – weight of head rice,
kg
Wmr – weight of milled rice

Milling Recovery % MR – milling recovery,

%
% MR = ( Wmr / Wp ) 100 Wmr – weight of milled rice,
%
Wp – weight of paddy, kg

Speed of Low Speed Rubber Roller Ns - speed of slower rubber

roller, rpm
Ns = Nh - [0.25 / Nh] Nh - speed of faster rubber
rollre, rpm

Number of Compartments for NC - number of

Paddy Separator compartments
Cb - throughput capacity,
NC = Cb / 40 : long grain kg brown rice per
NC = Cb / 60 : short grain hour
Number of Brake for Vertical NB – number of brakes,
Abbrassive Whitener units
D - cone diameter, mm
NB = [D / 100] : Germany
NB = [D / 100] : Itally

128
 RICE THRESHER
Grain Ratio R – grain ratio, decimal
Wg – weight of grain, grams
R = (Wg / Wgs) Wgs – weight of grain and
straw, grams
Actual Capacity Ca – actual thresher capacity,
kg/hr
Ca = Wc / To Wc -weight of threshed clean
grain, kg
To – operating time, hr

Corrected Capacity Cc – corrected capacity, kg/hr

MCo – observed moisture
100 – MCo Rm content, %
Cc = x x Ca MCr – reference MC, 20%
100 – MCr Ro Rm – reference grain-straw
ratio, 0.55
Ro – observed grain-straw ratio,
decimal
Ca – actual capacity, kg/hr

Purity P – purity, %
Wu – Wc Wu – weight of uncleaned
P= [1– ] 100 grain, grams
Wc Wc – weight of cleaned grains,
grams

129
 RICE THRESHER
Total Losses Lt – total losses, kg
Lb– blower loss, kg
Lt = Lb + Ls + Lu + Lsc Ls– separation loss, kg
Lsc – scattering loss, kg
Lu– unthreshed loss, kg

Threshing Efficiency t – threshing efficiency,

Wc – weight of clean
Wc + Lb + Ls + Lsc threshed grain, kg
t = x 100 Lb – blower loss, kg
Wc + Lb + Ls + Lu + Ls Ls – separation loss, kg
Lsc – scattering loss, kg
Lu – unthreshed loss, kg

Threshing Recovery Tr – threshing recovery, %

Wc – weight of clean
Wc threshed grain, kg
Tr = x 100 Lb – blower loss, kg
Wc + Lb + Ls + Lu + Ls Ls – separation loss, kg
Lsc – scattering loss, kg
Lu – unthreshed loss, kg

130
 RICE THRESHER
Cracked Grains Cg – percentage cracked
grains, %
Cg = Ncg 100 / (Ncg + Nucg) Ncg – number of cracked
grains
Nucg – number of
uncracked grains

Damaged Grain Dg – percentage damage

grains, %
Dg = Ndg 100 / (Ndg + Nudg) Ndg – number of damaged
grains
Nudg – number of
undamaged grains

Fuel Consumption Fc – fuel consumption,

Lph
Fc = Fu / To Fu - amount of fuel used,
liters
To – operating time, hrs

131
 SHAFT, KEY, AND KEWAYS
Horsepower Transmitted HP – horsepower
transmitted, hp
HP = T N / 63025 or T – torque, in-lb
N – shaft speed, rpm
HP = F V / 33000

Torque (Solid Shaft) T – torque, in-lb

D – shaft diameter,
 Sd D3 inches
T= Sd – design stress, 6000
16 psi

Torque (Hollow Shaft) T – torque, in-lb

D – shaft diameter,
 Sd ( Do 4 - Di 4 ) inches
T= Sd – design stress, 6000
16 Do psi

132
 SHAFT, KEY, AND KEWAYS
Shaft Diameter (Solid Shaft) D – shaft diameter, inches
T – torque, in-lb
3 16 T Sd – design stress, 6000 psi
D=
 Sd

Shaft Force F – force at shaft forces, lb

T – torque, in-lb
F= T/r r – radius of shaft, in

Length of Key L – length of key, in

F – force, lb
F allow - bearing stress, 25,000
L= psi
allow W W – width of key, in

Length of Key (In Shear) L – length of key, in

F – force, lb
3 F all – allowable shear, 25,000
L = psi
all W W – width of key, in

133
 SOIL, WATER, PLANT RELATIONS
Porosity P - porosity, %
Vv - volume of voids, cm3
P = Vv 100 / V V - total volume of soil column,
cm3
Void Ratio VR - void ratio
Vv - volume of voids, cm3
VR = Vv / Vs Vs - volume of solid, cm3

Degree of Saturation DS - degree of saturation

Vw - volume of water, cm3
DS = Vw / Vv Vv - volume of voids, cm3

Specific Gravity s - specific gravity of entire soil

column
s = Wsc / Ww Wsc - unit weight of entire soil
column, g/cc
Ww - unit weight of water, g/cc

Soil Moisture Content by Pv - moisture content by

Volume Basis volume, %
Vw - volume of water, cm3
Pv = Vw 100 / Vt Vt - total volume of soil sample,
cm3
Soil Moisture Content by Pv - moisture content volume
Volume Basis basis, %
Pw – moisture content weight
Pv = Pw As basis, %
As - apparent specific gravity

134
 SOIL, WATER, PLANT RELATIONS
Depth of Water d - depth of water, mm
Pv – moisture content by
d = Pv Drz / 100 volume, %
Drz - depth of root zone, mm
Depth of Water d - depth of water, mm
Pw - moisture content by
d = Pw As Drz / 100 weight, %
As – apparent specific gravity,
decimal
Drz – depth of root zone, mm
Total Available Moisture TAM - total available
moisture, %
TAM = FC - PWP FC - moisture content at filed
capacity, %
PWP - moisture content at
permanent wilting point,
%

Moisture Range MR - moisture range, %

RAM – readily available
MR = RAM – TAM moisture, %
TAM – total available
moisture, %

135
SOIL AND WATER CONSERVATION ENGINEERING
General formula for water Q – rate of flow, ft3/day
yields of wells K – hydraulic conductivity
H – height of the static water level
π K ( H2 – h2) above the bottom of water bearing
Q= formation, ft
Loge R/r h – height of water level at the ell
measured from the water bearing
formation, ft
R – radius of influence, ft
R – radius of the well
Water yield of a confined and
unconfined well

2 (π) k t(hc – hw)

Q=
2.3 log10 (Te/Tw)

Flow measurement Q – discharge, m3/sec

A – cross sectional area of water,
Q = AV m2
V – mean velocity of water, m/sec

Average stream discharge Qave - average discharge, m3/sec

Aave - average stream cross-
Qave = 2/3 (Aave) (Vave) sectional area, m2
Vave – maximum stream velocity,
m/sec
Weirs and orifices Q – discharge
C – coefficient dependent on the
Q = C L hm nature of the crest and approach
condition
L – length of crest
hm – head of the crest, and the
exponent “m” is dependent upon
the shape of the weir opening

136
SOIL AND WATER CONSERVATION ENGINEERING
Orifice under head Q – discharge, m3/sec
A – cross-sectional area of
Q = CA√2gh the orifice
g – 32.2 ft/sec2
h – height (depth) of water
from surface down to the
orifice area
Submerged orifice q – discharge, m3/sec
A – cross-sectional area of
q = 0.61 A√2gh the orifice
g – 32.2 ft/sec2
h – depth of water
Rectangular weir Q – discharge, m3/sec
C – coefficient of roughness
Q = 2CLh√2gh L–
Q = 2CLh3/2gh h – depth of water
g – 32.2 ft/sec2
Partly-filled orifice Q – discharge, m3/sec
h – depth of water
Q = 2hL
Trapezoidal weir

Q = 2.49 H5/2
Triangular notch weir

Q = 2.49 H5/2
Velocity formula V – average velocity, ft/sec
g – acceleration due to
V = √ 2gh gravity
h – depth of water (feet) or
pressure head

137
SOIL AND WATER CONSERVATION ENGINEERING
Manning velocity equation V – velocity, ft/sec
n – roughness coefficient
V = 1.486/n R2/3 S1/2 R – hydraulic radius of the
channel, m
S – slope/gradient of the channel
Chezy velocity formula C – coefficient of roughness
R – hydraulic radius
V=C√RxS S – slope of water surface,
gradient or piezometric head line
Best hydraulic radius croo- b – bottom width of the channel
section d – depth of water flow
θ – side slope of the channel
b = 2 d tan θ/2

Water floe for vertical pipe Q – discharge, li/sec

D – inside pipe diameter, mm
K D2 H1/2 H – vertical rise of water jet, m
Q= k – discharge coefficient varying
287 from: 0.87 for height of 75 mm to
100 mm, 0.97 for height of 0.3 m
to 0.6 m in pipe of 50 to 200 mm
in diameter
Flow of water in a horizontally- Q – discharge, gal/min
installed pipe A – cross-sectional area at the end
of the pipe, in2
[ 3.6 x A x X] D – pipe diameter, ft
Q= X – coordinates of the point on
√Y the surface measures in inches
parallel to the pipe
Y – vertical coordinate, ft

138
SOIL AND WATER CONSERVATION ENGINEERING
Water flow in siphon tubes and Q – siphon discharge, gal/min
pipes A – cross-sectional area of the
siphon tube, ft2
Q = 0.65 A √ 2gh h – suction head, ft
Maximum discharge/flow in Q – maximum non-erosive
furrows stream, gal/min
S – slope/gradient of the
Q = 10/S land/furrow, %
Length of furrows L – safe length of furrow, ft
I – rainfall intensity, in/hr
1, 000 A – absorption or infiltration rate
L= of soil, in/hr
(I-A)WS W – furrow spacing, ft
S – slope/gradient of furrow, %
Intake rate of soil I – intake rate of soil
t – time rate that water is on the
I=Ktn surface of the soil
K – intake rate intercept at unit
time
n – slope of the line (vertical
scaled distance divided by the
horizontal scaled distance
Design parameters/formulas in Vt – volume of water on the
border irrigation surface of the soil t time t1
W –width of the border check
a) volume of water D0 – depth of water t the upper
end
W [ C1D0 + E1 ] C1 – shape factor
Vt = E – depth correction factor
X1 E1 – distance leading to edge in
time t1

139
SOIL AND WATER CONSERVATION ENGINEERING
Advance distance x – distance to the leading edge
q – unit stream size or flow per
qt unit width of border strip
x= t – total time of flow
[k1D0 + k2 y0] D0 – depth of water at upper end
y0 – cumulative intake at the
upper end
k1 – surface storage coefficient
varying from 0.5 to less than 1.0
Percolation losses P – percent water intake which is
lost by deep percolation below
(R + 1)n+1 – Rn+1 root zone
P= x 100 R – a time ratio
(R +1)n+1 + Rn+1 n – the exponent of t in the intake
equation
Unit border stream size Qu - unit stream, ft3/sec
Ea – water application efficiency
Qu = 1/Ea [ tcr/(ttcr – tr) ] [ D/7.2 tcr expressed as a decimal , 1.0 – P
] where P is the percolation loss in
decimal
tcr – time in minutes required for
infiltration of D inches of water
tr - recession lag time in minutes
(from the time the stream is cut of
average area irrigated per set)
Maximum-stream size per foot qmx – maximum stream in cubic
width of border strip feet per second per foot width of
border strip
qmx = 0.06 S0.75 S – lope/gradient, %

Minimum stream size per foot qmin – maximum stream in cubic

width of strip feet per second per foot width of
border strip
Qmin = 0.004 S0.5 S – slope/gradient, %

140
SOIL AND WATER CONSERVATION ENGINEERING
Water conveyance efficiency Ec - water conveyance efficiency
Wt – water delivered to the farm
Wf We – water delivered from the
Ec = x 100 river or reservoir
We
Water application efficiency Eu – water application efficiency
Ws - water stored in the soil root
Ws zone during irrigation
Ea = x 100 Wf – water delivered to the farm
Wf

Water use efficiency Eu – water use efficiency

Wu – water beneficially used
Wu Wd – water delivered
Eu = x 100
Wd
Water storage efficiency Ea - water use efficiency
Ws – water stored in the root zone
Ws during irrigation
Ea = x 100 Wn – water needed in the root
Wn zone prior to irrigation
Water distribution efficiency Ed – water distribution efficiency
y – average numerical deviation in
Ed = 100 [1 – (y/d)] depth of water stored from
average depth stored during
irrigation
d – average depth of water stored
during irrigation

141
SOIL AND WATER CONSERVATION ENGINEERING
Consumptive use efficiency Ecu - consumptive use efficiency
Wcu – normal consumptive use of
Wcu water
Ecu = x 100 Wd - net amount of water depleted
Wd from root-zone soil
Rainfall intensity I – rainfall intensity
K, x and n – constants for a given
KTx geographic location
I= t – duration of storm in minute
tn T – return period
Return period and probability t – return period in years
of occurrence P- probability in percent that an
100 observed event in a given year is
T= equal to or greater than a given
P event
Thiesen method of rainfall P – representative average rainfall
determination in a watershed of area A
P1, P2, P3 = rainfall depth I the
A1P1+ A2P2 + A3P3 +…AnPn polygon having areas A1, A2, A3
P= within the watershed
A
Runoff rates-Rational method q – the design peak runoff rate,
m3/sec
q = 0.0028 C I A C – runoff coefficient
i – rainfall intensity in mm/hour
for the design return period and
for a duration equal to the “time
of concentration” of the watershed
A – watershed area, ha

142
SOIL AND WATER CONSERVATION ENGINEERING
Time of concentration Tc - time of concentration, min
L – maximum length of flow, m
Tc = 0.0195 L 0.77 Sg0.385 Sg –the watershed gradient in m/m
or the difference in elevation
between outlet and the most
remote point divided by the
length, L

Flood runoff (Chow method) q – magnitude of the peak runoff

(L3/T)
q = KAx k – coefficient depended on
various characteristics of the
watershed
A – watershed area, L2

Runoff volume (US/SCS Q – direct runoff depth, mm

method) I – storm rainfall, mm
S – maximum potential between
(I - 0.2S)2 rainfall and runoff in mm, starting
Q= at the time the storm begins
1 + 0.8 S
Required pump capacity for Q – discharge, gpm
irrigation A – design area, acres
D – gross depth of irrigation, in.
Ad H – average umber of hours of
Q = 453 operation per day
FH F – number of days permitted for
irrigation, days

Return period (General T – return period in years

formula) P – probability in percent that n
observed event in a given year is
T = 100/P equal to or greater than a given
event

143
SOIL AND WATER CONSERVATION ENGINEERING
Return period (Gumbel’s T – return period in years
formula) N – total number of statistical
events
N+1 m – rank of events arranged in
T= descending order of magnitude
m
Dimensional flow of water q – flow rte (L3/T)
(Darcy equation) K – hydraulic conductivity f the
flow of medium (L/T)
q = KhA / L h – head or potential causing flow
(L)
A – cross-sectional area of flow
(L2)
L – length of the flow path (L)
Terrace spacing V.I. – vertical interval between
corresponding points of
V.I. = Xs + Y consecutive terraces or from the
top of the slope to the bottom of
first terrace, m
X – constant for geographical
location
Y – constant for soil erodability
and cover condition during critical
erosion periods
- 0.3, 0.6, or 1.2 with the low
value for highly erodable soils
with no surface residue and the
high value for erosion-resistant
soils with conservation tillage
s – average land slope above the
terrace in percent

144
SOIL AND WATER CONSERVATION ENGINEERING
Terrace cross section c – cut (L)
f – fill (L)
c + f = h + sW h – depth of channel including
freeboard (L)
s – original land slope (L/L)
W – width of side slope (L)
Drop spillway capacity (free flow/ no q – discharge in m3/s
submerged) C – weir coefficient
L – weir length, m
q = 0.55 C L h3/2 h – depth of flow over the
crest, m
Culvert capacity (flowing full q – flow capacity (L3/T)
condition) a – conduit cross-sectional
area (L2)
a √ 2gH H – head causing flow (L)
Q= Ke – entrance loss coefficient
√ 1 + Ke + Kc L Kb – loss coefficient for bends
in culvert
Top width of dams (those exceeding W – top width of dam, m
3.5 meters) H – maximum height of
embankment, m
W = 0.4 H + 1
Wave height in dams h – height of the wave from
trough to crest under
h = 0.014 (Df)1/2 maximum wind velocity, m
Df – fetch or exposure, m
Compaction and settlement – volume V – total in-place volume (L3)
relationship Vs – volume of solids particles
(L3)
V = Vs + Ve Ve – volume of voids, either
air or water (L3)

145
SOIL AND WATER CONSERVATION ENGINEERING
Tractive force (on the bottom of T – tractive force (F/L2)
open channel) w – unit weight of water (9800
N/m3) (F/L3)
T = wdsK d – depth of flow (L)
s – slope (hydraulic gradient)
(L/L)
K – ratio of the tractive force for
noncohesive material necessary to
start motion of sloping side of a
channel to that required to start
motion for the same on a level
suface
Drainage ditches design q – runoff, m3
capacity C - constnt
M – watershed area, km2
q = 0.013 CM0.833
Drainage and seepage discharge D – drainage coefficient lands in
(from irigted lands in rid rid regions, mm/day
regions) – ASAE 1988 P – deep percolation from
percolation and bsed on the
I (P + S) maximum area to be irrigated at
Dc = the same time in percent of
1007 irrigation application
S – field canal seepage los in
percent
I – irrigation depth of application,
days
Discharge equation in pipe Q – maximum flow, L/s
drains (Pillsbury, 1985) A – drained area, ha

Q = 1.56 A0.75
Drain size d – inside diameter, mm
Dc – drainage coefficient, mm/day
d = 52.2 (Dc x A x n)0.375 s-0.1875 A – drainage area, ha
n – roughness coefficient
s – drain slope, m/m

146
SOIL AND WATER CONSERVATION ENGINEERING
Load formula for ditch conduits Wc - total load on the conduit per
(drainage pipes) unit length (F/L)
Cd – load coefficient for ditch
Wc = CdwBd2 conduits
w – unit weight of fill material,
(F/L3)
Bd – width of ditch t top of
conduit (L)
Conduit formula (for wide Cc – load coefficient for
ditches) projecting conduits
Bc – outside diameter of the
Wc = CcwBw2 conduit (L)
Soils loads on flexible pipes Wc – total load on the conduit per
unit length (F/L)
Wc = CdwBcBd Cd – load coefficient for ditch
conduits
w – unit weight of fill material,
(F/L3)
Bc – outside diameter of the
conduit (L)
Bd – width of ditch at the top of
conduit (L)
Volume storage of reservoir V – volume of storage, (L3)
d – distance between end areas (L)
V = d/2 (A1 + A2) A1 and A2 – end area (L2)
Earthwork volumes Vc – volume of cut (L3)
L – grid spacing (L)
L2 ( ∑ C)2 C – cut on the grid corners(L)
Vc =
4 (∑ C + ∑ F) F – fill on the grid corners (L)

147
SOIL AND WATER CONSERVATION ENGINEERING
Prismoidal formula Am – middle are halfway between
the end areas
V = d/6 (A1 + 4Am + A2)
Storage volume (when slopes in A0 – area at spillway crest (L2)
the reservoir area is given) d – depth of water above spillway
crest (L)
177 d2 A01/2 S – average slope of reservoir
V = A0 d + sides and banks, through range of
S d, %
Sprinkler capacity S1 – spacing along lateral , ft
Sm – spacing between laterals
S1Sm x application rate along main in feet
Capacity =
96.3
Application rate I – application rate, mm/hr
Vg – gross amount of water
Vg 1000 x q applied per irrigation, mm
I= = Tsp – time of sprinkling, hours
Tsp Sm x Se q – sprinkler discharge, m3/hr
Sm – spacing between adjacent
laterals, m
Se – sprinkler spacing along
laterals, m
Irrigation interval T – irrigation interval, day
V – net amount of water in single
V irrigation not to exceed the oil’s
T= water holding capacity, mm
Cu Cu – consumptive use, mm/day

148
SOIL AND WATER CONSERVATION ENGINEERING
Number of irrigation days T – number of irrigation days within
(within irrigation interval) the irrigation interval, days
Te – number of days moving the
T = Tk x Te systems and no ater applied
Gross amount of water per Vg – gros amount of water applied per
application irrigation
V – net amount of water in single
Vg = V/Ea irrigation not to exceed the holding
capacity of soil
Ea – irrigation efficiency
Sprinkler (nozzle) discharge q – sprinkler or nozzle discharge, gpm
dn – diameter of the nozzle orifice, in
q = 29.85 x C x dn2 x P1/2 P – pressure at the nozzle, psi
C – coefficient of discharge
- 0.95 to 0.98 for well-designed
nozzles
- 0.80 for larger nozzles

Average area irrigated daily Ad - average area irrigated daily, ha

A – total area of the field, ha
Ad = A/Tn Tn – number of irrigation days within
the irrigation interval, days
Number of times the system x – number of times the system is
is moved per day moved per day
Tsp – time of sprinkling, hrs
x = integer [24Tsp]

149
SOIL AND WATER CONSERVATION ENGINEERING
Average areas irrigated As – average area irrigated per set, ha
per set Ad – average areas irrigated dily, ha
x – number of times the system is
As = Ad/x moved per ady
Area irrigated by a single A1 – area irrigated by a single lateral, ha
lateral Le – effective length of lateral, m
Sm– spacing between adjacent laterals,m
Le x Sm
A1 =
1000
Effective length of lateral L1- effective length of laterals, m
Nsl – number of sprinkler along lateral
L1 = Nsl x Sl Sl – spacing of sprinkler long lateral, m
Sprinkler system capacity Q – system capacity
As – average area irrigated per set
Q = As x I I – application rate
Density of sprinkler per Nsp – density of sprinkler per hectare
hectare Sm– spacing between adjacent laterals,m
Sl – sprinkler spacing along laterals, m
10,000
Nsp =
Sm x Sl

150
SOIL AND WATER CONSERVATION ENGINEERING
Number of sprinkler per set Nsp – number of sprinkler per set
As - average area irrigated per set
Nset = As x Nsp Nsp – density of sprinklers per
hectare
Number of lines in a single set Nls – number of lines/set
As – average area irrigated per set
Nls = As/Al Al – area irrigated by a single
lateral
Uniformity of distribution ∑lm – ml – sum of the obsolete
deviation of individual collector
∑l x m – m x l reading from the mean
Cu = 100 1 – m – mean of all collector values
mxn m1 – individual reading of each
collector
n – number of collectors

151
 SOLAR THERMAL SYSTEM
Direct Solar Radiation in an Qi – Direct solar radiation, kW
Inclined Surface Qo – solar constant, kW/m2
A – absorber surface area, m2
Qi = Qo D A cos  D – transmission factor, 0.06 – 0.82
 - angle between a line
perpendicular to the surface and
the direction of radiation
Energy Requirement for Qn – energy needed, kJ/hr
Water Space Heating m – mass of water needed to be
heated per hour, kg
Qn = m Cp (T2 – T1) Cp – specific heat of water, 4.18
kJ/kg-C
T2 – final temperature of warm
water, C
T1 – initial temperature of water, C
Collector Area Ac –collector area, m2
m Cp m – mass of water ,kg
Ac = ------------ (T2 – T1) Cp – specific heat of water, 4.18
 Qo cos  kJ/kg-C
T2 – final temperature of warm
water, C
T1 – initial temperature of water, C
 - overall efficiency of the solar
plant
Qo – average global radiation
density
 - angle between a line
perpendicular to the surface and
the direction

152
 SOLAR THERMAL SYSTEM
Heat Gain in the Solar Qg – heat gain from the solar
Collector collector, W/m2
 - collector efficiency, %
Qg =  IR IR – Insulation rate, W/m2

Thermal Efficiency of flat TE – thermal efficiency, %

Plate Collector  - heat transfer coefficient of the
absorber material
Ta - Tu  - transmissivity of the covering
TE =   cos  -  --------- surface
-  - angel between a line
Qg perpendicular to the surface and
the direction of radiation, deg
 - coefficient for losses through
convention, conduction, and
insulation
Ta – average temp of the absober, C
Tu – ambient air temperature, C
Qg – Global radiation intensity,
kW/m2

153
 SOLID GEOMETRY
Area of Square As - area of square, m2
S - side, m
As = S 2

Area of Rectangle Ar - area of rectangle,

m2
Ar = W L W - width, m
L - length, m
Area of Triangle At - area of triangle, m2
B - base, m
At = [B H] / 2 H - height, m

Area of Parallelogram Ap - area of

parallelogram, m2
Ap = B H B - base, m
H - height, m
Area of Rhombus Arm - area of rhombus,
m2
Arm = B H B - base, m
H - height, m
Area of Trapezoid Atr - area of trapezoid,
m2
Atr = [B1 + B2] H / 2 B1 - upper base, m
B2 - lower base, m
H - height, m
Area of Circle Ac - area of circle, m2
D - diameter, m
Ac = [ /4] D2

Surface Area of Cone SA – surface area, m

R – radius, m
SA =  RS [ R2 + H2 ] 0.5 H – height, m
Surface Area of Conical Frustum SA – surface area, m
R1 – top radius, m
SA =  (R1+R2) [ (R1-R2)2 + H2 ] R2 – bottom radius, m
0.5
H – height, m
Surface Area of Sphere SA – surface area, m
R – radius, m
SA = 4  R 2

154
 SOLID GEOMETRY
Area of Ellipse Ae - area of ellipse, m2
R1 - smaller radius, m
Ae =  R 1 R 2 R2 - bigger radius, m

Volume of Cube Vc - volume of cube, m3

S - side, m
Vc = S3

Volume of Rectangular Vp - volume of parallelepiped,

Parallelepiped m3
L - length, m
Vp = L W H W - width, m
H - height, m
Volume of Circular Cylinder Vc - volume of circular
cylinder, m3
Vc = [ D2 H] / 4 D - diameter of cylinder, m
H - height of cylinder, m

Volume of Cone Vcn - volume of cone, m3

R - radius of cone, m
Vcn = [ R2 H] / 3 H - height of cone, m

Volume of Frustum of Right Vfc - volume of frustum of

Circular Cone cone, m3
R - larger radius of frustum,
Vfc = [ H/2] [r2 + R2 + rR] m
r - smaller radius of frustum,
m
H - height of frustum, m
Volume of Pyramid Vp – volume of pyramid, m3
L – length of base, m
Vp = 1/3 L W H W – width of base, m
H – height, m
Volume of Sphere Vs – volume of sphere, m3
R – radius, m
Vs = 4/3  R 3

155
 SPRAYER
Application Rate AR – application rate, liters
per hectare
10000 Q Q – delivery, lpm
AR = S – swath, m
S V V – travel speed, m/min

Sprayer Field Capacity FCs – theoretical field

capacity, ha/hr
S V S – swath, m
FCs = V – travel speed, kph
10

Actual Sprayer Field Capacity FCa – actual field capacity,

ha/hr
FCa = As / Ts As – area sprayed, hectares
Ts – time spent, hr

Boom Discharge per Minute Qb – boom discharge, lpm

Qn – nozzle discharge, lpm
Qb = Qn Nn Nn – number of nozzle

Piston Displacement Dp – piston displacement, liters

d – diameter of the cylinder,
d2L cm
Dp = L – length of actual piston
4 (1000) travel, cm

156
 SPRAYER
Volumetric Efficiency v – volumetric efficiency,
%
v = (Va / Dp) 100 Va – actual volume
discharge, liters
Dp – piston displacement,
liters
Spraying Speed V – travelling speed, m/s
Qd – total discharge
167 Qd quantity of boom
V= sprayer, lpm
S Q S – spraying width, m
Q – spraying quantity,
liters per hectare
Number of Sprayer Load per Hectare L - number of loads per
hectare
Q - application rate, liters
L = Q / Ct per hectare
Ct - tank capacity, liters
per load

157
 SPRINKLER IRRIGATION
Irrigation Interval Ii - irrigation interval, days
V - net amount of water in single
Ii = V / CU irrigation not to exceed the soil
water holding capacity, mm
Ii = Tii Tms CU - consumptive use, mm/day
Tii - number of irrigation days
within the irrigation interval,
days
Tms - number of days of moving
the system and no water
applied, days
Gross Amount of Water Per Vg - gross amount of water applied
Irrigation per irrigation, mm/day
V - net amount of water applied in
Vg = V / i single irrigation not to exceed
the soil's water holding
capacity, mm/day
I - irrigation efficiency, decimal
Application Rate I - application rate, mm/hr
Vg - gross amount of water applied
I = Vg / Tsp per irrigation, mm
Tsp - time of sprinkling, hrs
I = 1000 [Q /(Sm Sl) ] Q - sprinkler discharge, m3/hr
Sm - sprinkler spacing between
adjacent lateral, m
Sl - sprinkler spacing along laterals,
m
Area Irrigated by a single Al - area irrigated by a single
Lateral lateral, ha
Le - effective length of lateral, m
Al = [Le Sm ] / 10000 Sm - spacing between adjacent
laterals, m

158
 SPRINKLER IRRIGATION
Sprinkler Discharge Qs - sprinkler nozzle discharge,
gpm
Qs = 30 C Dn2 Pn 0.5 C - coefficient of discharge, 0.95
to 0.98 for well designed small
nozzle and 0.80 for larger
nozzzle
Dn - diameter of nozzle orifice, in.
Pn - nozzle pressure, psi
Effective Length of Lateral Le - effective length of lateral, m
Nsl - number of sprinkler along
Le = Nsl Sl lateral
Sl - spacing of sprinkler along
lateral, m
System Capacity Qs - system capacity, ha-mm/day
As - average area irrigated per set,
Qs = As I ha
I - application rate, mm/day
Qs = [453 A d] / [F H]
Qs - system capacity, gpm
A - design area, acre
d - gross depth of application, in
F - time allowed for completion of
one irrigation, days
H - actual operating time, hr/day

Density of Sprinklers per Nsp - density of sprinklers per

Hectare hectare, units of sprinklers
Nsp = 10000 / [Sm Sl] Sm - spacing between adjacent
laterals, m
Sl - spacing along laterals, m

159
 STATISTICS
Arithmetic mean (x) x - arithmetic mean
For small n: n n– number of observations
x = ∑ Xi
i =1

n
for large n:
x = ∑ fx ω – guess mean or the value estimated
n to the nearest
x=w+ c d c – class size
n – number of observations
d = ∑fd
n
Median c - class size
L – lower value of the class range
x = L + n/2 – f1 -C where the median class is located
f2 n – number of observations
f1 – cumulative frequency of the
premedian class
f2 – frequency of the median class

Mode L – lower limit of the modal class

F – frequency of the modal class
x = L = F - fpr fpr - frequency of the premodal class
2f – fpr - fpo fpo – frequency of the post modal class
c – class size
Standard deviation s – standard deviation
n – number of observations
For small n:
√ ∑ (xi – x)2
s=
n-1
For large n:

√ ∑fx2 – (∑fx)2/n
s=
n-1

160
 STATISTICS
Variance S2 - variance
n – number of observations
Biased:
s2 = ∑(xi – x )2
n
Unbiased:
s2 = ∑ (xi – x )2
n-1

for small n:
s2 = ∑(xi – x )2
n-1
direct computation:

s2 = ∑xi2 – (∑xi)2/n
n-1
for large n:

machine form:

∑fx2 – (∑fx)2/n
s2 =
n-1
coded data:

s2 = c2 ∑fd2 – (∑fd)2/n
n-1
Permutation note:
0! = 1
nPr = n! n – number of objects
(n-r)! P – number of permutation
r - number of objects taken at a time
nPr – number of permutation of n
objects taken r at a time

161
 STATISTICS
Combination n – number of objects
C – number of combination
nCr = n! r – number of objects taken at a time
(n-r)! r! nCr – number of combination of n
objects taken r at a time
Sampling and Sampling n – sample size
Designs N – population size
z – z value of the corresponding
Sample size: confined level adopted
Te – tolerable or permissible error for
the corresponding confidence level
n = N x z2 x (p x q) p – the proportion of the population
decided to be the included portion
N x (Te)2 + (z2 + pq) q – the proportion of the population
decided to be the included portion
Two Ways of Solving a n – sample size
Sample Size zα – value of the standardized normal
variate corresponding to the level of
1. Sample size which can significance α
satisfy prescribed margin of vs – sampling variance
error of the plot mean. x – arithmetic mean
d – margin or error expressed as a
2
(zα ) (vs) fraction of the plot mean
n=
d2(x2)
zα – value of the standardized normal
2. Sample size which can variate corresponding to the level of
satisfy a prescribed margin of significance α
error of the treatment mean. vs – sampling variance
x – arithmetic mean
(zα2)(vs) r – number of replications
n= D – prescribed margin of error
r(D2) (x2) – (zα2) vp expressed of the treatment mean
vp – size of the experimental error

162
 TEMPERATURE
Centigrade to Farenheight F - farenheight, deg F
C - centigrade, deg C
F = ( 9/5 ) C + 32

Farenheight to Centigrade C - centigrade, deg C

F - farenheight, deg F
C = (5/9) F - 32

Rankine to Centigrade C - centigrade, deg C

R - rankine, deg R
C = (5/4) R

Centigrade to Rankine R - rankine, deg R

C - centigrade, deg C
R = ( 4/5 ) C

Rankine to Farenheight R - rankine, deg R

F - farenheight, deg F
F = (9/4) R + 32

Farenheight to Rankine F - farenheight, deg F

R - rankine, deg R
R = (4/9) F - 32

Centigrade to Kelvin K - Kelvin, deg K

C - centigrade, deg C
K = C + 273

Farenheight to Kelvin K - Kelvin, deg K

F - farenheight, deg F
K = 1.8 F

163
 TILLAGE
Plow Area of Cut Ac – area of cut of plow, m2
Wc – width of cut, m
Ac = Wc Dc Dc – depth of cut, m

Draft of Plow F – draft of plow, kg

Ac – area of cut, m2
F = Ac s s – specific resistance of soil,
kg/m2

Drawbar Horsepower DHP – drawbar horsepower

F – draft of implement, kg
F V V – velocity of implement, m/s
DHP =
76.2

Theoretical Field Capacity Ct – theoretical field capacity,

ha/hr
Ct = 0.1 Wi Vi Wi – width of implement, m
Vi – implement speed, kph

Effective Field Capacity Ce – effective field capacity,

ha/hr
Ce = Ct f Ct – theoretical field capacity,
ha/hr
f – field efficiency, decimal
Field Efficiency f – field efficiency, %
Ce – effective field capacity,
Ce ha/hr
f = x 100 Ct – theoretical field capacity,
Ct ha/hr

164
 TILLAGE
Number of Implement Unit NI – number of implement
units
Af Af – area of the farm, hectares
NI = To – total operating time to
To Ce finish operation, hours
Ce – effective field capacity of
implement, ha/hr
Time to Finish Tillage Operation To – time required to finish
tillage operation, hr
Af Af – area of the farm, hectares
To = Ce – effective field capacity,
Ce N I ha/hr
NI – number of tillage
implement
Width of Cut of Disc Plow W - width of cut, m
N - number of disk
0.95 N S + D S - disk spacing, mm
W = D - diameter of disk, mm
1000

Width of Cut of Disc Harrow W - width of cut, m

(Single Action) N - number of disk
S - disk spacing, mm
0.95 N S + 0.3 D D - diameter of disk, mm
W =
1000

165
 TILLAGE
Width of Cut of Disc Harrow W - width of cut, m
(Tandem Type) N - number of disk
S - disk spacing, mm
0.95 N S + 1.2 D D - diameter of disk, mm
W =
1000

Width of Cut of Disc Harrow W - width of cut, m

(Offset Type) N - number of disk
S - disk spacing, mm
0.95 N S + 0.6 D D - diameter of disk, mm
W =
1000

Draft of Moldboard Plow D - unit draft of

implement, N/cm2
D = 7.0 + 0.049 S2 : silty clay S - implement speed, kph
D = 6.0 + 0.053 S2 : clay loam
D = 3.0 + 0.021 S2 : loam
D = 3.0 + 0.056 S2 : sandy silt
D = 2.8 + 0.013 S2 : sandy loam
D = 2.0 + 0.013 S2 : sand

166
 TRACTOR
Engine Speed Ve – engine speed, km/hr
R – diameter of wheel, m
0.333 R Ne Ne – engine speed. Rpm
Ve = ---------------------- I – reduction ratio, 1st gear equal
I to 4.48 and 4th gear equal to
1.45

Engine Power Pw – wheel power, kw

Pe – engine power, kw
P w =  Pe  -mechanical efficiency, 0.75
to 0.95

PTO Power Ppto – PTO horsepower, kw

Pe – engine power, kw
Ppto =  Pe  -mechanical efficiency, 0.75
to 0.95

Wheel Axle Torque T – wheel axle torque, N-m

N – wheel axle power, kw
1000 N n – speed of the wheel axle, rpm
T=
2n

167
 TRACTOR
Wheel Axle Power Pd – drawbar power or
effective power, kW
Pd = Pw – Pl or Pw – wheel axle power, kw
Pl – lost power, kw
= Pw – (Ps + Pr) Ps – lost power by slip of
wheel, kw
Pr – lost power by rolling
resistance, kw

Traction Efficiency d – traction efficiency, %

Pd – drawbar power, kw
d = Pd / Pw Pw – wheel power , kw

Running Resistance R – rolling resistance, kgf

Cr – coefficient of rolling
R = Cr W resistance0.01 to 0.4 for
wheel type and 0.05 to
0.12 for track type
W - trator weight, kg

Drive Wheel or Track Slippage % Slip – percent wheel slip, %

R – total drive wheel
R - r revolution count to
% Slip = 100 traverse the drawbar
r runway under no load, rev
r – total drive wheel revolution
count to traverse the
drawbar runway under
load, rev

168
 TRACTOR
Travel Reduction or Slip S – slip, %
An – tract revolution under no
An - Al load condition, m
S = 100 ---------------- Al – tract revolution under load
Al condition, m

Stability Factor K – stability factor, 1.25 min

Fw – static front end weight, kg
Fw W b Wb – wheel base,
K= P – maximum drawbar pull
P h parallel to ground, kg
h – height of static line of pull
perpendicular to ground
Drawbar Power DHP - drawbar power, kW
F - force measured, kN
DHP = (F S) / 3.6 S - forward speed, km/hr

PTO Power PTOP - power take-off power,

kW
PTOP = 2  F R N / 60 F - tangential force, kN
R - radius of force rotation, m
PTOP = 2  T N / 60 N - shaft speed, rpm
T - torque, N-m

Hydraulic Power Hy P – hydraulic power, kW

Pg - gage pressure, kPa
HyP = Pg Q / 1000 Q - flow rate, lps

169
 TRACTOR
Drawbar Horsepower DHP - drawbar power, hp
NEP - net engine power, hp
DHP = m x NEP m - mechanical efficiency,
0.75 to 0.81
PTO Power PTOP - power take-off
power, hp
PTOP = m x NEP NEP - net engine power, hp
m - mechanical efficiency,
0.87 to 0.90
Axle Power AXP - axle power, hp
NEP - net engine power, hp
AXP = m x NEP m - mechanical efficiency,
0.82 to 0.87
Drawbar Horsepower DHP - drawbar power, hp
PTOP – power take-off
DHP = m x PTOP power, hp
m - mechanical efficiency,
0.86 to 0.89

170
 TRIGONOMETRY
a - opposite
B b – adjacent
c – hypotenuse

c
a
αα
A C
B
A + B + C = 180°

A + B = 90°

C = 90°

sin θ = opp / hyp Reciprocal terms:

sin θ = csc θ
cos θ = adj / hyp cos θ = sec θ
tan θ = cot θ
tan θ = opp / hyp sin 30 = cos (90° - 30°)

Given is α Given is β co – function:

sin α = a / c sin β = b / c sin α = cos (90° – α)

cos α = sin (90° - α)
cos α = b / c cos β = a / c tan α = cot (90° - α)
sec α = csc (90° - α)
tan α = a / b tan β = b / a

Identities: Reciprocal csc θ = 1 / sin θ

sec θ = 1 / cos θ
sin θ = 1 / cos θ; sin θ csc θ = 1 cot θ = 1 / tan θ

cos θ = 1 / sec θ; cos θ sec θ = 1

tan θ = 1 / cot θ; tan θ cot θ = 1

171
 TRIGONOMETRY
Pythagorean:

sin2 θ + cos2 θ = 1; sin2 θ = 1- cos2 θ;

cos2 θ = 1- sin2 θ
1 + tan2 θ = sec2 θ; 1 =sec2 θ – tan2 θ;
tan2 θ = sec2 θ – 1

1 + cot2 θ = csc2 θ; 1 =csc2 θ – cot2 θ;

cot2 θ = csc2 θ – 1

Ratio:

tan θ = sin θ / cos θ; tan θ cos θ = sin θ

cot θ = cos θ / sin θ; cot θ sin θ = cos θ

Half Angle Formulas

sin x/2 = ± √ 1- cosx

2

cos x/2 = ± √ 1+ cosx

2

tan x/2 = 1- cosx = sinx

sinx 1 + cosx
Double Angle Formula

sin 2x = 2 sinx cosx

½ sin 2x = sinx cosx
cos 2x = cos2x – sin2x
= cos2x – (1 – cos2x)
= 2 cos2x – 1
= 1 – 2sin2x
tan 2x = 2tanx
1 – tan2x

172
 TRIGONOMETRY
Sum and Difference of Two Angles

sin (A±B) = sin A cos B + cos A sin B

cos(A±B) = cos A cos B ± sin A sin B
tan(A±B) = tan A ± tan B

1± tan A tan B
Area of Triangle

Given three sides a, b and c:

Hero’s Formula:

A = √ s(s-a)(s-b)(s-c)

s = ½ (a + b + c)

173
 WATER TREATMENT
Settling Velocity Vs - settling velocity, m/hr
H - depth of settling tank, m
Vs = H / T T - detention time, hour

Volume of Settling Tank Vt - volume of settling tank, m3

Q - throughput, m3/hr
Vt = Q / T T - detention time, hrs

Filter Surface Area A - filter area, m2

Q - throughput of water, m3/hr
A = Q / (a v) a - operating time, hr/day
v - filtration rate, m3/m2-hr

Amount of Active Chlorine Qac - amount of active chlorine

per Hour per hour, g/hr
Dc - chlorine demand, g/m3
Qac = Dc Qt Qt - amount of water to be
treated, m3/hr

Chlorine Demand Dc - chlorine demand, mg/l

Cc - chlorine consumption, mg/l
Dc = Cc + Rd Rd - desired residual, 0.1 to 0.3
mg/l

174
 WEIR, FLUMES, AND ORIFICE
Rectangular Weir Without Q – discharge, lps
Contraction L - length of weir crest, cm
H - total head, cm
Q = 0.0184 L H 3/2

Rectangular Weir With Q – discharge, lps

Contraction L - length of weir crest, cm
H - total head, cm
Q = 3.33 ( L – 0.2 H ) H 3/2

Trapezoidal Weir (4h:1l) Q – discharge, lps

L - length of weir crest, cm
Q = 0.0186 L H 3/2 H - total head, cm

Triangular Weir (90 deg) Q – discharge, lps

H - total head, cm
Q = 0.0138 H 5/2

Parshall Flume (1 to 8 ft Throat Q - discharge, lps

Width) W - throat width, cm
Ha – head on the crest, cm
0.026
1.522 W
Q = 4 W Ha

Orifice Q – discharge, lps

A – area of orifice, cm2
Q = 0.61 x 10-3 A (2gh ) 0.5 g – gravitational acceleration,
9.8 cm/sec2
h – head, cm

175
 WEIR, FLUMES, AND ORIFICE
Submerged Orifice Q – discharge, lps
A – area of orifice, cm2
Q = 0.027 A g ( h ) ½ g – gravitational acceleration,
9.8 cm/sec2
h – head, cm

176
 WIND ENERGY
Wind Power Pw – wind power, watts
 - air density, 1.25 kg/m3
Pw = ½  Ar V3 Ar – rotor area, m2
V – velocity of the wind, m/s
Performance Coefficient Pshaft – power at the rotor shaft,
watts
Pshaft = Cp ½  A V3 Cp – power coefficient, 0.17 to
0.47
 - air density, 1.25 kg/m3
A – rotor area, m2
V – wind velocity, m/s
Tip-Speed Ratio  - tips-speed ratio, decimal
R – rotor radius, m
=2RN/V N – rotor speed, rps
V – wind velocity, m/s
Hydraulic Power Ph – hydraulic power, watts
w – water density, 1000 kg/m3
Ph = w g Q H g – gravitational acceleration,
9.8 m/s
Q – water flow rate, m3/s
H – lifting head, m
Overall System Efficiency  - overall system efficiency, %
Ph – hydraulic power, watts
 = Ph/Pw or Pe – electrical power, watts
Pw – wind power, watts
 = Pe/Pw

177
 WIND ENERGY
Windpump Rotor Diameter Dr – rotor diameter, m
Ph – hydraulic power, watts
Dr = (8 Ph /  w  V3)1/2 w – density of water, 1000
kg/m3
 - overall system efficiency, 0.1
V – wind velocity, m/s

Windturbine Rotor Diameter Dr – rotor diameter, m

Pe – electrical power, watts
Dr = (8 Pe /    V3)1/2  - air density, 1.25 kg/m3
 - overall system efficiency, 0.2
V – wind velocity, m/s

178
 CONVERSION CONSTANTS
Length 1 ft = 12 inches
1 yard = 3 feet
1 mi = 5280 feet
1 cm = 0.3937 inch
1 inch = 2.54 cm
1m = 3.28 feet
1 cm = 104 microns
1 mi = 1.609 km
Area 1 acre = 0.4047 hectare
1 ha = 2.47 acre
1 ft2 = 144 in.2
1 acre = 43,560 ft2
1 mi2 = 650 acres
1 m2 = 10.76 ft2
1 ft2 = 929 cm2
1 in.2 = 6.452 cm2
Volume 1 liter = 1000 cc
= 0.2642 gal
= 61.025 in.3
= 103 cm3
1 ft3 = 144 in.3
= 7.482 gal
= 28.317 liter
= 28,317 cm3
1 acre-ft = 43,560 ft3
1 gal = 3.7854 liter
= 231 in3
= 8 pint

179
 1 m3 = 35.31 ft3
= 103 liter
Density 1 lb/in.3 = 1728 lb/ft3
1 slug/ft3 = 32.174 lb/ft3
= 0.51538 gm/cm3
1 lb/ ft3 = 16.018 kg/m3
1 gm/cm3 = 1000 kg/m3

Angular 2 = 6.2832 radian

1 rad = 57.3 deg
1 rev = 2
1 rpm = 2  rad/min
1 rad/sec = 9.549 rpm

Time 1 min = 60 seconds

1 hour = 3600 seconds
= 60 min
1 day = 24 hours

Speed 1 mph = 88 fpm

= 0.44704 m/s
= 1.467 fps
1 fps = 0.6818 mph
= 0.3048 m/s
1 knot = 0.5144 m/s
= 1.152 mph
1 m/s = 3.6 kph
= 2.24 mph
= 3.28 fps

180
Force, Mass 1 lb = 16 oz
= 444,820 dynes
= 32.174 poundals
= 4.4482 N
= 7000 grains
= 453.6 g
1 slug = 32.174 lb
= 14.594 kg
= 14.594 kg
1 kg = 2.205 lb
= 9.80665 N
= 1 kilopond
1 kip = 1000 lb
1g = 980.665 dynes
1 ton = 2000 lb
= 907.18 kg
1 oz = 28.35 gm
1 metric ton = 1000 kg
1 Newton = 9.8 kgf
= 0.225 lbf
Pressure 1 atm = 1.033 bar
= 33.90 ft of water (at 4C)
= 10.33 m of water (at 4C
= 14.7 psi
= 101,325 N/m2
= 29.921 in. Hg (0C)
= 33.934 ft H2O (60F)
= 760 mm Hg (OC)
= 406.79 in. H2O (39.2F)
= 1.0332 kg/cm2

181
 1 bar = 10 m of water
1 mm Hg = 13.6 kg
(0C)

1 psi = 27.684 inches of water

= 2.036 inches mercury
= 51.715 mm Hg (0 C)
= 0.0731 kg/cm2
1 psf = 47.88 N/m3
1 in. Hg = 13.57 in. H2O (60F)
(60F)
= 0.4898 psi
2
1 N/m = 0.1 dyne/cm2
1 in H20 = 0.0361 psi
= 0.0736 inches mercury
Energy 1 Btu = 778.16 ft-lb
= 251.98 cal
= 1.055 kJ
1 hp-hr = 2544.4 Btu
1J = 1 wt-s
= 1 N-m
= 0.01 bar-dm3
1 hp-s = 550 ft-lb
1 hp-min = 42.4 Btu
= 33,000 ft-lb
1 kw-hr = 3412.2 Btu
= 3600 kJ
1 kJ = 1 kw-s
= 101.92 kg-m
kcal/gmole = 1800 Btu/pmole

182
 1 wt-s = 1 V-amp
1 kw-s = 737.562 ft-lb
1 kw-min = 56.87 Btu
1 atm-ft3 = 2.7194 Btu
1J = 107 ergs
1 ft-lb = 1.3558 J
1 kcal = 4.1668 kJ
1 hp = 0.746 kw
1 kW = 1.34 hp
= 1.32 cv metric horsepower in French
1 PS = 0.986 Hp
1 wt-hr = 860 cal

Entropy, Specific Heat, Gas Constant

1 cal/g-K = 1 Btu/lb-R
1 kcal/kg-K = 1 kcal/kg-R
1 Btu/lb-R = 4.187 kJ/kg-K
Universal Gas Constant
1 pmole-R = 1545.32 ft-lb
= 0.7302 atm-ft3
= 1.9859 Btu
= 10.731 psi-ft3
1 kgmole-K = 8.3143 kJ
= 0.08206 atm-m3
1 gmole-K = 82.057 atm-cm3
= 1.9859 cal
= 83.143 bar-cm3
= 8.3143 J
= 8.3149 x 107 erg
= 0.083143 bar-liter
Standard Gravity g, (as conversion unit)
1 slug = 32.174 fps2-lb
1 psin = 388.1 ips2-lb
1 s2-kg = 9.80665 N-m
2
1 s -gm = 980.665 cm-dynes

183
 REFERENCES

AMTEC. Philippine Agricultural Engineering Standards. Volume I. Agricultural

Machinery Testing and Evaluation Center. College of Engineering and Agro-Industrial
Technology. University of the Philippines, Los Banos, College Laguna.

AMTEC. Philippine Agricultural Engineering Standards. Volume II. Agricultural

Machinery Testing and Evaluation Center. College of Engineering and Agro-Industrial
Technology. University of the Philippines, Los Banos, College Laguna.

Andreas, J. C. 1982. Energy-Efficient Electric Motors. Selection and Application.

Marcel Dekker, Inc. 270 Madison Avenue, New York, New York 10016 USA. 200pp.

Aprovecho Institute. 1984. Fuel Saving Cookstove. GATE/GTZ, Postbox 5180, D-

6236 Eschborn 1, Federal Republic of Germany. 128pp.

ASAE. ASAE Standards 1997. Standard Engineering Practices Data. The Society for
Engineering in Agricultural, Food and Biological Systems. 2950 Niles Road, St.
Joseph, MI 49085-9659 U.S.A. 978pp.

Boost, M. 1992. Refrigeration. CBS Publishers and Distributors. 485 Jain Bhawan
BholaNath Nagar, Delhi. 450 pp.

Brown, R. H. 1956. Farm Electrification. Mc-Graw-Hill Book Company. New York.

U.S.A. 367pp.

Butlig, F. and R. Branzuela. 1988. Handbook of Applied Engineering. Formulas:

Irrigation and soil and Water Conservation. National Book Store. Metro Manila. 90pp.

Campbell, J.K. 1990. Dibble Sticks, Donkeys and Diesel. International Rice Research
Institute. Los Baños, Laguna, Philippines. 329pp.

Cardenas. E. 1989. Fundamentals of Electricity. National Bookstore. Quad alpha

Centrum Bldg. 125 Pioneer St. Mandaluyong City.. 141pp.

CLSU. Training Course Manual on Design, Installation, and Evaluation of

Drip/Sprinkler Irrigation Systems. Training Course Manual. Central Luzon State
University, Munoz, Nueva Ecija. October 1995.

Creamer, R. H. 1984. Machine Design. Third Edition. Addison-Wesley Publishing Co.,

Inc. Reading, Mass. USA. 654pp.

184
Eldridge, Frank R. Wind Machines. The MITRE Energy Resources and Environment
Series. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold Co. 2nd edition. 1980. 215pp.

Fajardo, M. 2001. Simplified Methods on Building Construction. Second Edition. 5138

Merchandizing. 10-A Pangilinan Street, Congressional Avenue. Project 6 diliman,
quezon City. 389pp.

GATE/GTZ. 1986. Solar Energy: Status Report. GATE//GTZ. Postbox 5180. D-6236
Eschborn 1. Federal Republic of Germany. 54pp.

GATE/GTZ. Wind Energy. Postbox 5180, D-6236 Eschborn 1, Federal Republic of

Germany. 1985. 54pp.

Herber, G. 1985. Simple Methods for the Treatment of Drinking Water. GATE/GTZ.
Postbox 5180, D-6236 Eschborn 1, Federal Republic of Germany. 77pp.

Hunt, D. 1983. Farm Power and Machinery Management. Eight Edition. Iowa State
University Press. Ames, Iowa. 352pp.

IRRI. Small Farm Equipment for Developing Countries. Proceedings of the International
Conference on Small Farm Equipment for Developing Countries: Past Experiences and
Future Priorities 2-6 September 1985. The International Rice Research Institute. P.O.
Box 933, Manila, Philippines. 629pp.

Jacob, M. and G. Hawkins. 1957. Element of Heat Transfer. 3 rd Edition. John Wiley
and Sons. New York. 317pp.

Kaupp, A. 1984. Gasification of Rice Hulls. GATE/GTZ, Postbox 5180, D-6236

Eschborn 1, Federal Republic of Germany. 303pp.

Krutz, G., Thompson, L., and P. Claar. 1984. Design of Agricultural Machines. John
Wiley and Sons, Inc. New York, USA. 472pp.

Levinson, I. J. 1978. Machine Design. Reston Publishing Company, Inc. Reston,

Virginia. A Prentice-Hall Company. Reston Virginia. 512pp.

Miller, R and M. R. Miller. 1984. Small Gasoline Engines. Theodore Audel and
Company. Boston. 632pp.

PCARRD. The Philippine Recommends for Irrigation Water Management. Philippine

Council for Agricultural and Natural Resources Research and Development. Los
Banos, Laguna. 120pp.

185
RNAM. Agricultural Machinery Design and Data handbook. (Seeders and Planters).
Regional Network for Agricultural Machinery. Economic and Social Commission for
Asia and the Pacific. United Nation Bldg., Rajadamnem Avenue, Bangkok, Thailand.
October 1991. 137pp.

Sasse, Ludwig. 1984. Biogas Plants: Design and Details of Simple Biogas Plants
GATE/GTZ . Postbox 5180. D-6236 Eschborn 1. Federal Republic of Germany. 85pp.

Smith, H.P. and L.H. Wilkes. 1977. Farm Machinery and Equipment. Sixth Edition.
Tata Mc-Graw Hill Publishing Company LTD. New Delhi, India. 487pp.

Stephenson, G. E. 1984. Small Gasoline Engines. Fourth Edition. Delmar Publishers

Inc. Canada. 279pp.

Schwab, G., Barnes, K., Frevert, R., and T. Edminster. Elementary. 1971. Soil and
Water Engineering. Second Edition. John Wiley and Sons. New York. 316pp.

Schwab, G., Fangmeier, D., Elliot, W., and R. Frevert. 1993. Soil and Water
Conservation Engineering. Fourth Edition. John Wiley and Sons, Inc. New York.
507pp.

Starkey, P. Harnessing and Impelemtns for Animal Traction. GATE/GTZ, Postbox

5180, D-6236 Eschborn 1, Federal Republic of Germany. 245pp.

Tanaka, T. Farm Tractor. Handout Sheet. JICA Agricultural Machinery Management

Course. Japan. 45pp.

Velasco, R. 1997. Handbook of Construction Estimate. Loacan Publishing House.

Metro Manila. 147pp.

Wimberly, J.E. 1983. Technical Handbook for the Paddy Rice Postharvest Industry in
Developing Countries. The International Rice Research Institute. Los Baños, Laguna.
Philippines. 188pp.

186