CHAPTER 2 - ECOSYSTEMS ECOLOGY

A. Learning Objectives

At the end of this unit, the students must have:

1. Described an ecosystem and give some examples;
2. Enumerated the biotic and abiotic components of an ecosystem;
3. Differentiated the structural and functional components of an ecosystem;
4. Traced the flow of energy in an ecosystem;
5. Discussed the laws of thermodynamics;
6. Explained the cycling of materials/nutrients through an ecosystem;
7. Illustrated a food chain, food web, and trophic levels;
8. Define material or biogeochemical cycling;
9. Identified ways by which human activities influence material cycles; and,
10. Identified the types of ecosystems in the Philippines.

B. Content

1. Ecosystem Dynamics

 The Ecosystem:
Ecosystem is defined as any unit that includes all of the organisms (i.e., the
“community”) in a given area interacting with the physical environment so that a flow
of energy leads to clearly defined trophic structure, biotic diversity, and material
cycles (i.e., exchange of materials between living and non-living parts within the
system).

 There are many examples of ecosystems -- a pond, a forest, an estuary, and

grassland. The study of ecosystems mainly consists of the study of certain processes
that link the living, or biotic, components to the non-living, or abiotic,
components.
 Energy transformations and biogeochemical cycling are the two main processes
that comprise the field of ecosystem ecology.
 The Components of the Ecosystem:

There are two components of the ecosystem:

1) Abiotic Component (non-living) - various physical and chemical factors, e.g.,

climatic, geologic and pedologic (soil) components of the environment;

2) Biotic Component (living) - producers, consumers (herbivores, carnivores,

omnivores, detritivores), decomposers (bacteria and fungi).

 The Structural and Functional Components of the Ecosystem:

Structure and function are two major concepts used to describe the roles individual
elements (plants, animals, water, and minerals) play in creating an ecosystem. Elements will
have both structural and functional components.
 Structure refers to the spatial relations of an ecosystem's elements.
 For example in a forest, trees and shrubs will form multi-layered tiers of
structure (dominant, co-dominant, intermediate, and suppressed), which
results from light diffusion through the canopy. This type of layering is
called light stratification. Wildlife will develop niches at different levels
within this forest structure forming a secondary degree of structure, which is
dependent on the first. Other organisms will develop niches based on the
existence of the particular wildlife forming a third layer of structure
dependent on the first two. Therefore, all layers (i.e. living organisms) are
dependent on one another in providing the structure of the niche they
inhabit.

 Function refers to the processes that transform energy and cycle materials
(nutrients) through and among all elements (living and non-living) within the
structure of an ecosystem.
  Compounds, such as water, carbon, nitrogen and phosphorus, are all cycled through
an ecosystem. Organisms, by the mere nature of their existence, will convert (cycle)
compounds into forms that are usable by other organisms. This small conversion of
energy is one link in the overall function of an ecosystem. From transforming
energy that is already within the system plus the daily addition of new energy from
the sun, an overall buildup of biomass begins to develop. Ecosystem function is
vital to the long-term growth and development of biomass.

 Energy Flow and Material Cycling through Ecosystems:

 As shown in the figure below, useful energy flows through ecosystems in a one-way
path, entering living things from the physical world, passing from one organism to
another and eventually escaping back to the physical environment in a less useful
form (due to entropy).
 In most ecosystems, energy comes from sunlight, generated by nuclear chain
reactions in the sun.
 In all ecosystems, energy eventually escapes from living organisms into the
surrounding physical world, usually as heat.
 Heat energy passed into the environment is lost forever to the living world, since it is
such a diffuse form of energy that it cannot be used by living organisms.

Diagram of energy flow in an ecosystem.

(Source: http://www.umich.edu/GCL/paper_to_html/ecosystem.html)

 Laws of Thermodynamics:

 Before we go on to talk about the biological energy transfer system, we need to know
the basic knowledge of the physical chemical level of energy transfer -
 thermodynamic (thermo = energy, dynamic = movement) - the study of energy
transfer.

 First law of thermodynamics:

1. Energy is neither created nor destroyed, but is only transformed.
2. In any process, the total energy of a closed system remains constant.
3. You cannot get something from nothing.
 Second law of thermodynamics:
1. Any closed system tends spontaneously toward increasing disorder (disordered
energy = entropy).
2. In any energy conversion some energy is transferred to the surroundings as
heat.
3. No real process can be 100% efficient. There can never be a perpetual motion
machine.

 Trophic Levels, Food Chain and Food Web:

Each ecosystem has a trophic structure that represents the different feeding
relationships that determine the route of energy flow and the pattern of chemical
cycling. Ecologists divide the species in a community or ecosystem into different
trophic levels based on their main source of nutrition.

o The term Trophic level is used to locate the position or level of an organism
during its energy-seeking activities.

 The five trophic levels are:

A. Producers. Autotrophs (usually photosynthetic) are the organisms that

support all other trophic levels either directly or indirectly by synthesizing
sugars and other organic molecules using light energy. Some examples of these
include terrestrial plants, aquatic photosynthetic protists, and cyanobacteria. An
exception is communities of organisms living around hot water, deep-sea vents
where producers are chemosynthetic bacteria that oxidize H2S (driven by
geothermal energy).

B. Primary consumers. At the second trophic level are the herbivores, animals
that eat plants. Some examples are terrestrial insects, snails, grazing mammals,
seed-eating birds, aquatic zooplankton, and some fish.

C. Secondary consumers. At the third trophic level are the carnivores (meat
eaters) that eat herbivores. Just some of the many examples of this group include
terrestrial spiders, frogs, insects-eating birds, lions, many fish, and sea-stars.
They are the secondary consumers of ecosystems. Some animals like bears and
humans eat both plants and animals and are called omnivores.

D. Tertiary consumers. These are the carnivores that eat other carnivores.

E. Detritivores and decomposers. These are the consumers that derive energy
from detritus, organic wastes and dead organisms that are produced at all
 trophic levels. Some examples of decomposers include the bacteria and fungi.
Also included are detritivores such as worms, arthropods and vultures. This
level often forms a major link between primary producers and higher-level
consumers, and is important components of the recycling process.

Trophic levels in an ecosystem

(Source:www.sci.sdsu.edu/classes/bio100/Lectures/Lect22/lect22.html)

 Food Chain and Food Web:

 A food chain can be thought of as a transfer of food from trophic level to trophic
level. Food chains rarely are unbranched since several different primary consumers
may feed on the same plant species and a primary consumer may eat several species
of plants. The feeding relationships are usually woven into elaborate food webs
within an ecosystem.
 Producers in forest ecosystems support two main food webs: 1) grazing food web
that stems directly from the living plants, and 2) detritus food web that begins with
dead plant parts and animal wastes.

 Material or Biogeochemical Cycles:

 Material or biogeochemical cycles (literally, life-earth-chemical cycles) are nutrient

circuits involving both biotic and abiotic components of ecosystems.
 Water is an important vehicle for transfer of chemicals and itself moves in a global
hydrologic cycle.
 Elements such as carbon, oxygen, sulfur, and nitrogen have gaseous forms, thus,
their cycles are global in character and the atmosphere serves as a reservoir.
Elements less mobile in the environment like phosphorus, potassium, calcium and
trace elements generally cycle on a more localized scale over the short term. The soil
serves as the main reservoir for these elements.
 Despite an inexhaustible influx of energy in the form of sunlight, continuation of life
depends on recycling of essential chemical elements. These elements are continually
cycled between the environment and living organisms as nutrients are absorbed and
wastes released.
 The sun supplies ecosystems with energy, but there are no extra-terrestrial sources of
the chemical elements life requires. Ecosystems depend on a recycling of these
chemical elements. Even while an individual organism is alive, much of its chemical
sock is rotated continuously as nutrients are acquired and waste products are released.
 Atoms present in the complex molecules of an organism at the time of its death are
returned in simpler compounds to the atmosphere, water, or soil by the action of
bacterial and fungal detrivores.
 This decomposition replenishes the pools of inorganic nutrients that lands and other
producers use to build new organic matter. In a sense we only borrow an ecosystem’s
chemical elements, returning what is left in our bodies after we die.
 The Types of Biogeochemical Cycles and the Ways by which Humans Influence
them:

Biogeochemical cycles of particular interest in ecology are:

1. The Hydrologic (Water) Cycle

 The Earth is composed of 70% water (marine and freshwater).
 The path of water through our environment is perhaps the most
familiar material cycle.
 Most of the Earth’s water is stored in the oceans, but solar energy
continually evaporates this water, and wind distributes water vapour
around the globe.

The different processes of hydrologic cycle are as follows:

 Precipitation is condensed water vapor that falls to the Earth's surface. Most
precipitation occurs as rain, but also includes snow, hail, fog drip, graupel, and
sleet.
 Canopy interception is the precipitation that is intercepted by plant foliage
and eventually evaporates back to the atmosphere rather than falling to the
ground.
 Runoff includes the variety of ways by which water moves across the land.
This includes both surface runoff and channel runoff.
 Infiltration is the flow of water from the ground surface into the ground.
Once infiltrated, the water becomes soil moisture or groundwater.
 Subsurface flow is the flow of water underground, in the vadose zone and
aquifers. Subsurface water may return to the surface (e.g. as a spring or by
being pumped) or eventually seep into the oceans.
 Evaporation is the transformation of water from liquid to gas phases as it
moves from the ground or bodies of water into the overlying atmosphere. The
source of energy for evaporation is primarily solar radiation. Evaporation
often implicitly includes transpiration from plants, though together they are
specifically referred to as evapotranspiration. Approximately 90% of
atmospheric water comes from evaporation, while the remaining 10% is from
transpiration.
 Sublimation is the state change directly from solid water (snow or ice) to
water vapor.
 Advection is the movement of water — in solid, liquid, or vapor states —
through the atmosphere. Without advection, water that evaporated over the
oceans could not precipitate over land.
 Condensation is the transformation of water vapor to liquid water droplets in
the air, producing clouds and fog.
 Ways by which human activities affect the water cycle:
1. Withdrawal of large quantities of fresh water from streams, lakes, and
underground sources which could lead to groundwater depletion or intrusion
of ocean salt water into underground water supplies;
2. Clearing of vegetation from land for agriculture, mining, road, and building
construction, and other activities and sometimes cover the land with buildings,
concrete, or asphalt which could increase runoff, reduce infiltration, increase
the risk of flooding, and accelerate soil erosion and landslides; and
3. Modifying water quality by adding nutrients such as phosphates and nitrates,
and other pollutants.

2. The Carbon-Oxygen Cycle

 Carbon is a major ingredient of all organic molecules.
 The reciprocal metabolic processes of photosynthesis and respiration
are mainly responsible for the cycling of carbon between the biotic and
abiotic world.
 Materials that store carbon, including geologic formation and standing
forests are known as carbon sinks.
 When carbon is released from this sink, as when we burn fossil fuels
and inject CO2 into the atmosphere, or when we clear extensive forests,
natural recycling systems may not be able to keep up.
 Alternatively, extra atmospheric CO2 could support faster plant growth,
speeding some of the recycling processes.

 The basic cycle begins when photosynthesizing plants use carbon dioxide
(CO2) found in the atmosphere or dissolved in water.
 Some of this carbon is incorporated in plant tissue as carbohydrates, fats, and
protein; the rest is returned to the atmosphere or water primarily by aerobic
respiration.
 Carbon is thus passed on to herbivores that eat the plants and thereby use,
rearrange, and degrade the carbon compounds.
  Much of it is given off as CO2, primarily as a by-product of aerobic
respiration, but some is stored in animal tissue and is passed on to carnivores
feeding on the herbivores.
 Ultimately, all the carbon compounds are broken down by decomposition, and
the carbon is released as CO2 to be used again by plants.
 Some carbon is removed from circulation as deposits of coal, oil, natural gas,
and limestone. The burning of fossil fuels adds additional carbon dioxide to
the atmosphere.

 Ways by which human activities disrupt the carbon cycle:

1. Cutting of trees and other plants which absorb CO2 through photosynthesis
faster than they can grow back; and
2. Addition of large amounts of CO2 by burning fossil fuels and wood.

3. The Nitrogen Cycle:

 As an ingredient of amino acids and other organic compounds essential
to life, nitrogen is a key chemical in all ecosystems.
 Earth’s atmosphere is almost 78% N2 gas, a stable diatomic molecule in
the air, but that form of nitrogen cannot use by plants.
 It is in all amino acids, is incorporated into proteins, and is present in
the bases that make up nucleic acids, such as DNA and RNA.

 In plants, much of the nitrogen is used in chlorophyll molecules which are essential
for photosynthesis and further growth. The different processes are as follows:
 Nitrogen fixation/Conversion of N2. The conversion of nitrogen (N2) from the
atmosphere into a form readily available to plants and hence to animals and
humans is an important step in the nitrogen cycle, that determines the supply
of this essential nutrient. There are four ways to convert N2 (atmospheric
nitrogen gas) into more chemically reactive forms: 1) Biological fixation:
some symbiotic bacteria (most often associated with leguminous plants) and
some free-living bacteria are able to fix nitrogen and assimilate it as organic
nitrogen. An example of mutualistic nitrogen fixing bacteria are the Rhizobium
 bacteria, which live in legume root nodules. These species are diazotrophs. An
example of the free-living bacteria is Azotobacter; 2) Industrial N-fixation : in
the Haber-Bosch process, N2 is converted together with hydrogen gas (H2) into
ammonia (NH3) fertilizer and explosives; 3) Combustion of fossil fuels :
automobile engines and thermal power plants, which release NOx; and 4)
Other processes : Additionally, the formation of NO from N2 and O2 due to
photons and especially lightning, are important for atmospheric chemistry, but
not for terrestrial or aquatic nitrogen turnover.
 Assimilation. Plants can absorb nitrate or ammonium ions from the soil via
their root hairs. If nitrate is absorbed, it is first reduced to nitrite ions and then
ammonium ions for incorporation into amino acids, nucleic acids, and
chlorophyll. In plants which have a mutualistic relationship with rhizobia,
some nitrogen is assimilated in the form of ammonium ions directly from the
nodules. Animals, fungi, and other heterotrophic organisms absorb nitrogen as
amino acids, nucleotides and other small organic molecules.
 Ammonification. When a plant or animal dies, or an animal excretes, the
initial form of nitrogen is organic. Bacteria, or in some cases, fungi, converts
the organic nitrogen within the remains back into ammonia, a process called
ammonification or mineralization.
 Nitrification. The conversion of ammonia to nitrates is performed primarily
by soil-living bacteria and other nitrifying bacteria. The primary stage of
nitrification, the oxidation of ammonia (NH3) is performed by bacteria such as
the Nitrosomonas species, which converts ammonia to nitrites (NO2-). Other
bacterial species, such as the Nitrobacter, are responsible for the oxidation of
the nitrites into nitrates (NO3-).

 Denitrification. Denitrification is the reduction of nitrites back into the

largely inert nitrogen gas (N2), completing the nitrogen cycle. This process is
performed by bacterial species such as the Pseudomonas and Clostridium in
anaerobic conditions. They use the nitrate as an electron acceptor in the place
of oxygen during respiration.
 Ways by which human activities affect the nitrogen cycle:
1. Addition of large amounts of nitric acid (NO) to the atmosphere when burning any
fuel. In the atmosphere, this gas can be converted to nitrogen dioxide gas (NO2)
and nitric acid (HNO3), which can return to the earth’s surface as damaging acid
deposition, commonly called acid rain;
2. Addition of nitrous oxide (N2O) to the atmosphere through the action of anaerobic
bacteria on livestock wastes and commercial inorganic fertilizers applied to the
soil. This gas can warm the troposphere and deplete the ozone in the stratosphere;
3. Releasing of large quantities of nitrogen stored in soils and plants as gaseous
compounds into the troposphere through destruction of forests, grasslands, and
wetlands;
4. Upsetting of aquatic ecosystems by adding excess nitrates in agricultural runoff
and discharges from municipal sewage systems;
5. Removal of nitrogen from topsoil when harvesting of nitrogen-rich crops, irrigate
crops, and burn or clear grasslands and forests before planting crops; and
6. Addition of nitrogen into the air, soil, and water mostly from human activities is
beginning to affect the biodiversity of terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems by
shifting their species composition towards species that can thrive on increased
supplies of nitrogen nutrients.

4. The Phosphorus Cycle:

  Minerals become available to organism after they are released from
rocks.
 Two mineral cycles of particular significance to organisms are
phosphorus and sulphur.
 At the cellular level energy-rich phosphorus-containing compounds are
primary participants in energy-transfer reactions, in the form of ATP.
 The amount of available phosphorus in an environment, therefore, can
dramatically affect productivity.
 Abundant phosphorus stimulates lush plants and algal growth, making
phosphorus a major contribution to water pollution.
 The phosphorus cycle begins when phosphorus compounds leach from
rocks and minerals over long periods of time. Because phosphorus has
no atmospheric form, it is usually transported in water.
 Producer organism take in inorganic phosphorus, incorporate it into
organic molecules, and then passed it on to consumers.
 Phosphorus returns to the environment by decomposition.
 An important aspect of the phosphorus cycle is the very long time it
takes for phosphorus atoms to pass through it.
 Deep ocean sediments are significant phosphorus sinks of extreme
longevity.
 Phosphate ores that now are mined to make detergents and inorganic
fertilizers represent exposed ocean sediments that are millennia old.
 You can think of our present use of phosphates, which are washed out
into the river systems and eventually the oceans, as an accelerated
mobilization of phosphorus from source to sink.
 Aquatic ecosystems often are dramatically affected in the process
because excess phosphates can stimulate explosive growth of algae and
photosynthetic bacteria populations (algae blooms), offsetting
ecosystem stability.

 Ways by which human activities affect the phosphorus cycle:

1. Mining of large quantities of phosphate rock to make commercial inorganic
fertilizers;
2. Reducing the available phosphate in tropical soils when cutting down areas of
tropical forests; and
3. Disruption of aquatic ecosystems with phosphates from runoff of animal
wastes and fertilizers and discharges from sewage treatment systems.

5. The Sulfur Cycle:

 Sulfur plays a vital role inn organisms, especially as a minor essential
component of proteins.
 Sulfur compounds are important determinants of the acidity of rainfall,
surface water and soil.
 In addition, sulfur in particles and tiny airborne droplets may act as
critical regulators or global climate.
 Most of the Earth’s sulfur is tied up underground in rocks and minerals
such as iron disulphide (pyrite) or calcium sulphate (gypsum).
Weathering, emissions form deep sea flow vents and volcanic
eruptions release these inorganic sulfur into the air and water.
 The sulfur cycle is complicated by the large number of oxidation states
the element can assume, producing hydrogen sulphide (H2S), sulfur
dioxide (SO2), and sulphate ion (SO2-2), among others.
 Inorganic processes are responsible for many of these transformations,
but living organisms, especially bacteria, also sequester sulfur in
biogenic deposits or release it into the environment.
 Which if the several kinds of sulfur bacteria that prevail in any given
situation depends on oxygen concentrations, pH, and light levels.

 Human activities also release large quantities of sulfur, primarily

though burning fossil fuels.
  Total yearly anthropogenic sulfur emissions rival those of natural
processes and acid rain (caused by sulphuric acid produced as a result
of fossil fuel use) is a serious problem in many areas.
 Sulfur dioxide and sulphate aerosols cause human health problems,
damage buildings and vegetation, and reduced visibility.
 They also absorb ultra violet (UV) radiation and create cloud cover
that cools cities and maybe off setting greenhouse effects of rising CO2
concentrations.

II.Major Types of Ecosystems in the Philippines

The biosphere consists of the relatively thin layer of soil, water, and atmosphere where
life is found on the earth. It is composed of biotic factors (living organisms, including
individual plants and animals, and abiotic factors (materials and forces), such as
temperature, humidity, elevation, precipitation, wind, light, shading, soil chemistry, and
atmospheric pressure. The biosphere extends from Pacific Ocean Mariana Trench depths of
about 10,000 meters (≈32,800 feet) to Himalayan Mountain elevations of almost the same
extent. Compared to the size of the earth itself, the biosphere is analogous to the skin of an
apple-a very limited life-support system encircling the planet.
For purpose of discussion, the biosphere can be divided into aquatic ecosystems and
terrestrial ecosystems.

 Aquatic Ecosystems:

More than 70% of the earth is covered by water, and close to 97% of that water is
saltwater in the planet’s oceans, seas, and estuaries. The remaining 3% is freshwater, most of
which is frozen in ice caps and glaciers (76%) or stored underground (23%). There are two
types of aquatic ecosystems: Freshwater ecosystems and Saltwater ecosystems:

Credit: Timothy Bralower

A. Freshwater ecosystems:

Freshwater ecosystems are the inland aquatic ecosystems that usually has a salinity
less than (< 500 mg/L), cover less than 1% of the earth’s surface and the most familiar
freshwaters are streams, creeks, rivers, and lakes. Not only are they most visible, but they
play a vital role in supporting fish and wildlife as well as supplying drinking water for
humans and livestock. Also, the continuous movement of water provides fresh nutrients
into the ecosystems.
Freshwater ecosystem can be divided into Lentic Habitat and Lotic Habitat.

Lentic Habitat - Calm freshwater habitat or standing water; refers to standing or relatively
still water; Latin lentus – sluggish
 Ponds – a body of standing water, either natural or man-made, smaller than a lake
 Lakes – a body of relatively still freshwater of considerable size, localized in a basin,
that is surrounded by land
 Swamps – a freshwater wetland that is forested
 Marsh – contains non-woody plants
 Bog – a wetland that accumulates peat, a deposit of dead plant material – often
mosses and in a majority of cases, Sphagnum moss

Lotic Habitat - Washed or the running water; Latin lotus – to wash

 Spring – kind of freshwater habitat where water flows out of the ground
 River – body of water with current moving in one general direction
 As a river flows down a mountain in may broaden, become warmer,
wider, slower, and decrease in oxygen
 A river changes with the land and climate in runs through
 Stream – a thin body of water which has a continuous flow of water, often referred to
as a creek or a brook
B. Saltwater (Coastal and Marine) ecosystems:

The fact that ocean ecosystems dominate our planet is most clearly evident in
spacecraft digital imagery showing the earth as a blue, mostly water-covered planet
suspended in space. Because of their immense mass and heat capacity, oceans and seas
serve to buffer the temperature extremes that would occur without them. As a result,
average temperatures on earth are continuously favorable to life at almost all latitudes, the
only exceptions being the North and South Poles where only a few species thrive. The
stored heat in marine water prevents them from freezing except in shallow coastal
embayment. Saltwater habitats are therefore beneficial year-round to marine plant and
animal life. Even in relatively cold Antarctic Ocean waters, prolific populations of very
small aquatic plants and animals play an important role in supporting fishes, squids, seals,
and whales.
Earth’s oceans also act as a sink for carbon dioxide, slowly dissolving quantities of
the gas added to the planet’s atmosphere by both natural processes and industrial
developments. Although the earth’s level of atmospheric carbon dioxide are rising, due
mainly to the combustion of fossil fuels, they would be rising even faster if the oceans
and seas were not performing this function.

Coastal Ecosystems:
 Are regions of remarkable biological productivity and high accessibility
 provide a wide array of goods and services: they host the world’s primary ports of
commerce;
 primary producers of fish, shellfish, and seaweed for both human and animal
consumption;
 a considerable source of fertilizer, pharmaceuticals, cosmetics, household
products, and construction materials
 store and cycle nutrients, filter pollutants from inland freshwater systems, and
help to protect shorelines from erosion and storms.

 Seagrasses Beds
 o Composed of Angiosperms (flowering plants) that live life entirely underwater
o Primary productivity is among the highest measured (500 - 4000 g C/m2/year)
o Important feeding and refuge habitat for fishery species (shrimp, scallops,
fish)
o Seagrasses act as sediment stabilizers help to filter water
 Salt Marsh
o Salt marshes are intertidal flats covered by grassy vegetation.
o Most commonly found in protected areas with a moderate tidal range, such as
the landward side of barrier islands.
o Flood daily at high tide and then drain through a series of channels.
 Sandy/Beach Shore
o Sandy or beach shores are inhabited by millions of very small and important
critters or invertebrates called macrofauna and meiofauna.
o These beach invertebrates are also considered indicators of environmental
change because they spend so much time in close contact with the sand grains
and potential pollutants.
 Tidal Flats
o found on coastlines and on the shores of lagoons and estuaries in intertidal
areas (flooded at high tide and always exposed to air at low tides)
o sandwiched between marine, freshwater and land environments and are found
in areas where there are low slopes and regular flooding occurs
o these are areas where sediments from river runoff, or inflow from tides,
deposit mud or sand
 Mangrove
o an assemblage of tropical trees and shrubs that inhabit the coastal intertidal
zone
o mangrove community is composed of plant species whose special adaptations
allow them to survive the variable flooding and salinity stress conditions
imposed by the coastal environment
 Estuary
o a semi-enclosed (partially enclosed) coastal body of water (with one or more
rivers or streams flowing into it) which has a free connection to the open sea
o coastal wetlands where sea water and fresh water mix, found mostly in the
mouths of rivers
o strongly affected by tidal action and within it sea water is mixed or diluted
with freshwater from land drainage
o high nutrient levels in estuarine waters provide a rich "soup" that nourish
plants and animals making estuaries one of the most productive ecosystems on
earth.

Marine Ecosystem
 Ocean
o The largest of all the
ecosystems, oceans are very
large bodies of water that
dominate the Earth's
surface.
o Ocean regions are separated
into separate zones:
intertidal, pelagic, abyssal,
 and benthic: all four zones have a great diversity of species (the ocean
contains the richest diversity of species even though it contains fewer
species than there are on land)
 Coral Reefs
o widely distributed in warm shallow waters and can be found as barriers
along continents (e.g., the Great Barrier Reef, Australia), fringing islands, and atolls.
o the dominant organisms in coral reefs are corals: corals are interesting
since they consist of both algae (zooanthellae) and tissues of animal
polyp.
o Reef waters tend to be nutritionally poor, corals obtain nutrients through
the algae via photosynthesis and also by extending tentacles to obtain
plankton from the water .

 Terrestrial Ecosystems:

Terrestrial ecosystems are land-based environments, either natural or artificial.

Global examples of natural ecosystems are Alaska Tundra, a Canadian coniferous forest, or
an African desert. Examples of artificial ecosystems are a cornfield in Iowa, a tree plantation
in England, or an urban center such as Toronto, Canada. Like aquatic ecosystems, terrestrial
systems range from very small to very large. A small park or woodlot near your home- or all
of Australia- can be considered a terrestrial ecosystem.

 Ecosystems may be described as undisturbed or disturbed. Undisturbed ecosystems

are those largely unaffected by human activities, including permanent settlement,
home building, tree harvesting, mining, and agriculture. Disturbed ecosystems have
been significantly changed either by a natural event such as a flood or volcano or by
human actions such as a cutting down a forest or building a highway or dam.

 Examples of undisturbed ecosystems include some Pacific Northwest old-growth

forests and parts of temperate-zone rain forests in Canada’s Clayoqout Sound.
Another important and yet undisturbed terrestrial ecosystem is the Arctic National
Wildlife Refuge, part of which is being considered for oil and gas development.
Ecologically, disturbed systems include England’s River Thames, Chesapeake Bay,
and Alaska’s Prince William Sound.
  Biomes. A biome is the totality of similar terrestrial ecosystems that may span many
of the planet’s continents and islands. Each biome has distinctive climatic, physical,
and biological features. When represented on the map, the earth’s biomes appear as a
planetary patchwork quilt of like ecosystems.
World Map of coverage of 14 terrestrail biomes. The 14 terrestrial biomes adapted from
Olson et al. (2001).
The following are the types of biomes presented below are the ones present in the
Philippines:
A. Tropical rainforest. The tropical rain forest biome is found near the equator,
spanning continents and islands mainly between 23.50N and 23.50S latitude. Annual
rainfall ranges between 2,000 and 4,500 mm (≈ 80 to 180 inches), although dry
seasons less than three months long also occur. The rain forest supports complex
multi-level tree canopies and lush, diverse plant and animal communities. Although
rain forests account for about 8 percent of the world’s lands area, ecologists believe
80 percent or more of all earth’s species live in that biome. Rain forests trees,
 although not conifers, are called “evergreens” since leaf fall and regeneration occurs
year-round. Fauna includes monkeys, bats, sloths, snakes, frogs, and innumerable
insect species. Major tropical rain forest formations exist in Brazil, Peru, Ecuador,
Colombia, Panama, Costa Rica, Nicaragua, Honduras, Guatemala, Congo, Gabon,
Guinea, Myanmar, Nigeria, Malaysia, the Philippines, Vietnam, Cameroon, and
Papua new Guinea. The Luzon Rain Forests is a tropical moist
broadleaf forest ecoregion on the island of Luzon.

B. Tropical deciduous forest. Tropical deciduous forest, another equatorial biome, is

similar to tropical
woodland and
thornscrub but occurs
at moderate
elevations where
rainfall usually
exceeds 500 mm (≈
20 inches) a year.
The trees, which are
taller than thornscrub
and cacti, are
sensitive to
temperatures
approaching freezing.
This biome occurs in
southeastern Brazil
and India. Animal life native to this biome includes monkeys, parrots, Asian tigers,
and the American jaguars. Most of the Philippine Archipelago is covered
with tropical deciduous forests receiving high levels of precipitation.

C. Montane. Montane, the mountain biome, makes up one-fifth of the world’s

landscape. Its ecology is highly
variable owing to significant
changes in temperature, cloud,
and rainfall patterns with
increasing elevation. Indeed,
distinctly different vegetative
zones are seen in mountainous
environments, depending on
their elevation above sea level.
The sequence of changes in
plant life in the progression to
higher elevation mimics the
pattern found from the equator
to the poles. For example, temperate grasslands that normally occur north of the
Tropic of Cancer and south of the Tropic Capricorn occur also in alpine (high-
elevation) ecosystem. Montane fauna differ greatly as well, depending on a
mountain’s latitude and elevation. Overall, the diversity of plant and animal life
decreases with increasing elevation, paralleling what occurs at higher and higher
latitudes in other biomes. Mt. Palali, Sierra Madre Mountain Range, Luzon Island
is an example of Montane Forest in the Philippines.
  Urban and Human Ecosystems:

Urban ecosystems are the ecosystem

dominated by high-density residential and
commercial buildings such as cities, towns,
and urban strips constructed by humans. This
is the growth in the urban population and the
supporting built infrastructure has affected
both urban environments and also on areas
which surround urban areas.
The idea of the city as an ecosystem
in the biological sense is applied most
literally in the field of urban ecology, which
sees the city as both a ‘system’ and a ‘natural’ entity.

Urban ecology is the study of ecosystems that include human living in cities and
urbanizing landscape. It is an interdisciplinary field that aims to understand how human and
ecological process can coexist in human-dominated systems and help societies with their
efforts to become more sustainable with the application of the normative theories of
sustainable urban planning and development.

III.Urban Effects on Environment

 Urban people change their environment through their consumption of
food, energy, water and land
 Humans are the driving force behind urban ecology and influence the
environment in a variety of ways
o Such as modifying land surfaces and waterways, introducing
foreign species and altering biogeochemical cycles
o Other effect can be more gradual such as the change in global
climate due to urbanization
 Modification of land and waterways:
 Humans place high demand on land not only to build urban centers,
but also to build surrounding suburban areas for housing.
 Expanding cities and sub-urban areas necessitate corresponding
deforestation to meet the land-use and resource requirements of
urbanization.
 Modification can come in the form of dams, artificial canals, and
even the reversal of rivers.
 Trade, shipping and spread of invasive species:
 Both local shipping and long-distance trade are required to meet
the resource demands important in maintain urban areas.
 Carbon dioxide emissions form the transport of goods also
contribute to accumulating greenhouse gases and nutrient deposits
in the soil and air or urban environment.
 Increased transportation between urban centers furthers the
incidental movement of animal and plant species.
  Introduced invasive species often have no natural predators and
pose a substantial threat to the dynamics of existing ecological
population in the new environment they are introduced.

 Effects on Biogeochemical Pathways:

 Urbanization results in a large demand for chemical use by
industries, constructions, agriculture and energy providing services.
 Such demands have a substantial impact on the biogeochemical
cycles as mentioned that could result in phenomena such as acid
rain, eutrophication and global warming.
 Prevent nutrient from returning to the soil, water and atmosphere.

IV..References

BOTKIN, D.B. & E.A. KELLER. 1998. Environmental Science: Earth as a Living Planet (2nd ed.).
John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York.
DEPARTMENT OF ENVIRONMENT AND NATURAL RESOURCES (DENR) & UNITED
NATIONS ENVIRONMENT PROGRAMME (UNEP). 1997. Philippine Biodiversity: An
Assessment and Action Plan. Bookmark, Inc., Makati City, Philippines.
ENGER, E. & B. SMITH. 1999. Environmental Science: A study of Interrelationships. McGraw-Hill
Book Co., Singapore.
HALLARE, A. 2001. General Ecology: Concepts and Selected Laboratory Exercises. Busybook
Distributors, Sampaloc, Manila.
JOHNSON, G. 2003. The Living World (3rd ed.). McGraw-Hill Companies, New York.
MEDINA, C., M. ZAFARALLA, Z. SIERRA, V. CUEVAS, D. MACANDOG & C. CERVANCIA.
n.d. ENS 201: Ecosystem Structure and Dynamics. University of the Philippines Open
University.
MILLER, G. TYLLER, JR. 2005. Living in the Environment: Principles, Connections, and Solutions
(14th ed.). Brooks/Cole Publishing Co., Singapore.
ODUM, E. 1971. Fundamentals of Ecology (3rd ed.). W. B. Saunders Co., Philadelphia.
SMITH, R.L. & T. SMITH. 1998. Elements of Ecology (4th ed.). The Benjamin/Cummings
Publishing Company, Inc., California.
YADAV, M. 2003. Ecology. Discovery Publishing House, New Delhi.

You have reached the last part of this unit. I hope you have learned a lot and understood all
the basics in ecosystems and reviewed on the cycling of materials and nutrients through an ecosystem
before we proceed to another chapter. Thank you for your efforts and consideration in this mode of
learning.

Keep it up! Stay hydrated and sanitize always. Thank you and God Bless!

“Educating the mind without educating the heart is no education at all.” -Aristotle