10/6/22, 1:48 PM Universe - Wikipedia

Universe
The universe (Latin: universus) is all of space and time[a] and their contents,[10] including planets,
Universe
stars, galaxies, and all other forms of matter and energy. The Big Bang theory is the prevailing
cosmological description of the development of the universe. According to this theory, space and
time emerged together 13.787 ± 0.020  billion years ago,[11] and the universe has been expanding
ever since the Big Bang. While the spatial size of the entire universe is unknown,[3] it is possible to
measure the size of the observable universe, which is approximately 93 billion light-years in
diameter at the present day.

The earliest cosmological models of the universe were developed by ancient Greek and Indian
philosophers and were geocentric, placing Earth at the center.[12][13] Over the centuries, more
precise astronomical observations led Nicolaus Copernicus to develop the heliocentric model with
the Sun at the center of the Solar System. In developing the law of universal gravitation, Isaac
Newton built upon Copernicus's work as well as Johannes Kepler's laws of planetary motion and
Tycho Brahe was a Danish
observations by Tycho Brahe.
astronomer, known for his
Further observational improvements led to the realization that the Sun is one of a accurate and comprehensive
few hundred
astronomical
billion stars in the Milky Way, which is one of a few hundred billion galaxies in the universe. Many observations.
Born in
of the stars in a galaxy have planets. At the largest scale, galaxies are distributed uniformly Scania,
and the which became
part ofscales,
same in all directions, meaning that the universe has neither an edge nor a center. At smaller Sweden inThe the nextUltra-Deep Field image shows
Hubble
galaxies are distributed in clusters and superclusters which form immense filamentscentury, and voidsTycho
in wasof the
some well
most remote galaxies visible with
space, creating a vast foam-like structure.[14] Discoveries in the early 20th century haveknown in his lifetime
suggested present as an
technology, each consisting of billions
that the universe had a beginning and that space has been expanding since then[15] at astronomer,
an increasing astrologer, and
of stars. (Apparent image area about 1/79 that
l h h b
rate.[16] of a full moon)[1]
Age (within 13.799 ± 0.021 billion
According to the Big Bang theory, the energy and matter initially present have become less dense as
the universe expanded. After an initial accelerated expansion called the inflationary epoch at around Lambda-CDM years[2]
10−32 seconds, and the separation of the four known fundamental forces, the universe gradually model)
cooled and continued to expand, allowing the first subatomic particles and simple atoms to form. Diameter Unknown.[3] Diameter of
Dark matter gradually gathered, forming a foam-like structure of filaments and voids under the the observable universe:
influence of gravity. Giant clouds of hydrogen and helium were gradually drawn to the places where 8.8 × 1026 m
dark matter was most dense, forming the first galaxies, stars, and everything else seen today. (28.5 Gpc or 93 Gly)[4]

From studying the movement of galaxies, it has been discovered that the universe contains much Mass (ordinary At least 1053 kg[5]
more matter than is accounted for by visible objects; stars, galaxies, nebulas and interstellar gas. matter)
This unseen matter is known as dark matter[17] (dark means that there is a wide range of strong Average density 9.9 x 10−30 g/cm3[6]
indirect evidence that it exists, but we have not yet detected it directly). The ΛCDM model is the (including the
most widely accepted model of the universe. It suggests that about 69.2% ± 1.2% [2015] of the mass
contribution from
and energy in the universe is a cosmological constant (or, in extensions to ΛCDM, other forms of
energy)
dark energy, such as a scalar field) which is responsible for the current expansion of space, and
about 25.8% ± 1.1% [2015] is dark matter.[18] Ordinary ('baryonic') matter is therefore only Average 2.72548 K (-270.4 °C or
4.84% ± 0.1% [2015] of the physical universe.[18] Stars, planets, and visible gas clouds only form temperature -454.8 °F)[7]
about 6% of the ordinary matter.[19] Main contents Ordinary (baryonic) matter
(4.9%)

There are many competing hypotheses about the ultimate fate of the universe and about what, if
Dark matter (26.8%)

anything, preceded the Big Bang, while other physicists and philosophers refuse to speculate,
doubting that information about prior states will ever be accessible. Some physicists have suggested Dark energy (68.3%)[8]
various multiverse hypotheses, in which our universe might be one among many universes that Shape Flat with a 0.4% margin of
likewise exist.[3][20][21] error[9]

Contents
Definition
Etymology
Synonyms
Chronology and the Big Bang
Physical properties
Size and regions
Age and expansion
Spacetime
Shape
Support of life
Composition

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universe 1/19
10/6/22, 1:48 PM Universe - Wikipedia
Dark energy
Dark matter
Ordinary matter
Particles
Hadrons
Leptons
Photons
Cosmological models
Model of the universe based on general relativity
Multiverse hypothesis
Historical conceptions
Mythologies
Philosophical models
Astronomical concepts
See also
References
Bibliography
External links

Definition
The physical universe is defined as all of space and time[a] (collectively referred to as spacetime)
and their contents.[10] Such contents comprise all of energy in its various forms, including
electromagnetic radiation and matter, and therefore planets, moons, stars, galaxies, and the
contents of intergalactic space.[22][23][24] The universe also includes the physical laws that influence
energy and matter, such as conservation laws, classical mechanics, and relativity.[25]

The universe is often defined as "the totality of existence", or everything that exists, everything that
has existed, and everything that will exist.[25] In fact, some philosophers and scientists support the 0:50
inclusion of ideas and abstract concepts—such as mathematics and logic—in the definition of the
universe.[27][28][29] The word universe may also refer to concepts such as the cosmos, the world, Hubble Space Telescope – Ultra deep field
and nature.[30][31] galaxies to Legacy field zoom out

(video 00:50; May 2, 2019)

Etymology
The word universe derives from the Old French word univers, which in turn derives from the Latin word universum.[32] The Latin word was used
by Cicero and later Latin authors in many of the same senses as the modern English word is used.[33]

Synonyms

A term for universe among the ancient Greek philosophers from Pythagoras onwards was τὸ πᾶν (tò pân) 'the all', defined as all matter and all
space, and τὸ ὅλον (tò hólon) 'all things', which did not necessarily include the void.[34][35] Another synonym was ὁ κόσμος (ho kósmos) meaning
'the world, the cosmos'.[36] Synonyms are also found in Latin authors (totum, mundus, natura)[37] and survive in modern languages, e.g., the
German words Das All, Weltall, and Natur for universe. The same synonyms are found in English, such as everything (as in the theory of
everything), the cosmos (as in cosmology), the world (as in the many-worlds interpretation), and nature (as in natural laws or natural
philosophy).[38]

Chronology and the Big Bang

The prevailing model for the evolution of the universe is the Big Bang
theory.[39][40] The Big Bang model states that the earliest state of the Nature timeline
universe was an extremely hot and dense one, and that the universe 0 — ← Earliest apes / humans
subsequently expanded and cooled. The model is based on general Vertebrates ← Earliest mammals
– ← Cambrian explosion
relativity and on simplifying assumptions such as the homogeneity and ← Earliest animals / plants
isotropy of space. A version of the model with a cosmological constant −1 — Multicellular

(Lambda) and cold dark matter, known as the Lambda-CDM model, is the life
– L
← Earliest fungi
simplest model that provides a reasonably good account of various i

observations about the universe. The Big Bang model accounts for −2 — f
← Sexual reproduction
observations such as the correlation of distance and redshift of galaxies, e
– ← Atmospheric oxygen
the ratio of the number of hydrogen to helium atoms, and the microwave Photosynthesis
radiation background. −3 —

The initial hot, dense state is called the Planck epoch, a brief period – ← Earliest oxygen
Single-celled life
extending from time zero to one Planck time unit of approximately 10−43 −4 — ← Earliest known life
seconds. During the Planck epoch, all types of matter and all types of Water on Earth
Earth / Solar System
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universe 2/19
10/6/22, 1:48 PM Universe - Wikipedia
– ← Earth / Solar System
energy were concentrated into
a dense state, and gravity— −5 — Accelerated expansion
currently the weakest by far of
–
the four known forces—is
believed to have been as strong −6 —
as the other fundamental
– ← Alpha Centauri
forces, and all the forces may ← NGC 188 star cluster
have been unified. Since the −7 —
Planck epoch, space has been
–
expanding to its present scale,
In this diagram, time passes from left to right, with a very short but intense −8 — Matter-dominated

so at any given time, the universe is period of cosmic inflation era

–
represented by a disk-shaped "slice" of the believed to have occurred
← Milky Way spirals
diagram within the first 10−32 −9 —
seconds.[41] This was a kind of
–
expansion different from those
we can see around us today. Objects in space did not physically move; −10 — ← Andromeda Galaxy
instead the metric that defines space itself changed. Although objects in
–
spacetime cannot move faster than the speed of light, this limitation does
not apply to the metric governing spacetime itself. This initial period of −11 —
inflation is believed to explain why space appears to be very flat, and much
– ← Omega Centauri
larger than light could travel since the start of the universe.
−12 —
Within the first fraction of a second of the universe's existence, the four
fundamental forces had separated. As the universe continued to cool down –
from its inconceivably hot state, various types of subatomic particles were −13 — Reionization ← Quasar / black hole
able to form in short periods of time known as the quark epoch, the hadron Earliest galaxy
epoch, and the lepton epoch. Together, these epochs encompassed less ←
← Earliest stars
Dark Ages
← Earliest Universe
than 10 seconds of time following the Big Bang. These elementary particles
associated stably into ever larger combinations, including stable protons (billion years ago)
and neutrons, which then formed more complex atomic nuclei through
nuclear fusion. This process, known as Big Bang nucleosynthesis, only lasted for about 17 minutes and ended about 20 minutes after the Big Bang,
so only the fastest and simplest reactions occurred. About 25% of the protons and all the neutrons in the universe, by mass, were converted to
helium, with small amounts of deuterium (a form of hydrogen) and traces of lithium. Any other element was only formed in very tiny quantities.
The other 75% of the protons remained unaffected, as hydrogen nuclei.

After nucleosynthesis ended, the universe entered a period known as the photon epoch. During this period, the universe was still far too hot for
matter to form neutral atoms, so it contained a hot, dense, foggy plasma of negatively charged electrons, neutral neutrinos and positive nuclei.
After about 377,000 years, the universe had cooled enough that electrons and nuclei could form the first stable atoms. This is known as
recombination for historical reasons; in fact electrons and nuclei were combining for the first time. Unlike plasma, neutral atoms are transparent
to many wavelengths of light, so for the first time the universe also became transparent. The photons released ("decoupled") when these atoms
formed can still be seen today; they form the cosmic microwave background (CMB).

As the universe expands, the energy density of electromagnetic radiation decreases more quickly than does that of matter because the energy of a
photon decreases with its wavelength. At around 47,000 years, the energy density of matter became larger than that of photons and neutrinos, and
began to dominate the large scale behavior of the universe. This marked the end of the radiation-dominated era and the start of the matter-
dominated era.

In the earliest stages of the universe, tiny fluctuations within the universe's density led to concentrations of dark matter gradually forming.
Ordinary matter, attracted to these by gravity, formed large gas clouds and eventually, stars and galaxies, where the dark matter was most dense,
and voids where it was least dense. After around 100 – 300 million years, the first stars formed, known as Population III stars. These were
probably very massive, luminous, non metallic and short-lived. They were responsible for the gradual reionization of the universe between about
200-500 million years and 1 billion years, and also for seeding the universe with elements heavier than helium, through stellar
nucleosynthesis.[42] The universe also contains a mysterious energy—possibly a scalar field—called dark energy, the density of which does not
change over time. After about 9.8 billion years, the universe had expanded sufficiently so that the density of matter was less than the density of
dark energy, marking the beginning of the present dark-energy-dominated era.[43] In this era, the expansion of the universe is accelerating due to
dark energy.

Physical properties
Of the four fundamental interactions, gravitation is the dominant at astronomical length scales. Gravity's effects are cumulative; by contrast, the
effects of positive and negative charges tend to cancel one another, making electromagnetism relatively insignificant on astronomical length
scales. The remaining two interactions, the weak and strong nuclear forces, decline very rapidly with distance; their effects are confined mainly to
sub-atomic length scales.

The universe appears to have much more matter than antimatter, an asymmetry possibly related to the CP violation.[44] This imbalance between
matter and antimatter is partially responsible for the existence of all matter existing today, since matter and antimatter, if equally produced at the
Big Bang, would have completely annihilated each other and left only photons as a result of their interaction.[45] The universe also appears to have
neither net momentum nor angular momentum, which follows accepted physical laws if the universe is finite. These laws are Gauss's law and the
non-divergence of the stress-energy-momentum pseudotensor.[46]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universe 3/19
10/6/22, 1:48 PM Universe - Wikipedia

Size and regions

According to the general theory of relativity, far regions of space may never interact with ours even in the
lifetime of the universe due to the finite speed of light and the ongoing expansion of space. For example, radio
messages sent from Earth may never reach some regions of space, even if the universe were to exist forever:
space may expand faster than light can traverse it.[47]

The spatial region that can be observed with telescopes is called the observable universe, which depends on the
location of the observer.
The proper distance—the distance as would be measured at a specific time, including
the present—between Earth and the edge of the observable universe is 46 billion light-years[48] (14 billion
parsecs),[49] making the diameter of the observable universe about 93 billion light-years (28 billion
parsecs).[48] The distance the light from the edge of the observable universe has travelled is very close to the
age of the universe times the speed of light, 13.8 billion light-years (4.2 ×109 pc), but this does not represent
the distance at any given time because the edge of the observable universe and the Earth have since moved Television signals broadcast from
further apart.[50] For comparison, the diameter of a typical galaxy is 30,000 light-years (9,198 parsecs), and Earth will never reach the edges of
the typical distance between two neighboring galaxies is 3 million light-years (919.8 kiloparsecs).[51] As an this image.
example, the Milky Way is roughly 100,000–180,000 light-years in diameter,[52][53] and the nearest sister
galaxy to the Milky Way, the Andromeda Galaxy, is located roughly 2.5 million light-years away.[54]

Because we cannot observe space beyond the edge of the observable universe, it is unknown whether the size of the universe in its totality is finite
or infinite.[3][55][56] Estimates suggest that the whole universe, if finite, must be more than 250 times larger than a Hubble sphere.[57] Some
disputed[58] estimates for the total size of the universe, if finite, reach as high as megaparsecs, as implied by a suggested resolution of the
No-Boundary Proposal.[59][b]

Age and expansion

Astronomers calculate the age of the universe by assuming that the Lambda-CDM model accurately describes the evolution of the Universe from a
very uniform, hot, dense primordial state to its present state and measuring the cosmological parameters which constitute the model. This model
is well understood theoretically and supported by recent high-precision astronomical observations such as WMAP and Planck. Commonly, the set
of observations fitted includes the cosmic microwave background anisotropy, the brightness/redshift relation for Type Ia supernovae, and large-
scale galaxy clustering including the baryon acoustic oscillation feature. Other observations, such as the Hubble constant, the abundance of galaxy
clusters, weak gravitational lensing and globular cluster ages, are generally consistent with these, providing a check of the model, but are less
accurately measured at present. Assuming that the Lambda-CDM model is correct, the measurements of the parameters using a variety of
techniques by numerous experiments yield a best value of the age of the universe as of 2015 of 13.799 ± 0.021 billion years.[2]

Over time, the universe and its contents have evolved; for example, the relative population of quasars and
galaxies has changed[60] and space itself has expanded. Due to this expansion, scientists on Earth can observe
the light from a galaxy 30 billion light-years away even though that light has traveled for only 13 billion years;
the very space between them has expanded. This expansion is consistent with the observation that the light
from distant galaxies has been redshifted; the photons emitted have been stretched to longer wavelengths and
lower frequency during their journey. Analyses of Type Ia supernovae indicate that the spatial expansion is
accelerating.[61][62]

The more matter there is in the universe, the stronger the mutual gravitational pull of the matter. If the
universe were too dense then it would re-collapse into a gravitational singularity. However, if the universe
contained too little matter then the self-gravity would be too weak for astronomical structures, like galaxies or
planets, to form. Since the Big Bang, the universe has expanded monotonically. Perhaps unsurprisingly, our
universe has just the right mass-energy density, equivalent to about 5 protons per cubic metre, which has
allowed it to expand for the last 13.8 billion years, giving time to form the universe as observed today.[63]

There are dynamical forces acting on the particles in the universe which affect the expansion rate. Before 1998,
it was expected that the expansion rate would be decreasing as time went on due to the influence of Astronomers have discovered stars
gravitational interactions in the universe; and thus there is an additional observable quantity in the universe in the Milky Way galaxy that are
called the deceleration parameter, which most cosmologists expected to be positive and related to the matter almost 13.6 billion years old.
density of the universe. In 1998, the deceleration parameter was measured by two different groups to be
negative, approximately -0.55, which technically implies that the second derivative of the cosmic scale factor
has been positive in the last 5-6 billion years.[16][64] This acceleration does not, however, imply that the Hubble parameter is currently increasing;
see deceleration parameter for details.

Spacetime

Spacetimes are the arenas in which all physical events take place. The basic elements of spacetimes are events. In any given spacetime, an event is
defined as a unique position at a unique time. A spacetime is the union of all events (in the same way that a line is the union of all of its points),
formally organized into a manifold.[65]

Events, such as matter and energy, bend spacetime. Curved spacetime, on the other hand, forces matter and energy to behave in a certain way.
There is no point in considering one without the other.[15]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universe 4/19
10/6/22, 1:48 PM Universe - Wikipedia
The universe appears to be a smooth spacetime continuum consisting of three spatial dimensions and one temporal (time) dimension (an event in
the spacetime of the physical universe can therefore be identified by a set of four coordinates: (x, y, z, t). On average, space is observed to be very
nearly flat (with a curvature close to zero), meaning that Euclidean geometry is empirically true with high accuracy throughout most of the
Universe.[66] Spacetime also appears to have a simply connected topology, in analogy with a sphere, at least on the length-scale of the observable
universe. However, present observations cannot exclude the possibilities that the universe has more dimensions (which is postulated by theories
such as the string theory) and that its spacetime may have a multiply connected global topology, in analogy with the cylindrical or toroidal
topologies of two-dimensional spaces.[67][68] The spacetime of the universe is usually interpreted from a Euclidean perspective, with space as
consisting of three dimensions, and time as consisting of one dimension, the "fourth dimension".[69] By combining space and time into a single
manifold called Minkowski space, physicists have simplified a large number of physical theories, as well as described in a more uniform way the
workings of the universe at both the supergalactic and subatomic levels.

Spacetime events are not absolutely defined spatially and temporally but rather are known to be relative to the motion of an observer. Minkowski
space approximates the universe without gravity; the pseudo-Riemannian manifolds of general relativity describe spacetime with matter and
gravity.

Shape

General relativity describes how spacetime is curved and bent by mass and energy (gravity). The topology or
geometry of the universe includes both local geometry in the observable universe and global geometry.
Cosmologists often work with a given space-like slice of spacetime called the comoving coordinates. The
section of spacetime which can be observed is the backward light cone, which delimits the cosmological
horizon. The cosmological horizon (also called the particle horizon or the light horizon) is the maximum
distance from which particles can have traveled to the observer in the age of the universe. This horizon
represents the boundary between the observable and the unobservable regions of the universe.[70][71] The
existence, properties, and significance of a cosmological horizon depend on the particular cosmological model.

An important parameter determining the future evolution of the universe theory is the density parameter,
Omega (Ω), defined as the average matter density of the universe divided by a critical value of that density. The three possible options for the
This selects one of three possible geometries depending on whether Ω is equal to, less than, or greater than 1. shape of the universe
These are called, respectively, the flat, open and closed universes.[72]

Observations, including the Cosmic Background Explorer (COBE), Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe (WMAP), and Planck maps of the
CMB, suggest that the universe is infinite in extent with a finite age, as described by the Friedmann–Lemaître–Robertson–Walker (FLRW)
models.[73][67][74][75] These FLRW models thus support inflationary models and the standard model of cosmology, describing a flat, homogeneous
universe presently dominated by dark matter and dark energy.[76][77]

Support of life

The universe may be fine-tuned; the Fine-tuned universe hypothesis is the proposition that the conditions that allow the existence of observable
life in the universe can only occur when certain universal fundamental physical constants lie within a very narrow range of values, so that if any of
several fundamental constants were only slightly different, the universe would have been unlikely to be conducive to the establishment and
development of matter, astronomical structures, elemental diversity, or life as it is understood.[78] The proposition is discussed among
philosophers, scientists, theologians, and proponents of creationism.

Composition
The universe is composed almost completely of dark energy, dark matter, and ordinary matter. Other contents are electromagnetic radiation
(estimated to constitute from 0.005% to close to 0.01% of the total mass-energy of the universe) and antimatter.[79][80][81]

The proportions of all types of matter and energy have changed over the history of the universe.[82] The total amount of electromagnetic radiation
generated within the universe has decreased by 1/2 in the past 2 billion years.[83][84] Today, ordinary matter, which includes atoms, stars, galaxies,
and life, accounts for only 4.9% of the contents of the Universe.[8] The present overall density of this type of matter is very low, roughly 4.5 × 10−31
grams per cubic centimetre, corresponding to a density of the order of only one proton for every four cubic metres of volume.[6] The nature of both
dark energy and dark matter is unknown. Dark matter, a mysterious form of matter that has not yet been identified, accounts for 26.8% of the
cosmic contents. Dark energy, which is the energy of empty space and is causing the expansion of the universe to accelerate, accounts for the
remaining 68.3% of the contents.[8][85][86]

Matter, dark matter, and dark energy are distributed homogeneously throughout the universe over length scales longer than 300 million light-
years or so.[87] However, over shorter length-scales, matter tends to clump hierarchically; many atoms are condensed into stars, most stars into
galaxies, most galaxies into clusters, superclusters and, finally, large-scale galactic filaments. The observable universe contains as many as 200
billion galaxies[88][89] and, overall, as many as an estimated 1 × 1024 stars[90][91] (more stars than all the grains of sand on planet Earth).[92]
Typical galaxies range from dwarfs with as few as ten million[93] (107) stars up to giants with one trillion[94] (1012) stars. Between the larger
structures are voids, which are typically 10–150 Mpc (33 million–490 million ly) in diameter. The Milky Way is in the Local Group of galaxies,
which in turn is in the Laniakea Supercluster.[95] This supercluster spans over 500 million light-years, while the Local Group spans over 10 million
light-years.[96] The Universe also has vast regions of relative emptiness; the largest known void measures 1.8 billion ly (550 Mpc) across.[97]

The observable universe is isotropic on scales significantly larger than superclusters, meaning that the statistical properties of the universe are the
same in all directions as observed from Earth. The universe is bathed in highly isotropic microwave radiation that corresponds to a thermal
equilibrium blackbody spectrum of roughly 2.72548 kelvins.[7] The hypothesis that the large-scale universe is homogeneous and isotropic is

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universe 5/19
10/6/22, 1:48 PM Universe - Wikipedia
known as the cosmological principle.[99]
A universe that is both homogeneous and isotropic looks the same
from all vantage points[100] and has no center.[101]

Dark energy

An explanation for why the expansion of the universe is accelerating remains elusive. It is often attributed to
"dark energy", an unknown form of energy that is hypothesized to permeate space.[102] On a mass–energy
equivalence basis, the density of dark energy (~ 7 × 10−30 g/cm3) is much less than the density of ordinary
matter or dark matter within galaxies. However, in the present dark-energy era, it dominates the mass–energy The formation of clusters and large-
of the universe because it is uniform across space.[103][104] scale filaments in the cold dark
matter model with dark energy. The
Two proposed forms for dark energy are the cosmological constant, a constant energy density filling space frames show the evolution of
homogeneously,[105] and scalar fields such as quintessence or moduli, dynamic quantities whose energy structures in a 43 million parsecs (or
density can vary in time and space. Contributions from scalar fields that are constant in space are usually also 140 million light-years) box from
included in the cosmological constant. The cosmological constant can be formulated to be equivalent to redshift of 30 to the present epoch
vacuum energy. Scalar fields having only a slight amount of spatial inhomogeneity would be difficult to (upper left z=30 to lower right z=0).
distinguish from a cosmological constant.

Dark matter

Dark matter is a hypothetical kind of matter that is invisible to the entire electromagnetic spectrum, but which
accounts for most of the matter in the universe. The existence and properties of dark matter are inferred from
its gravitational effects on visible matter, radiation, and the large-scale structure of the universe. Other than
neutrinos, a form of hot dark matter, dark matter has not been detected directly, making it one of the greatest
mysteries in modern astrophysics. Dark matter neither emits nor absorbs light or any other electromagnetic
radiation at any significant level. Dark matter is estimated to constitute 26.8% of the total mass–energy and
84.5% of the total matter in the universe.[85][106]

A map of the superclusters and

Ordinary matter voids nearest to Earth

The remaining 4.9% of the mass–energy of the universe is ordinary matter, that is, atoms, ions, electrons and
the objects they form. This matter includes stars, which produce nearly all of the light we see from galaxies, as
well as interstellar gas in the interstellar and intergalactic media, planets, and all the objects from everyday life
that we can bump into, touch or squeeze.[107] As a matter of fact, the great majority of ordinary matter in the
universe is unseen, since visible stars and gas inside galaxies and clusters account for less than 10 per cent of
the ordinary matter contribution to the mass-energy density of the universe.[108]

Ordinary matter commonly exists in four states (or phases): solid, liquid, gas, and plasma. However, advances
in experimental techniques have revealed other previously theoretical phases, such as Bose–Einstein
condensates and fermionic condensates. Comparison of the contents of the
universe today to 380,000 years
Ordinary matter is composed of two types of elementary particles: quarks and leptons.[109] For example, the after the Big Bang as measured with
proton is formed of two up quarks and one down quark; the neutron is formed of two down quarks and one up 5 year WMAP data (from 2008).[98]
quark; and the electron is a kind of lepton. An atom consists of an atomic nucleus, made up of protons and (Due to rounding errors, the sum of
neutrons, and electrons that orbit the nucleus. Because most of the mass of an atom is concentrated in its these numbers is not 100%). This
nucleus, which is made up of baryons, astronomers often use the term baryonic matter to describe ordinary reflects the 2008 limits of WMAP's
matter, although a small fraction of this "baryonic matter" is electrons. ability to define dark matter and dark
energy.
Soon after the Big Bang, primordial protons and neutrons formed from the quark–gluon plasma of the early
universe as it cooled below two trillion degrees. A few minutes later, in a process known as Big Bang
nucleosynthesis, nuclei formed from the primordial protons and neutrons. This nucleosynthesis formed lighter elements, those with small atomic
numbers up to lithium and beryllium, but the abundance of heavier elements dropped off sharply with increasing atomic number. Some boron
may have been formed at this time, but the next heavier element, carbon, was not formed in significant amounts. Big Bang nucleosynthesis shut
down after about 20 minutes due to the rapid drop in temperature and density of the expanding universe. Subsequent formation of heavier
elements resulted from stellar nucleosynthesis and supernova nucleosynthesis.[110]

Particles

Ordinary matter and the forces that act on matter can be described in terms of elementary particles.[111] These particles are sometimes described
as being fundamental, since they have an unknown substructure, and it is unknown whether or not they are composed of smaller and even more
fundamental particles.[112][113] Of central importance is the Standard Model, a theory that is concerned with electromagnetic interactions and the
weak and strong nuclear interactions.[114] The Standard Model is supported by the experimental confirmation of the existence of particles that
compose matter: quarks and leptons, and their corresponding "antimatter" duals, as well as the force particles that mediate interactions: the
photon, the W and Z bosons, and the gluon.[112] The Standard Model predicted the existence of the recently discovered Higgs boson, a particle that
is a manifestation of a field within the universe that can endow particles with mass.[115][116] Because of its success in explaining a wide variety of
experimental results, the Standard Model is sometimes regarded as a "theory of almost everything".[114] The Standard Model does not, however,
accommodate gravity. A true force-particle "theory of everything" has not been attained.[117]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universe 6/19
10/6/22, 1:48 PM Universe - Wikipedia
Hadrons

A hadron is a composite particle made of quarks held together by the strong force. Hadrons are
categorized into two families: baryons (such as protons and neutrons) made of three quarks,
and mesons (such as pions) made of one quark and one antiquark. Of the hadrons, protons are
stable, and neutrons bound within atomic nuclei are stable. Other hadrons are unstable under
ordinary conditions and are thus insignificant constituents of the modern universe. From
approximately 10−6 seconds after the Big Bang, during a period is known as the hadron epoch,
the temperature of the universe had fallen sufficiently to allow quarks to bind together into
hadrons, and the mass of the universe was dominated by hadrons. Initially, the temperature
was high enough to allow the formation of hadron/anti-hadron pairs, which kept matter and
antimatter in thermal equilibrium. However, as the temperature of the universe continued to
fall, hadron/anti-hadron pairs were no longer produced. Most of the hadrons and anti-hadrons
were then eliminated in particle-antiparticle annihilation reactions, leaving a small residual of
hadrons by the time the universe was about one second old.[118]: 244–66 

Leptons
Standard model of elementary particles: the 12
fundamental fermions and 4 fundamental bosons.
A lepton is an elementary, half-integer spin particle that does not undergo strong interactions
Brown loops indicate which bosons (red) couple to
but is subject to the Pauli exclusion principle; no two leptons of the same species can be in
which fermions (purple and green). Columns are three
exactly the same state at the same time.[119] Two main classes of leptons exist: charged leptons
generations of matter (fermions) and one of forces
(also known as the electron-like leptons), and neutral leptons (better known as neutrinos). (bosons). In the first three columns, two rows contain
Electrons are stable and the most common charged lepton in the universe, whereas muons and quarks and two leptons. The top two rows' columns
taus are unstable particle that quickly decay after being produced in high energy collisions, contain up (u) and down (d) quarks, charm (c) and
such as those involving cosmic rays or carried out in particle accelerators.[120][121] Charged strange (s) quarks, top (t) and bottom (b) quarks, and
leptons can combine with other particles to form various composite particles such as atoms and photon (γ) and gluon (g), respectively. The bottom two
positronium. The electron governs nearly all of chemistry, as it is found in atoms and is directly rows' columns contain electron neutrino (νe) and
tied to all chemical properties. Neutrinos rarely interact with anything, and are consequently electron (e), muon neutrino (νμ) and muon (μ), tau
rarely observed. Neutrinos stream throughout the universe but rarely interact with normal neutrino (ντ) and tau (τ), and the Z0 and W± carriers of
matter.[122] the weak force. Mass, charge, and spin are listed for
each particle.
The lepton epoch was the period in the evolution of the early universe in which the leptons
dominated the mass of the universe. It started roughly 1 second after the Big Bang, after the
majority of hadrons and anti-hadrons annihilated each other at the end of the hadron epoch. During the lepton epoch the temperature of the
universe was still high enough to create lepton/anti-lepton pairs, so leptons and anti-leptons were in thermal equilibrium. Approximately 10
seconds after the Big Bang, the temperature of the universe had fallen to the point where lepton/anti-lepton pairs were no longer created.[123]
Most leptons and anti-leptons were then eliminated in annihilation reactions, leaving a small residue of leptons. The mass of the universe was then
dominated by photons as it entered the following photon epoch.[124][125]

Photons

A photon is the quantum of light and all other forms of electromagnetic radiation. It is the force carrier for the electromagnetic force, even when
static via virtual photons. The effects of this force are easily observable at the microscopic and at the macroscopic level because the photon has
zero rest mass; this allows long distance interactions. Like all elementary particles, photons are currently best explained by quantum mechanics
and exhibit wave–particle duality, exhibiting properties of waves and of particles.

The photon epoch started after most leptons and anti-leptons were annihilated at the end of the lepton epoch, about 10 seconds after the Big Bang.
Atomic nuclei were created in the process of nucleosynthesis which occurred during the first few minutes of the photon epoch. For the remainder
of the photon epoch the universe contained a hot dense plasma of nuclei, electrons and photons. About 380,000 years after the Big Bang, the
temperature of the Universe fell to the point where nuclei could combine with electrons to create neutral atoms. As a result, photons no longer
interacted frequently with matter and the universe became transparent. The highly redshifted photons from this period form the cosmic
microwave background. Tiny variations in temperature and density detectable in the CMB were the early "seeds" from which all subsequent
structure formation took place.[118]: 244–66 

Cosmological models

Model of the universe based on general relativity

General relativity is the geometric theory of gravitation published by Albert Einstein in 1915 and the current description of gravitation in modern
physics. It is the basis of current cosmological models of the universe. General relativity generalizes special relativity and Newton's law of universal
gravitation, providing a unified description of gravity as a geometric property of space and time, or spacetime. In particular, the curvature of
spacetime is directly related to the energy and momentum of whatever matter and radiation are present. The relation is specified by the Einstein
field equations, a system of partial differential equations. In general relativity, the distribution of matter and energy determines the geometry of
spacetime, which in turn describes the acceleration of matter. Therefore, solutions of the Einstein field equations describe the evolution of the
universe. Combined with measurements of the amount, type, and distribution of matter in the universe, the equations of general relativity describe
the evolution of the universe over time.[126]

With the assumption of the cosmological principle that the universe is homogeneous and isotropic everywhere, a specific solution of the field
equations that describes the universe is the metric tensor called the Friedmann–Lemaître–Robertson–Walker metric,

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universe 7/19
10/6/22, 1:48 PM Universe - Wikipedia

where (r, θ, φ) correspond to a spherical coordinate system. This metric has only two undetermined parameters. An overall dimensionless length
scale factor R describes the size scale of the universe as a function of time (an increase in R is the expansion of the universe),[127] and a curvature
index k describes the geometry. The index k is defined so that it can take only one of three values: 0, corresponding to flat Euclidean geometry; 1,
corresponding to a space of positive curvature; or −1, corresponding to a space of positive or negative curvature.[128] The value of R as a function
of time t depends upon k and the cosmological constant Λ.[126] The cosmological constant represents the energy density of the vacuum of space
and could be related to dark energy.[86] The equation describing how R varies with time is known as the Friedmann equation after its inventor,
Alexander Friedmann.[129]

The solutions for R(t) depend on k and Λ, but some qualitative features of such solutions are general. First and most importantly, the length scale
R of the universe can remain constant only if the universe is perfectly isotropic with positive curvature (k=1) and has one precise value of density
everywhere, as first noted by Albert Einstein.[126] However, this equilibrium is unstable: because the universe is inhomogeneous on smaller scales,
R must change over time. When R changes, all the spatial distances in the universe change in tandem; there is an overall expansion or contraction
of space itself. This accounts for the observation that galaxies appear to be flying apart; the space between them is stretching. The stretching of
space also accounts for the apparent paradox that two galaxies can be 40 billion light-years apart, although they started from the same point 13.8
billion years ago[130] and never moved faster than the speed of light.

Second, all solutions suggest that there was a gravitational singularity in the past, when R went to zero and matter and energy were infinitely
dense. It may seem that this conclusion is uncertain because it is based on the questionable assumptions of perfect homogeneity and isotropy (the
cosmological principle) and that only the gravitational interaction is significant. However, the Penrose–Hawking singularity theorems show that a
singularity should exist for very general conditions. Hence, according to Einstein's field equations, R grew rapidly from an unimaginably hot,
dense state that existed immediately following this singularity (when R had a small, finite value); this is the essence of the Big Bang model of the
universe. Understanding the singularity of the Big Bang likely requires a quantum theory of gravity, which has not yet been formulated.[131]

Third, the curvature index k determines the sign of the mean spatial curvature of spacetime[128] averaged over sufficiently large length scales
(greater than about a billion light-years). If k=1, the curvature is positive and the universe has a finite volume.[132] A universe with positive
curvature is often visualized as a three-dimensional sphere embedded in a four-dimensional space. Conversely, if k is zero or negative, the
universe has an infinite volume.[132] It may seem counter-intuitive that an infinite and yet infinitely dense universe could be created in a single
instant when R = 0, but exactly that is predicted mathematically when k does not equal 1. By analogy, an infinite plane has zero curvature but
infinite area, whereas an infinite cylinder is finite in one direction and a torus is finite in both. A toroidal universe could behave like a normal
universe with periodic boundary conditions.

The ultimate fate of the universe is still unknown because it depends critically on the curvature index k and the cosmological constant Λ. If the
universe were sufficiently dense, k would equal +1, meaning that its average curvature throughout is positive and the universe will eventually
recollapse in a Big Crunch,[133] possibly starting a new universe in a Big Bounce. Conversely, if the universe were insufficiently dense, k would
equal 0 or −1 and the universe would expand forever, cooling off and eventually reaching the Big Freeze and the heat death of the universe.[126]
Modern data suggests that the rate of expansion of the universe is not decreasing, as originally expected, but increasing; if this continues
indefinitely, the universe may eventually reach a Big Rip. Observationally, the universe appears to be flat (k = 0), with an overall density that is
very close to the critical value between recollapse and eternal expansion.[134]

Multiverse hypothesis

Some speculative theories have proposed that our universe is but one of a set of disconnected universes, collectively denoted as the multiverse,
challenging or enhancing more limited definitions of the universe.[20][135] Scientific multiverse models are distinct from concepts such as alternate
planes of consciousness and simulated reality.

Max Tegmark developed a four-part classification scheme for the different types of multiverses that scientists have suggested in response to
various Physics problems. An example of such multiverses is the one resulting from the chaotic inflation model of the early universe.[136] Another
is the multiverse resulting from the many-worlds interpretation of quantum mechanics. In this interpretation, parallel worlds are generated in a
manner similar to quantum superposition and decoherence, with all states of the wave functions being realized in separate worlds. Effectively, in
the many-worlds interpretation the multiverse evolves as a universal wavefunction. If the Big Bang that created our multiverse created an
ensemble of multiverses, the wave function of the ensemble would be entangled in this sense.[137]

The least controversial, but still highly disputed, category of multiverse in Tegmark's scheme is Level I. The multiverses of this level are composed
by distant spacetime events "in our own universe". Tegmark and others[138] have argued that, if space is infinite, or sufficiently large and uniform,
identical instances of the history of Earth's entire Hubble volume occur every so often, simply by chance. Tegmark calculated that our nearest so-
115
called doppelgänger, is 1010 metres away from us (a double exponential function larger than a googolplex).[139][140] However, the arguments
used are of speculative nature.[141] Additionally, it would be impossible to scientifically verify the existence of an identical Hubble volume.

It is possible to conceive of disconnected spacetimes, each existing but unable to interact with one another.[139][142] An easily visualized metaphor
of this concept is a group of separate soap bubbles, in which observers living on one soap bubble cannot interact with those on other soap bubbles,
even in principle.[143] According to one common terminology, each "soap bubble" of spacetime is denoted as a universe, whereas our particular
spacetime is denoted as the universe,[20] just as we call our moon the Moon. The entire collection of these separate spacetimes is denoted as the
multiverse.[20] With this terminology, different universes are not causally connected to each other.[20] In principle, the other unconnected
universes may have different dimensionalities and topologies of spacetime, different forms of matter and energy, and different physical laws and
physical constants, although such possibilities are purely speculative.[20] Others consider each of several bubbles created as part of chaotic
inflation to be separate universes, though in this model these universes all share a causal origin.[20]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universe 8/19
10/6/22, 1:48 PM Universe - Wikipedia

Historical conceptions
Historically, there have been many ideas of the cosmos (cosmologies) and its origin (cosmogonies). Theories of an impersonal universe governed
by physical laws were first proposed by the Greeks and Indians.[13] Ancient Chinese philosophy encompassed the notion of the universe including
both all of space and all of time.[144] Over the centuries, improvements in astronomical observations and theories of motion and gravitation led to
ever more accurate descriptions of the universe. The modern era of cosmology began with Albert Einstein's 1915 general theory of relativity, which
made it possible to quantitatively predict the origin, evolution, and conclusion of the universe as a whole. Most modern, accepted theories of
cosmology are based on general relativity and, more specifically, the predicted Big Bang.[145]

Mythologies

Many cultures have stories describing the origin of the world and universe. Cultures generally regard these stories as having some truth. There are
however many differing beliefs in how these stories apply amongst those believing in a supernatural origin, ranging from a god directly creating
the universe as it is now to a god just setting the "wheels in motion" (for example via mechanisms such as the big bang and evolution).[146]

Ethnologists and anthropologists who study myths have developed various classification schemes for the various themes that appear in creation
stories.[147][148] For example, in one type of story, the world is born from a world egg; such stories include the Finnish epic poem Kalevala, the
Chinese story of Pangu or the Indian Brahmanda Purana. In related stories, the universe is created by a single entity emanating or producing
something by him- or herself, as in the Tibetan Buddhism concept of Adi-Buddha, the ancient Greek story of Gaia (Mother Earth), the Aztec
goddess Coatlicue myth, the ancient Egyptian god Atum story, and the Judeo-Christian Genesis creation narrative in which the Abrahamic God
created the universe. In another type of story, the universe is created from the union of male and female deities, as in the Maori story of Rangi and
Papa. In other stories, the universe is created by crafting it from pre-existing materials, such as the corpse of a dead god—as from Tiamat in the
Babylonian epic Enuma Elish or from the giant Ymir in Norse mythology—or from chaotic materials, as in Izanagi and Izanami in Japanese
mythology. In other stories, the universe emanates from fundamental principles, such as Brahman and Prakrti, the creation myth of the
Serers,[149] or the yin and yang of the Tao.

Philosophical models

The pre-Socratic Greek philosophers and Indian philosophers developed some of the earliest philosophical concepts of the universe.[13][150] The
earliest Greek philosophers noted that appearances can be deceiving, and sought to understand the underlying reality behind the appearances. In
particular, they noted the ability of matter to change forms (e.g., ice to water to steam) and several philosophers proposed that all the physical
materials in the world are different forms of a single primordial material, or arche. The first to do so was Thales, who proposed this material to be
water. Thales' student, Anaximander, proposed that everything came from the limitless apeiron. Anaximenes proposed the primordial material to
be air on account of its perceived attractive and repulsive qualities that cause the arche to condense or dissociate into different forms. Anaxagoras
proposed the principle of Nous (Mind), while Heraclitus proposed fire (and spoke of logos). Empedocles proposed the elements to be earth, water,
air and fire. His four-element model became very popular. Like Pythagoras, Plato believed that all things were composed of number, with
Empedocles' elements taking the form of the Platonic solids. Democritus, and later philosophers—most notably Leucippus—proposed that the
universe is composed of indivisible atoms moving through a void (vacuum), although Aristotle did not believe that to be feasible because air, like
water, offers resistance to motion. Air will immediately rush in to fill a void, and moreover, without resistance, it would do so indefinitely fast.[13]

Although Heraclitus argued for eternal change, his contemporary Parmenides made the radical suggestion that all change is an illusion, that the
true underlying reality is eternally unchanging and of a single nature. Parmenides denoted this reality as τὸ ἐν (The One). Parmenides' idea
seemed implausible to many Greeks, but his student Zeno of Elea challenged them with several famous paradoxes. Aristotle responded to these
paradoxes by developing the notion of a potential countable infinity, as well as the infinitely divisible continuum. Unlike the eternal and
unchanging cycles of time, he believed that the world is bounded by the celestial spheres and that cumulative stellar magnitude is only finitely
multiplicative.

The Indian philosopher Kanada, founder of the Vaisheshika school, developed a notion of atomism and proposed that light and heat were varieties
of the same substance.[151] In the 5th century AD, the Buddhist atomist philosopher Dignāga proposed atoms to be point-sized, durationless, and
made of energy. They denied the existence of substantial matter and proposed that movement consisted of momentary flashes of a stream of
energy.[152]

The notion of temporal finitism was inspired by the doctrine of creation shared by the three Abrahamic religions: Judaism, Christianity and Islam.
The Christian philosopher, John Philoponus, presented the philosophical arguments against the ancient Greek notion of an infinite past and
future. Philoponus' arguments against an infinite past were used by the early Muslim philosopher, Al-Kindi (Alkindus); the Jewish philosopher,
Saadia Gaon (Saadia ben Joseph); and the Muslim theologian, Al-Ghazali (Algazel).[153]

Astronomical concepts

Astronomical models of the universe were proposed soon after astronomy began with the Babylonian astronomers, who viewed the universe as a
flat disk floating in the ocean, and this forms the premise for early Greek maps like those of Anaximander and Hecataeus of Miletus.

Later Greek philosophers, observing the motions of the heavenly bodies, were concerned with developing models of the universe-based more
profoundly on empirical evidence. The first coherent model was proposed by Eudoxus of Cnidos. According to Aristotle's physical interpretation of
the model, celestial spheres eternally rotate with uniform motion around a stationary Earth. Normal matter is entirely contained within the
terrestrial sphere.

De Mundo (composed before 250 BC or between 350 and 200 BC), stated, "Five elements, situated in spheres in five regions, the less being in each
case surrounded by the greater—namely, earth surrounded by water, water by air, air by fire, and fire by ether—make up the whole universe".[154]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universe 9/19
10/6/22, 1:48 PM Universe - Wikipedia
This model was also refined by Callippus and after concentric spheres were abandoned, it was brought into
nearly perfect agreement with astronomical observations by Ptolemy. The success of such a model is largely
due to the mathematical fact that any function (such as the position of a planet) can be decomposed into a set
of circular functions (the Fourier modes). Other Greek scientists, such as the Pythagorean philosopher
Philolaus, postulated (according to Stobaeus account) that at the center of the universe was a "central fire"
around which the Earth, Sun, Moon and planets revolved in uniform circular motion.[155]

The Greek astronomer Aristarchus of Samos was the first known individual to propose a heliocentric model of
the universe. Though the original text has been lost, a reference in Archimedes' book The Sand Reckoner 3rd century BCE calculations by
describes Aristarchus's heliocentric model. Archimedes wrote: Aristarchus on the relative sizes of,
from left to right, the Sun, Earth, and
Moon, from a 10th-century AD
You, King Gelon, are aware the universe is the name given by most astronomers to the sphere the
Greek copy.
center of which is the center of the Earth, while its radius is equal to the straight line between the
center of the Sun and the center of the Earth. This is the common account as you have heard from
astronomers. But Aristarchus has brought out a book consisting of certain hypotheses, wherein it
appears, as a consequence of the assumptions made, that the universe is many times greater than
the universe just mentioned. His hypotheses are that the fixed stars and the Sun remain unmoved,
that the Earth revolves about the Sun on the circumference of a circle, the Sun lying in the middle of
the orbit, and that the sphere of fixed stars, situated about the same center as the Sun, is so great
that the circle in which he supposes the Earth to revolve bears such a proportion to the distance of
the fixed stars as the center of the sphere bears to its surface

Aristarchus thus believed the stars to be very far away, and saw this as the reason why stellar parallax had not been observed, that is, the stars had
not been observed to move relative each other as the Earth moved around the Sun. The stars are in fact much farther away than the distance that
was generally assumed in ancient times, which is why stellar parallax is only detectable with precision instruments. The geocentric model,
consistent with planetary parallax, was assumed to be an explanation for the unobservability of the parallel phenomenon, stellar parallax. The
rejection of the heliocentric view was apparently quite strong, as the following passage from Plutarch suggests (On the Apparent Face in the Orb of
the Moon):

Cleanthes [a contemporary of Aristarchus and head of the Stoics] thought it was the duty of the Greeks to indict Aristarchus of Samos
on the charge of impiety for putting in motion the Hearth of the Universe [i.e. the Earth], ... supposing the heaven to remain at rest and
the Earth to revolve in an oblique circle, while it rotates, at the same time, about its own axis

The only other astronomer from antiquity known by name who supported Aristarchus's heliocentric model was
Seleucus of Seleucia, a Hellenistic astronomer who lived a century after Aristarchus.[156][157][158] According to
Plutarch, Seleucus was the first to prove the heliocentric system through reasoning, but it is not known what
arguments he used. Seleucus' arguments for a heliocentric cosmology were probably related to the
phenomenon of tides.[159] According to Strabo (1.1.9), Seleucus was the first to state that the tides are due to
the attraction of the Moon, and that the height of the tides depends on the Moon's position relative to the
Sun.[160] Alternatively, he may have proved heliocentricity by determining the constants of a geometric model
for it, and by developing methods to compute planetary positions using this model, like what Nicolaus
Copernicus later did in the 16th century.[161] During the Middle Ages, heliocentric models were also proposed
by the Indian astronomer Aryabhata,[162] and by the Persian astronomers Albumasar[163] and Al-Sijzi.[164]
Flammarion engraving, Paris 1888
The Aristotelian model was accepted in the Western world for roughly two
millennia, until Copernicus revived Aristarchus's perspective that the
astronomical data could be explained more plausibly if the Earth rotated on its axis and if the Sun were placed
at the center of the universe.

In the center rests the Sun. For who would place this lamp of a very beautiful temple in another or
better place than this wherefrom it can illuminate everything at the same time?

— Nicolaus Copernicus, in Chapter 10, Book 1 of De Revolutionibus Orbium Coelestrum (1543)

As noted by Copernicus himself, the notion that the Earth rotates is very old, dating at least to Philolaus (c. 450
BC), Heraclides Ponticus (c. 350 BC) and Ecphantus the Pythagorean. Roughly a century before Copernicus,
Model of the Copernican Universe the Christian scholar Nicholas of Cusa also proposed that the Earth rotates on its axis in his book, On Learned
by Thomas Digges in 1576, with the Ignorance (1440).[165] Al-Sijzi[166] also proposed that the Earth rotates on its axis. Empirical evidence for the
amendment that the stars are no Earth's rotation on its axis, using the phenomenon of comets, was given by Tusi (1201–1274) and Ali Qushji
longer confined to a sphere, but (1403–1474).[167]
spread uniformly throughout the
space surrounding the planets. This cosmology was accepted by Isaac Newton, Christiaan Huygens and later scientists.[168] Edmund Halley
(1720)[169] and Jean-Philippe de Chéseaux (1744)[170] noted independently that the assumption of an infinite
space filled uniformly with stars would lead to the prediction that the nighttime sky would be as bright as the
Sun itself; this became known as Olbers' paradox in the 19th century.[171] Newton believed that an infinite space uniformly filled with matter
would cause infinite forces and instabilities causing the matter to be crushed inwards under its own gravity.[168] This instability was clarified in
1902 by the Jeans instability criterion.[172] One solution to these paradoxes is the Charlier Universe, in which the matter is arranged hierarchically

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universe 10/19
10/6/22, 1:48 PM Universe - Wikipedia
(systems of orbiting bodies that are themselves orbiting in a larger system, ad infinitum) in a fractal way such that the universe has a negligibly
small overall density; such a cosmological model had also been proposed earlier in 1761 by Johann Heinrich Lambert.[51][173] A significant
astronomical advance of the 18th century was the realization by Thomas Wright, Immanuel Kant and others of nebulae.[169]

In 1919, when the Hooker Telescope was completed, the prevailing view still was that the universe consisted entirely of the Milky Way Galaxy.
Using the Hooker Telescope, Edwin Hubble identified Cepheid variables in several spiral nebulae and in 1922–1923 proved conclusively that
Andromeda Nebula and Triangulum among others, were entire galaxies outside our own, thus proving that universe consists of a multitude of
galaxies.[174]

The modern era of physical cosmology began in 1917, when Albert Einstein first applied his general theory of relativity to model the structure and
dynamics of the universe.[175]

Map of the observable universe with some of the notable astronomical objects known today. The scale of length increases exponentially toward the right. Celestial bodies are
shown enlarged in size to be able to understand their shapes.

Location of the Earth in the Universe

Earth Solar System Radcliffe Wave Orion Arm Milky Way Local Group Virgo SCl Laniakea Our Universe
SCl

See also
Chronology of the universe Galaxy And Mass Assembly survey Rare Earth hypothesis
Cosmic Calendar (scaled down timeline) Heat death of the universe Religious cosmology
Cosmic latte History of the center of the Universe Space and survival
Cosmos Illustris project Terasecond and longer
Detailed logarithmic timeline Multiverse (set theory) (Hyperverse, Timeline of the early universe
Earth's location in the universe Megaverse or Omniverse) Timeline of the far future
False vacuum Non-standard cosmology Timeline of the near future
Future of an expanding universe Nucleocosmochronology Zero-energy universe
Panspermia

References
Footnotes

a. According to modern physics, particularly the theory of relativity, space and time are intrinsically linked as spacetime.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universe 11/19
10/6/22, 1:48 PM Universe - Wikipedia
b. Although listed in megaparsecs by the cited source, this number is so vast that its digits would remain virtually unchanged for all intents and
purposes regardless of which conventional units it is listed in, whether it to be nanometres or gigaparsecs, as the differences would disappear
into the error.

Citations

1. "Hubble sees galaxies galore" (http://spacetelescope.org/images/hei 14. Carroll, Bradley W.; Ostlie, Dale A. (July 23, 2013). An Introduction
c0406a/). spacetelescope.org. Archived (https://web.archive.org/we to Modern Astrophysics (https://books.google.com/books?id=RLwan
b/20170504043058/http://www.spacetelescope.org/images/heic040 gEACAAJ) (International ed.). Pearson. pp. 1173–74. ISBN 978-1-
6a/) from the original on May 4, 2017. Retrieved April 30, 2017. 292-02293-2. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/201912281410
2. Planck Collaboration (2016). "Planck 2015 results. XIII. 15/https://books.google.com/books?id=RLwangEACAAJ) from the
Cosmological parameters". Astronomy & Astrophysics. 594: A13, original on December 28, 2019. Retrieved May 16, 2018.
Table 4. arXiv:1502.01589 (https://arxiv.org/abs/1502.01589). 15. Hawking, Stephen (1988). A Brief History of Time (https://archive.or
Bibcode:2016A&A...594A..13P (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2 g/details/briefhistoryofti00step_1). Bantam Books. p. 43 (https://arch
016A&A...594A..13P). doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201525830 (https://d ive.org/details/briefhistoryofti00step_1/page/43). ISBN 978-0-553-
oi.org/10.1051%2F0004-6361%2F201525830). S2CID 119262962 05340-1.
(https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:119262962). 16. "The Nobel Prize in Physics 2011" (https://www.nobelprize.org/nobel
3. Greene, Brian (2011). The Hidden Reality. Alfred A. Knopf. _prizes/physics/laureates/2011/). Archived (https://web.archive.org/
4. Bars, Itzhak; Terning, John (November 2009). Extra Dimensions in web/20150417023358/http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
Space and Time (https://books.google.com/books?id=fFSMatekilIC cs/laureates/2011/) from the original on April 17, 2015. Retrieved
&pg=PA27). Springer. pp. 27–. ISBN 978-0-387-77637-8. Retrieved April 16, 2015.
May 1, 2011. 17. Redd, Nola. "What is Dark Matter?" (https://www.space.com/20930-
5. Davies, Paul (2006). The Goldilocks Enigma (https://archive.org/det dark-matter.html). Space.com. Archived (https://web.archive.org/we
ails/cosmicjackpotwhy0000davi). First Mariner Books. p. 43ff. b/20180201075430/https://www.space.com/20930-dark-matter.html)
ISBN 978-0-618-59226-5. from the original on February 1, 2018. Retrieved February 1, 2018.
6. NASA/WMAP Science Team (January 24, 2014). "Universe 101: 18. "Planck 2015 results, table 9" (https://www.aanda.org/articles/aa/full
What is the Universe Made Of?" (http://map.gsfc.nasa.gov/universe/ _html/2016/10/aa27101-15/T9.html). Archived (https://web.archive.o
uni_matter.html). NASA. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/2008 rg/web/20180727024529/https://www.aanda.org/articles/aa/full_htm
0310235855/http://map.gsfc.nasa.gov/universe/uni_matter.html) l/2016/10/aa27101-15/T9.html) from the original on July 27, 2018.
from the original on March 10, 2008. Retrieved February 17, 2015. Retrieved May 16, 2018.
7. Fixsen, D.J. (2009). "The Temperature of the Cosmic Microwave 19. Persic, Massimo; Salucci, Paolo (September 1, 1992). "The baryon
Background". The Astrophysical Journal. 707 (2): 916–20. content of the Universe". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical
arXiv:0911.1955 (https://arxiv.org/abs/0911.1955). Society. 258 (1): 14P–18P. arXiv:astro-ph/0502178 (https://arxiv.org/
Bibcode:2009ApJ...707..916F (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/20 abs/astro-ph/0502178). Bibcode:1992MNRAS.258P..14P (https://ui.
09ApJ...707..916F). doi:10.1088/0004-637X/707/2/916 (https://doi.o adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1992MNRAS.258P..14P).
rg/10.1088%2F0004-637X%2F707%2F2%2F916). doi:10.1093/mnras/258.1.14P (https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fmnras%2
S2CID 119217397 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:11921 F258.1.14P). ISSN 0035-8711 (https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0035-
7397). 8711). S2CID 17945298 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:1
7945298).
8. "First Planck results: the universe is still weird and interesting" (http
s://arstechnica.com/science/2013/03/first-planck-results-the-univers 20. Ellis, George F.R.; U. Kirchner; W.R. Stoeger (2004). "Multiverses
e-is-still-weird-and-interesting/). Matthew Francis. Ars technica. and physical cosmology". Monthly Notices of the Royal
March 21, 2013. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/2019050214 Astronomical Society. 347 (3): 921–36. arXiv:astro-ph/0305292 (http
3413/https://arstechnica.com/science/2013/03/first-planck-results-th s://arxiv.org/abs/astro-ph/0305292).
e-universe-is-still-weird-and-interesting/) from the original on May 2, Bibcode:2004MNRAS.347..921E (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/ab
2019. Retrieved August 21, 2015. s/2004MNRAS.347..921E). doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2004.07261.x
9. NASA/WMAP Science Team (January 24, 2014). "Universe 101: (https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1365-2966.2004.07261.x).
Will the Universe expand forever?" (http://map.gsfc.nasa.gov/univer S2CID 119028830 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:11902
se/uni_shape.html). NASA. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/2 8830).
0080309164248/http://map.gsfc.nasa.gov/universe/uni_shape.html) 21. Palmer, Jason. (August 3, 2011) BBC News – 'Multiverse' theory
from the original on March 9, 2008. Retrieved April 16, 2015. suggested by microwave background (https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/s
10. Zeilik, Michael; Gregory, Stephen A. (1998). Introductory Astronomy cience-environment-14372387) Archived (https://web.archive.org/w
& Astrophysics (4th ed.). Saunders College Publishing. ISBN 978-0- eb/20180603175716/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environme
03-006228-5. "The totality of all space and time; all that is, has nt-14372387) June 3, 2018, at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved
been, and will be." November 28, 2011.
11. Planck Collaboration; Aghanim, N.; Akrami, Y.; Ashdown, M.; 22. "Universe" (https://www.britannica.com/science/universe).
Aumont, J.; Baccigalupi, C.; Ballardini, M.; Banday, A. J.; Barreiro, Encyclopaedia Britannica online. Encyclopaedia Britannica Inc.
R. B.; Bartolo, N.; Basak, S. (September 2020). "Planck 2018 2012. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20210609004717/http
results: VI. Cosmological parameters" (https://www.aanda.org/10.10 s://www.britannica.com/science/universe) from the original on June
9, 2021. Retrieved February 17, 2018.
51/0004-6361/201833910). Astronomy & Astrophysics. 641: A6.
arXiv:1807.06209 (https://arxiv.org/abs/1807.06209). 23. "Universe" (http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/Universe).
Bibcode:2020A&A...641A...6P (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/20 Merriam-Webster Dictionary. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/
20A&A...641A...6P). doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201833910 (https://doi. 20121022182145/http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/univer
org/10.1051%2F0004-6361%2F201833910). ISSN 0004-6361 (http se) from the original on October 22, 2012. Retrieved September 21,
s://www.worldcat.org/issn/0004-6361). S2CID 119335614 (https://ap 2012.
i.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:119335614). 24. "Universe" (http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/Universe?s=t).
12. Dold-Samplonius, Yvonne (2002). From China to Paris: 2000 Years Dictionary.com. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20121023004
Transmission of Mathematical Ideas. Franz Steiner Verlag. 855/http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/universe?s=t) from the
original on October 23, 2012. Retrieved September 21, 2012.
13. Glick, Thomas F.; Livesey, Steven; Wallis, Faith. Medieval Science
Technology and Medicine: An Encyclopedia. Routledge.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universe 12/19
10/6/22, 1:48 PM Universe - Wikipedia
25. Schreuder, Duco A. (December 3, 2014). Vision and Visual 41. C. Sivaram (1986). "Evolution of the Universe through the Planck
Perception (https://books.google.com/books?id=I7a7BQAAQBAJ&p epoch". Astrophysics and Space Science. 125 (1): 189–99.
g=PA135). Archway Publishing. p. 135. ISBN 978-1-4808-1294-9. Bibcode:1986Ap&SS.125..189S (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20210422045606/https://book 1986Ap&SS.125..189S). doi:10.1007/BF00643984 (https://doi.org/1
s.google.com/books?id=I7a7BQAAQBAJ&pg=PA135) from the 0.1007%2FBF00643984). S2CID 123344693 (https://api.semanticsc
original on April 22, 2021. Retrieved January 27, 2016. holar.org/CorpusID:123344693).
26. Mermin, N. David (2004). "Could Feynman Have Said This?" (http 42. Larson, Richard B. & Bromm, Volker (March 2002). "The First Stars
s://doi.org/10.1063%2F1.1768652). Physics Today. 57 (5): 10. in the Universe" (http://www.scientificamerican.com/article/the-first-s
Bibcode:2004PhT....57e..10M (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/20 tars-in-the-un/). Scientific American. Archived (https://web.archive.or
04PhT....57e..10M). doi:10.1063/1.1768652 (https://doi.org/10.106 g/web/20150611032732/http://www.scientificamerican.com/article/th
3%2F1.1768652). e-first-stars-in-the-un/) from the original on June 11, 2015. Retrieved
27. Tegmark, Max (2008). "The Mathematical Universe". Foundations of June 9, 2015.
Physics. 38 (2): 101–50. arXiv:0704.0646 (https://arxiv.org/abs/070 43. Ryden, Barbara, "Introduction to Cosmology", 2006, eqn. 6.33
4.0646). Bibcode:2008FoPh...38..101T (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.ed 44. "Antimatter" (https://web.archive.org/web/20040307075727/http://w
u/abs/2008FoPh...38..101T). doi:10.1007/s10701-007-9186-9 (http ww.pparc.ac.uk/Ps/bbs/bbs_antimatter.asp). Particle Physics and
s://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10701-007-9186-9). S2CID 9890455 (http Astronomy Research Council. October 28, 2003. Archived from the
s://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:9890455). A short version of original (http://www.pparc.ac.uk/Ps/bbs/bbs_antimatter.asp) on
which is available at Fixsen, D. J. (2007). "Shut up and calculate". March 7, 2004. Retrieved August 10, 2006.
arXiv:0709.4024 (https://arxiv.org/abs/0709.4024) [physics.pop-ph 45. Smorra C.; et al. (October 20, 2017). "A parts-per-billion
(https://arxiv.org/archive/physics.pop-ph)]. in reference to David measurement of the antiproton magnetic moment" (http://cds.cern.c
Mermin's famous quote "shut up and calculate!"[26] h/record/2291601/files/nature24048.pdf) (PDF). Nature. 550 (7676):
28. Holt, Jim (2012). Why Does the World Exist?. Liveright Publishing. 371–74. Bibcode:2017Natur.550..371S (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.ed
p. 308. u/abs/2017Natur.550..371S). doi:10.1038/nature24048 (https://doi.o
29. Ferris, Timothy (1997). The Whole Shebang: A State-of-the- rg/10.1038%2Fnature24048). PMID 29052625 (https://pubmed.ncbi.
Universe(s) Report. Simon & Schuster. p. 400. nlm.nih.gov/29052625). S2CID 205260736 (https://api.semanticsch
30. Copan, Paul; William Lane Craig (2004). Creation Out of Nothing: A olar.org/CorpusID:205260736). Archived (https://web.archive.org/we
Biblical, Philosophical, and Scientific Exploration (https://archive.or b/20181030045315/http://cds.cern.ch/record/2291601/files/nature24
g/details/creationoutofnot0000copa/page/220). Baker Academic. 048.pdf) (PDF) from the original on October 30, 2018. Retrieved
p. 220 (https://archive.org/details/creationoutofnot0000copa/page/2 August 25, 2019.
20). ISBN 978-0-8010-2733-8. 46. Landau & Lifshitz (1975, p. 361): "It is interesting to note that in a
31. Bolonkin, Alexander (November 2011). Universe, Human closed space the total electric charge must be zero. Namely, every
Immortality and Future Human Evaluation (https://books.google.co closed surface in a finite space encloses on each side of itself a
m/books?id=TuWQx58ZnPsC&pg=PA3). Elsevier. pp. 3–. finite region of space. Therefore, the flux of the electric field through
ISBN 978-0-12-415801-6. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20 this surface is equal, on the one hand, to the total charge located in
210208114300/https://books.google.com/books?id=TuWQx58ZnPs the interior of the surface, and on the other hand to the total charge
C&pg=PA3) from the original on February 8, 2021. Retrieved outside of it, with opposite sign. Consequently, the sum of the
January 27, 2016. charges on the two sides of the surface is zero."
32. The Compact Edition of the Oxford English Dictionary, volume II, 47. Kaku, Michio (March 11, 2008). Physics of the Impossible: A
Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1971, p. 3518. Scientific Exploration into the World of Phasers, Force Fields,
Teleportation, and Time Travel (https://archive.org/details/physicsofi
33. Lewis, C.T. and Short, S (1879) A Latin Dictionary, Oxford mpossi00kaku). Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group. pp. 202 (http
University Press, ISBN 0-19-864201-6, pp. 1933, 1977–1978.
s://archive.org/details/physicsofimpossi00kaku/page/202)–.
34. Liddell; Scott. "A Greek-English Lexicon" (http://lsj.translatum.gr/wik ISBN 978-0-385-52544-2.
i/πᾶς). Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20181106193619/http 48. Bars, Itzhak; Terning, John (October 19, 2018). Extra Dimensions in
s://lsj.translatum.gr/wiki/%CF%80%E1%BE%B6%CF%82) from the
Space and Time (https://books.google.com/books?id=fFSMatekilIC
original on November 6, 2018. Retrieved July 30, 2022. "πᾶς"
&pg=PA27). Springer. pp. 27–. ISBN 978-0-387-77637-8. Retrieved
35. Liddell; Scott. "A Greek-English Lexicon" (http://lsj.translatum.gr/wik October 19, 2018.
i/ὅλος). Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20181106185336/http
49. "WolframAlpha" (https://www.wolframalpha.com/input/?i=radius+of+t
s://lsj.translatum.gr/wiki/%E1%BD%85%CE%BB%CE%BF%CF%8
he+universe+in+parsecs). Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20
2) from the original on November 6, 2018. Retrieved July 30, 2022.
181020095203/https://www.wolframalpha.com/input/?i=radius+of+th
"ὅλος"
e+universe+in+parsecs) from the original on October 20, 2018.
36. Liddell; Scott. "A Greek–English Lexicon" (https://lsj.gr/wiki/κόσμος). Retrieved October 19, 2018.
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20181106193457/https://lsj.tr
50. Crockett, Christopher (February 20, 2013). "What is a light-year?" (h
anslatum.gr/wiki/%CE%BA%CF%8C%CF%83%CE%BC%CE%B
ttp://earthsky.org/space/what-is-a-light-year). EarthSky. Archived (ht
F%CF%82) from the original on November 6, 2018. Retrieved
tps://web.archive.org/web/20150220203559/http://earthsky.org/spac
July 30, 2022. "κόσμος"
e/what-is-a-light-year) from the original on February 20, 2015.
37. Lewis, C.T.; Short, S (1879). A Latin Dictionary (https://archive.org/d Retrieved February 20, 2015.
etails/latindictionaryf00lewi). Oxford University Press. pp. 1175 (http
51. Rindler, p. 196.
s://archive.org/details/latindictionaryf00lewi/page/n1188), 1189–90,
1881–82. ISBN 978-0-19-864201-5. 52. Christian, Eric; Samar, Safi-Harb. "How large is the Milky Way?" (htt
ps://web.archive.org/web/19990202064645/http://imagine.gsfc.nas
38. The Compact Edition of the Oxford English Dictionary (https://archiv
a.gov/docs/ask_astro/answers/980317b.html). Archived from the
e.org/details/compacteditionof03robe/page/569). Vol. II. Oxford:
original (http://imagine.gsfc.nasa.gov/docs/ask_astro/answers/9803
Oxford University Press. 1971. pp. 569, 909, 1900, 3821–22 (http
17b.html) on February 2, 1999. Retrieved November 28, 2007.
s://archive.org/details/compacteditionof03robe/page/569).
ISBN 978-0-19-861117-2. 53. Hall, Shannon (May 4, 2015). "Size of the Milky Way Upgraded,
Solving Galaxy Puzzle" (http://www.space.com/29270-milky-way-siz
39. Silk, Joseph (2009). Horizons of Cosmology. Templeton Pressr.
e-larger-than-thought.html). Space.com. Archived (https://web.archi
p. 208.
ve.org/web/20150607104254/http://www.space.com/29270-milky-w
40. Singh, Simon (2005). Big Bang: The Origin of the Universe. Harper ay-size-larger-than-thought.html) from the original on June 7, 2015.
Perennial. p. 560. Bibcode:2004biba.book.....S (https://ui.adsabs.ha Retrieved June 9, 2015.
rvard.edu/abs/2004biba.book.....S).

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universe 13/19
10/6/22, 1:48 PM Universe - Wikipedia
54. I. Ribas; C. Jordi; F. Vilardell; E.L. Fitzpatrick; R.W. Hilditch; F. 62. Perlmutter, S.; Aldering; Goldhaber; Knop; Nugent; Castro;
Edward Guinan (2005). "First Determination of the Distance and Deustua; Fabbro; Goobar; Groom; Hook; Kim; Kim; Lee; Nunes;
Fundamental Properties of an Eclipsing Binary in the Andromeda Pain; Pennypacker; Quimby; Lidman; Ellis; Irwin; McMahon; Ruiz‐
Galaxy". Astrophysical Journal. 635 (1): L37–L40. arXiv:astro- Lapuente; Walton; Schaefer; Boyle; Filippenko; Matheson; Fruchter;
ph/0511045 (https://arxiv.org/abs/astro-ph/0511045). et al. (1999). "Measurements of Omega and Lambda from 42 high
Bibcode:2005ApJ...635L..37R (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/20 redshift supernovae". Astrophysical Journal. 517 (2): 565–86.
05ApJ...635L..37R). doi:10.1086/499161 (https://doi.org/10.1086%2 arXiv:astro-ph/9812133 (https://arxiv.org/abs/astro-ph/9812133).
F499161). S2CID 119522151 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/Corpu Bibcode:1999ApJ...517..565P (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/19
sID:119522151).
99ApJ...517..565P). doi:10.1086/307221 (https://doi.org/10.1086%2
McConnachie, A.W.; Irwin, M.J.; Ferguson, A.M.N.; Ibata, R.A.; F307221). S2CID 118910636 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/Corpu
Lewis, G.F.; Tanvir, N. (2005). "Distances and metallicities for 17 sID:118910636).
Local Group galaxies". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical 63. Carroll, Sean; Kaku, Michio (2014). "End of the Universe". How the
Society. 356 (4): 979–97. arXiv:astro-ph/0410489 (https://arxiv.org/a Universe Works. Discovery Channel.
bs/astro-ph/0410489). Bibcode:2005MNRAS.356..979M (https://ui.a
64. Overbye, Dennis (October 11, 2003). "A 'Cosmic Jerk' That
dsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2005MNRAS.356..979M).
Reversed the Universe" (https://www.nytimes.com/2003/10/11/us/a-
doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2004.08514.x (https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.
cosmic-jerk-that-reversed-the-universe.html?pagewanted=all&src=p
1365-2966.2004.08514.x).
m). New York Times. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/201707
55. Janek, Vanessa (February 20, 2015). "How can space travel faster 01114952/http://www.nytimes.com/2003/10/11/us/a-cosmic-jerk-that-
than the speed of light?" (http://www.universetoday.com/119068/ho reversed-the-universe.html?pagewanted=all&src=pm) from the
w-can-space-travel-faster-than-the-speed-of-light/). Universe Today. original on July 1, 2017. Retrieved February 20, 2017.
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20211216061309/https://ww
65. Schutz, Bernard (May 31, 2009). A First Course in General
w.universetoday.com/119068/how-can-space-travel-faster-than-the-
Relativity (https://archive.org/details/firstcourseingen00bern_0/page/
speed-of-light/) from the original on December 16, 2021. Retrieved 142) (2 ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 142, 171 (https://archi
June 6, 2015. ve.org/details/firstcourseingen00bern_0/page/142). ISBN 978-0-
56. "Is faster-than-light travel or communication possible? Section: 521-88705-2.
Expansion of the Universe" (https://web.archive.org/web/201003102 66. WMAP Mission: Results – Age of the Universe (http://map.gsfc.nas
05556/http://math.ucr.edu/home/baez/physics/Relativity/SpeedOfLig a.gov/m_mm/mr_content.html) Archived (https://web.archive.org/we
ht/FTL.html#13). Philip Gibbs. 1997. Archived from the original (htt b/20070225101705/http://map.gsfc.nasa.gov/m_mm/mr_content.ht
p://math.ucr.edu/home/baez/physics/Relativity/SpeedOfLight/FTL.ht ml) February 25, 2007, at the Wayback Machine.
ml#13) on March 10, 2010. Retrieved June 6, 2015. Map.gsfc.nasa.gov. Retrieved November 28, 2011.
57. M. Vardanyan, R. Trotta, J. Silk (January 28, 2011). "Applications of 67. Luminet, Jean-Pierre; Weeks, Jeffrey R.; Riazuelo, Alain; Lehoucq,
Bayesian model averaging to the curvature and size of the Roland; Uzan, Jean-Philippe (October 9, 2003). "Dodecahedral
Universe". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society: space topology as an explanation for weak wide-angle temperature
Letters. 413 (1): L91–L95. arXiv:1101.5476 (https://arxiv.org/abs/110 correlations in the cosmic microwave background" (http://cds.cern.c
1.5476). Bibcode:2011MNRAS.413L..91V (https://ui.adsabs.harvar h/record/647738). Nature (Submitted manuscript). 425 (6958): 593–
d.edu/abs/2011MNRAS.413L..91V). doi:10.1111/j.1745- 95. arXiv:astro-ph/0310253 (https://arxiv.org/abs/astro-ph/0310253).
3933.2011.01040.x (https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1745-3933.2011.01 Bibcode:2003Natur.425..593L (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/20
040.x). S2CID 2616287 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:2
03Natur.425..593L). doi:10.1038/nature01944 (https://doi.org/10.10
616287).
38%2Fnature01944). PMID 14534579 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.
58. Schreiber, Urs (June 6, 2008). "Urban Myths in Contemporary gov/14534579). S2CID 4380713 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/Co
Cosmology" (https://golem.ph.utexas.edu/category/2008/06/urban_ rpusID:4380713). Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/202105171
myths_in_contemporary_co.html). The n-Category Café. University 80259/http://cds.cern.ch/record/647738) from the original on May
of Texas at Austin. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20200701 17, 2021. Retrieved August 21, 2018.
041542/https://golem.ph.utexas.edu/category/2008/06/urban_myths
68. Luminet, Jean-Pierre; Roukema, Boudewijn F. (1999). "Topology of
_in_contemporary_co.html) from the original on July 1, 2020.
the Universe: Theory and Observations". Proceedings of
Retrieved June 1, 2020.
Cosmology School held at Cargese, Corsica, August 1998.
59. Don N. Page (2007). "Susskind's Challenge to the Hartle-Hawking arXiv:astro-ph/9901364 (https://arxiv.org/abs/astro-ph/9901364).
No-Boundary Proposal and Possible Resolutions". Journal of Bibcode:1999ASIC..541..117L (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/19
Cosmology and Astroparticle Physics. 2007 (1): 004. arXiv:hep- 99ASIC..541..117L).
th/0610199 (https://arxiv.org/abs/hep-th/0610199). 69. Brill, Dieter; Jacobsen, Ted (2006). "Spacetime and Euclidean
Bibcode:2007JCAP...01..004P (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/20 geometry". General Relativity and Gravitation. 38 (4): 643–51.
07JCAP...01..004P). doi:10.1088/1475-7516/2007/01/004 (https://do arXiv:gr-qc/0407022 (https://arxiv.org/abs/gr-qc/0407022).
i.org/10.1088%2F1475-7516%2F2007%2F01%2F004). Bibcode:2006GReGr..38..643B (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2
S2CID 17403084 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:174030 006GReGr..38..643B). CiteSeerX 10.1.1.338.7953 (https://citeseerx.
84). ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.338.7953).
60. Berardelli, Phil (March 25, 2010). "Galaxy Collisions Give Birth to doi:10.1007/s10714-006-0254-9 (https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10714
Quasars" (https://www.science.org/content/article/galaxy-collisions-g -006-0254-9). S2CID 119067072 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/Co
ive-birth-quasars). Science News. Archived (https://web.archive.org/ rpusID:119067072).
web/20220325005200/https://www.science.org/content/article/galax 70. Edward Robert Harrison (2000). Cosmology: the science of the
y-collisions-give-birth-quasars) from the original on March 25, 2022. universe (https://books.google.com/books?id=kNxeHD2cbLYC&pg=
Retrieved July 30, 2022.
PA447). Cambridge University Press. pp. 447–. ISBN 978-0-521-
61. Riess, Adam G.; Filippenko; Challis; Clocchiatti; Diercks; Garnavich; 66148-5. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20160826075123/ht
Gilliland; Hogan; Jha; Kirshner; Leibundgut; Phillips; Reiss; tps://books.google.com/books?id=kNxeHD2cbLYC&pg=PA447)
Schmidt; Schommer; Smith; Spyromilio; Stubbs; Suntzeff; Tonry from the original on August 26, 2016. Retrieved May 1, 2011.
(1998). "Observational evidence from supernovae for an
71. Liddle, Andrew R.; David Hilary Lyth (April 13, 2000). Cosmological
accelerating universe and a cosmological constant". Astronomical
inflation and large-scale structure (https://books.google.com/books?i
Journal. 116 (3): 1009–38. arXiv:astro-ph/9805201 (https://arxiv.org/
d=XmWauPZSovMC&pg=PA24). Cambridge University Press.
abs/astro-ph/9805201). Bibcode:1998AJ....116.1009R (https://ui.ads
pp. 24–. ISBN 978-0-521-57598-0. Archived (https://web.archive.or
abs.harvard.edu/abs/1998AJ....116.1009R). doi:10.1086/300499 (htt
g/web/20131231164745/http://books.google.com/books?id=XmWau
ps://doi.org/10.1086%2F300499). S2CID 15640044 (https://api.sem PZSovMC&pg=PA24) from the original on December 31, 2013.
anticscholar.org/CorpusID:15640044). Retrieved May 1, 2011.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universe 14/19
10/6/22, 1:48 PM Universe - Wikipedia
72. "What is the Ultimate Fate of the Universe?" (http://map.gsfc.nasa.g 83. Redd, SPACE.com, Nola Taylor. "It's Official: The Universe Is Dying
ov/universe/uni_fate.html). National Aeronautics and Space Slowly" (http://www.scientificamerican.com/article/it-s-official-the-uni
Administration. NASA. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20211 verse-is-dying-slowly/). Scientific American. Archived (https://web.ar
222195155/https://map.gsfc.nasa.gov/universe/uni_fate.html) from chive.org/web/20150812010821/http://www.scientificamerican.com/
the original on December 22, 2021. Retrieved August 23, 2015. article/it-s-official-the-universe-is-dying-slowly/) from the original on
73. Will the Universe expand forever? (http://map.gsfc.nasa.gov/univers August 12, 2015. Retrieved August 11, 2015.
e/uni_shape.html) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/200803091 84. Parr, Will; et al. "RIP Universe – Your Time Is Coming… Slowly |
64248/http://map.gsfc.nasa.gov/universe/uni_shape.html) March 9, Video" (http://www.space.com/30194-rip-universe-your-time-is-comi
2008, at the Wayback Machine, WMAP website at NASA. ng-slowly-video.html). Space.com. Archived (https://web.archive.or
74. Roukema, Boudewijn; Buliński, Zbigniew; Szaniewska, Agnieszka; g/web/20150813221122/http://www.space.com/30194-rip-universe-y
Gaudin, Nicolas E. (2008). "A test of the Poincare dodecahedral our-time-is-coming-slowly-video.html) from the original on August
space topology hypothesis with the WMAP CMB data". Astronomy 13, 2015. Retrieved August 20, 2015.
and Astrophysics. 482 (3): 747–53. arXiv:0801.0006 (https://arxiv.or 85. Sean Carroll, Ph.D., Caltech, 2007, The Teaching Company, Dark
g/abs/0801.0006). Bibcode:2008A&A...482..747L (https://ui.adsabs. Matter, Dark Energy: The Dark Side of the Universe, Guidebook
harvard.edu/abs/2008A&A...482..747L). doi:10.1051/0004- Part 2 p. 46, Accessed October 7, 2013, "...dark matter: An invisible,
6361:20078777 (https://doi.org/10.1051%2F0004-6361%3A200787 essentially collisionless component of matter that makes up about
77). S2CID 1616362 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:161 25 percent of the energy density of the universe... it's a different
6362). kind of particle... something not yet observed in the laboratory..."
75. Aurich, Ralf; Lustig, S.; Steiner, F.; Then, H. (2004). "Hyperbolic 86. Peebles, P.J. E. & Ratra, Bharat (2003). "The cosmological constant
Universes with a Horned Topology and the CMB Anisotropy". and dark energy". Reviews of Modern Physics. 75 (2): 559–606.
Classical and Quantum Gravity. 21 (21): 4901–26. arXiv:astro- arXiv:astro-ph/0207347 (https://arxiv.org/abs/astro-ph/0207347).
ph/0403597 (https://arxiv.org/abs/astro-ph/0403597). Bibcode:2003RvMP...75..559P (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2
Bibcode:2004CQGra..21.4901A (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/ 003RvMP...75..559P). doi:10.1103/RevModPhys.75.559 (https://doi.
2004CQGra..21.4901A). doi:10.1088/0264-9381/21/21/010 (https:// org/10.1103%2FRevModPhys.75.559). S2CID 118961123 (https://a
doi.org/10.1088%2F0264-9381%2F21%2F21%2F010). pi.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:118961123).
S2CID 17619026 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:176190 87. Mandolesi, N.; Calzolari, P.; Cortiglioni, S.; Delpino, F.; Sironi, G.;
26). Inzani, P.; Deamici, G.; Solheim, J.-E.; Berger, L.; Partridge, R.B.;
76. Planck Collaboration (2014). "Planck 2013 results. XVI. Martenis, P.L.; Sangree, C.H.; Harvey, R.C. (1986). "Large-scale
Cosmological parameters". Astronomy & Astrophysics. 571: A16. homogeneity of the universe measured by the microwave
arXiv:1303.5076 (https://arxiv.org/abs/1303.5076). background". Nature. 319 (6056): 751–53.
Bibcode:2014A&A...571A..16P (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2 Bibcode:1986Natur.319..751M (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1
014A&A...571A..16P). doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201321591 (https://d 986Natur.319..751M). doi:10.1038/319751a0 (https://doi.org/10.103
oi.org/10.1051%2F0004-6361%2F201321591). S2CID 118349591 8%2F319751a0). S2CID 4349689 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/C
(https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:118349591). orpusID:4349689).
77. "Planck reveals 'almost perfect' universe" (http://physicsworld.com/c 88. "New Horizons spacecraft answers the question: How dark is
ws/article/news/2013/mar/21/planck-reveals-almost-perfect-univers space?" (https://phys.org/news/2021-01-horizons-spacecraft-dark-s
e). Michael Banks. Physics World. March 21, 2013. Archived (http pace.html). phys.org. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/202101
s://web.archive.org/web/20130324022238/http://physicsworld.com/c 15110710/https://phys.org/news/2021-01-horizons-spacecraft-dark-
ws/article/news/2013/mar/21/planck-reveals-almost-perfect-univers space.html) from the original on January 15, 2021. Retrieved
e) from the original on March 24, 2013. Retrieved March 21, 2013. January 15, 2021.
78. Isaak, Mark, ed. (2005). "CI301: The Anthropic Principle" (http://ww 89. Howell, Elizabeth (March 20, 2018). "How Many Galaxies Are
w.talkorigins.org/indexcc/CI/CI301.html). Index to Creationist There?" (https://www.space.com/25303-how-many-galaxies-are-in-t
Claims. TalkOrigins Archive. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/ he-universe.html). Space.com. Archived (https://web.archive.org/we
20140701145811/http://www.talkorigins.org/indexcc/CI/CI301.html) b/20210228013433/https://www.space.com/25303-how-many-galaxi
from the original on July 1, 2014. Retrieved October 31, 2007. es-are-in-the-universe.html) from the original on February 28, 2021.
79. Fritzsche, Hellmut. "electromagnetic radiation | physics" (http://www. Retrieved March 5, 2021.
britannica.com/science/electromagnetic-radiation). Encyclopædia 90. Staff (2019). "How Many Stars Are There In The Universe?" (https://
Britannica. p. 1. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/2015083105 www.esa.int/Our_Activities/Space_Science/Herschel/How_many_st
0929/http://www.britannica.com/science/electromagnetic-radiation) ars_are_there_in_the_Universe). European Space Agency.
from the original on August 31, 2015. Retrieved July 26, 2015. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20190923134902/http://www.
80. "Physics 7:Relativity, SpaceTime and Cosmology" (https://web.archi esa.int/Our_Activities/Space_Science/Herschel/How_many_stars_a
ve.org/web/20150905155421/http://physics.ucr.edu/~wudka/Physics re_there_in_the_Universe) from the original on September 23,
7/Notes_www/Pdf_downloads/8.pdf) (PDF). Physics 7:Relativity, 2019. Retrieved September 21, 2019.
SpaceTime and Cosmology. University of California Riverside. 91. Marov, Mikhail Ya. (2015). "The Structure of the Universe". The
Archived from the original (http://physics.ucr.edu/~wudka/Physics7/ Fundamentals of Modern Astrophysics. pp. 279–294.
Notes_www/Pdf_downloads/8.pdf) (PDF) on September 5, 2015. doi:10.1007/978-1-4614-8730-2_10 (https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978
Retrieved July 26, 2015. -1-4614-8730-2_10). ISBN 978-1-4614-8729-6.
81. "Physics – for the 21st Century" (https://web.archive.org/web/20150 92. Mackie, Glen (February 1, 2002). "To see the Universe in a Grain of
907212145/http://www.learner.org/courses/physics/unit/text.html?uni Taranaki Sand" (http://astronomy.swin.edu.au/~gmackie/billions.htm
t=11&secNum=6). www.learner.org. Harvard-Smithsonian Center for l). Centre for Astrophysics and Supercomputing. Archived (https://w
Astrophysics Annenberg Learner. Archived from the original (http:// ww.webcitation.org/60r7Xm9UZ?url=http://astronomy.swin.edu.au/~
www.learner.org/courses/physics/unit/text.html?unit=11&secNum=6) gmackie/billions.html) from the original on August 11, 2011.
on September 7, 2015. Retrieved July 27, 2015. Retrieved January 28, 2017.
82. "Dark matter – A history shapes by dark force" (http://ngm.nationalg 93. "Unveiling the Secret of a Virgo Dwarf Galaxy" (http://www.eso.org/p
eographic.com/2015/01/hidden-cosmos/timeline-graphic). Timothy ublic/usa/news/eso0018/). European Southern Observatory Press
Ferris. National Geographic. 2015. Archived (https://web.archive.or Release. ESO: 12. May 3, 2000. Bibcode:2000eso..pres...12. (http
g/web/20160304095337/http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/2015/0 s://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2000eso..pres...12.) Archived (https://
1/hidden-cosmos/timeline-graphic) from the original on March 4, web.archive.org/web/20150713223811/http://www.eso.org/public/us
2016. Retrieved December 29, 2015. a/news/eso0018/) from the original on July 13, 2015. Retrieved
January 3, 2007.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universe 15/19
10/6/22, 1:48 PM Universe - Wikipedia
94. "Hubble's Largest Galaxy Portrait Offers a New High-Definition 105. Carroll, Sean (2001). "The cosmological constant" (https://web.archi
View" (http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/hubble/science/hst_spir ve.org/web/20061013042057/http://relativity.livingreviews.org/Article
al_m10.html). NASA. February 28, 2006. Archived (https://web.archi s/lrr-2001-1/index.html). Living Reviews in Relativity. 4 (1): 1.
ve.org/web/20200527063744/https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/ arXiv:astro-ph/0004075 (https://arxiv.org/abs/astro-ph/0004075).
hubble/science/hst_spiral_m10.html) from the original on May 27, Bibcode:2001LRR.....4....1C (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/200
2020. Retrieved January 3, 2007. 1LRR.....4....1C). doi:10.12942/lrr-2001-1 (https://doi.org/10.12942%
95. Gibney, Elizabeth (September 3, 2014). "Earth's new address: 2Flrr-2001-1). PMC 5256042 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/arti
'Solar System, Milky Way, Laniakea' " (http://www.nature.com/news/ cles/PMC5256042). PMID 28179856 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.g
earth-s-new-address-solar-system-milky-way-laniakea-1.15819). ov/28179856). Archived from the original (http://relativity.livingreview
Nature. doi:10.1038/nature.2014.15819 (https://doi.org/10.1038%2F s.org/Articles/lrr-2001-1/index.html) on October 13, 2006. Retrieved
nature.2014.15819). S2CID 124323774 (https://api.semanticscholar. September 28, 2006.
org/CorpusID:124323774). Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20 106. "Planck captures portrait of the young universe, revealing earliest
190107010904/http://www.nature.com/news/earth-s-new-address-s light" (http://www.cam.ac.uk/research/news/planck-captures-portrait-
olar-system-milky-way-laniakea-1.15819?error=cookies_not_suppor of-the-young-universe-revealing-earliest-light). University of
ted&code=81eb43f5-e92f-436d-9725-3b681615454d) from the Cambridge. March 21, 2013. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/
original on January 7, 2019. Retrieved August 21, 2015. 20190417165900/https://www.cam.ac.uk/research/news/planck-capt
96. "Local Group" (https://web.archive.org/web/20180621093042/http ures-portrait-of-the-young-universe-revealing-earliest-light) from the
s://www.universetoday.com/30286/local-group/). Fraser Cain. original on April 17, 2019. Retrieved March 21, 2013.
Universe Today. May 4, 2009. Archived from the original (http://ww 107. P. Davies (1992). The New Physics: A Synthesis (https://books.goo
w.universetoday.com/30286/local-group/) on June 21, 2018. gle.com/books?id=akb2FpZSGnMC&pg=PA1). Cambridge
Retrieved August 21, 2015. University Press. p. 1. ISBN 978-0-521-43831-5. Archived (https://w
97. Devlin, Hannah; Correspondent, Science (April 20, 2015). eb.archive.org/web/20210203103749/https://books.google.com/boo
"Astronomers discover largest known structure in the universe is ... ks?id=akb2FpZSGnMC&pg=PA1) from the original on February 3,
a big hole" (https://www.theguardian.com/science/2015/apr/20/astro 2021. Retrieved May 17, 2020.
nomers-discover-largest-known-structure-in-the-universe-is-a-big-ho 108. Persic, Massimo; Salucci, Paolo (September 1, 1992). "The baryon
le). The Guardian. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20170207 content of the universe". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical
131614/https://www.theguardian.com/science/2015/apr/20/astronom Society. 258 (1): 14P–18P. arXiv:astro-ph/0502178 (https://arxiv.org/
ers-discover-largest-known-structure-in-the-universe-is-a-big-hole) abs/astro-ph/0502178). Bibcode:1992MNRAS.258P..14P (https://ui.
from the original on February 7, 2017. Retrieved December 18, adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1992MNRAS.258P..14P).
2016. doi:10.1093/mnras/258.1.14P (https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fmnras%2
98. "Content of the Universe – WMAP 9yr Pie Chart" (http://wmap.gsfc. F258.1.14P). ISSN 0035-8711 (https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0035-
nasa.gov/media/080998/). wmap.gsfc.nasa.gov. Archived (https://w 8711). S2CID 17945298 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:1
eb.archive.org/web/20150905184934/http://wmap.gsfc.nasa.gov/me 7945298).
dia/080998/) from the original on September 5, 2015. Retrieved 109. G. 't Hooft (1997). In search of the ultimate building blocks (https://ar
July 26, 2015. chive.org/details/insearchofultima0000hoof). Cambridge University
99. Rindler, p. 202. Press. p. 6 (https://archive.org/details/insearchofultima0000hoof/pag
e/6). ISBN 978-0-521-57883-7.
100. Liddle, Andrew (2003). An Introduction to Modern Cosmology (2nd
ed.). John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-0-470-84835-7.. p. 2. 110. Clayton, Donald D. (1983). Principles of Stellar Evolution and
Nucleosynthesis (https://archive.org/details/principlesofstel0000cla
101. Livio, Mario (2001). The Accelerating Universe: Infinite Expansion,
y). The University of Chicago Press. pp. 362–435 (https://archive.or
the Cosmological Constant, and the Beauty of the Cosmos (https://b
ooks.google.com/books?id=4EidS6_VVNYC&q=cosmological+princi g/details/principlesofstel0000clay/page/362). ISBN 978-0-226-
ple+%22center+of+the+universe%22&pg=PA53). John Wiley and 10953-4.
Sons. p. 53. ISBN 978-0-471-43714-7. Archived (https://web.archiv 111. Veltman, Martinus (2003). Facts and Mysteries in Elementary
e.org/web/20210513224845/https://books.google.com/books?id=4Ei Particle Physics (https://archive.org/details/factsmysteriesin0000vel
dS6_VVNYC&q=cosmological+principle+%22center+of+the+univer t). World Scientific. ISBN 978-981-238-149-1.
se%22&pg=PA53) from the original on May 13, 2021. Retrieved 112. Braibant, Sylvie; Giacomelli, Giorgio; Spurio, Maurizio (2012).
March 31, 2012. Particles and Fundamental Interactions: An Introduction to Particle
102. Peebles, P.J.E. & Ratra, Bharat (2003). "The cosmological constant Physics (https://books.google.com/books?id=e8YUUG2pGeIC&pg=
and dark energy". Reviews of Modern Physics. 75 (2): 559–606. PA1) (2nd ed.). Springer. pp. 1–3. ISBN 978-94-007-2463-1.
arXiv:astro-ph/0207347 (https://arxiv.org/abs/astro-ph/0207347). Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20160826133823/https://book
Bibcode:2003RvMP...75..559P (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2 s.google.com/books?id=e8YUUG2pGeIC&pg=PA1) from the
003RvMP...75..559P). doi:10.1103/RevModPhys.75.559 (https://doi. original on August 26, 2016. Retrieved January 27, 2016.
org/10.1103%2FRevModPhys.75.559). S2CID 118961123 (https://a 113. Close, Frank (2012). Particle Physics: A Very Short Introduction.
pi.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:118961123). Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-280434-1.
103. Steinhardt, Paul J.; Turok, Neil (2006). "Why the cosmological 114. R. Oerter (2006). The Theory of Almost Everything: The Standard
constant is small and positive". Science. 312 (5777): 1180–83. Model, the Unsung Triumph of Modern Physics (https://archive.org/d
arXiv:astro-ph/0605173 (https://arxiv.org/abs/astro-ph/0605173). etails/theoryofalmostev0000oert) (Kindle ed.). Penguin Group. p. 2
Bibcode:2006Sci...312.1180S (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/20 (https://archive.org/details/theoryofalmostev0000oert/page/2).
06Sci...312.1180S). doi:10.1126/science.1126231 (https://doi.org/1 ISBN 978-0-13-236678-6.
0.1126%2Fscience.1126231). PMID 16675662 (https://pubmed.ncb 115. Onyisi, P. (October 23, 2012). "Higgs boson FAQ" (https://wikis.utex
i.nlm.nih.gov/16675662). S2CID 14178620 (https://api.semanticsch as.edu/display/utatlas/Higgs+boson+FAQ). University of Texas
olar.org/CorpusID:14178620). ATLAS group. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/201310121303
104. "Dark Energy" (https://web.archive.org/web/20130527105518/http:// 40/https://wikis.utexas.edu/display/utatlas/Higgs+boson+FAQ) from
hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/HBASE/astro/dareng.html). the original on October 12, 2013. Retrieved January 8, 2013.
Hyperphysics. Archived from the original (http://hyperphysics.phy-as
tr.gsu.edu/hbase/astro/dareng.html) on May 27, 2013. Retrieved
January 4, 2014.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universe 16/19
10/6/22, 1:48 PM Universe - Wikipedia
116. Strassler, M. (October 12, 2012). "The Higgs FAQ 2.0" (http://profm 130. "Cosmic Detectives" (http://www.esa.int/Our_Activities/Space_Scien
attstrassler.com/articles-and-posts/the-higgs-particle/the-higgs-faq-2 ce/Cosmic_detectives). The European Space Agency (ESA). April
-0/). ProfMattStrassler.com. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/2 2, 2013. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20190211204726/htt
0131012042637/http://profmattstrassler.com/articles-and-posts/the- p://www.esa.int/Our_Activities/Space_Science/Cosmic_detectives)
higgs-particle/the-higgs-faq-2-0/) from the original on October 12, from the original on February 11, 2019. Retrieved April 15, 2013.
2013. Retrieved January 8, 2013. "[Q] Why do particle physicists 131. Raine & Thomas (2001, pp. 122–23)
care so much about the Higgs particle?

132. Raine & Thomas (2001, p. 70)

[A] Well, actually, they don't. What they really care about is the
Higgs field, because it is so important. [emphasis in original]" 133. Raine & Thomas (2001, p. 84)
117. Weinberg, Steven (April 20, 2011). Dreams of a Final Theory: The 134. Raine & Thomas (2001, pp. 88, 110–13)
Scientist's Search for the Ultimate Laws of Nature. Knopf Doubleday 135. Munitz MK (1959). "One Universe or Many?". Journal of the History
Publishing Group. ISBN 978-0-307-78786-6. of Ideas. 12 (2): 231–55. doi:10.2307/2707516 (https://doi.org/10.23
118. Allday, Jonathan (2002). Quarks, Leptons and the Big Bang 07%2F2707516). JSTOR 2707516 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/270
(Second ed.). IOP Publishing. ISBN 978-0-7503-0806-9. 7516).
119. "Lepton (physics)" (http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/336 136. Linde A. (1986). "Eternal chaotic inflation" (http://cds.cern.ch/record/
940/lepton). Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived (https://web.archiv 167897). Mod. Phys. Lett. A. 1 (2): 81–85.
e.org/web/20150511203531/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/t Bibcode:1986MPLA....1...81L (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/19
opic/336940/lepton) from the original on May 11, 2015. Retrieved 86MPLA....1...81L). doi:10.1142/S0217732386000129 (https://doi.or
September 29, 2010. g/10.1142%2FS0217732386000129). S2CID 123472763 (https://ap
i.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:123472763). Archived (https://web.
120. Harari, H. (1977). "Beyond charm". In Balian, R.; Llewellyn-Smith, archive.org/web/20190417211031/http://cds.cern.ch/record/16789
C.H. (eds.). Weak and Electromagnetic Interactions at High Energy, 7/) from the original on April 17, 2019. Retrieved August 6, 2017.

Les Houches, France, Jul 5 – Aug 14, 1976. Les Houches Summer Linde A. (1986). "Eternally existing self-reproducing chaotic
School Proceedings. Vol. 29. North-Holland. p. 613. inflationary Universe" (http://www.stanford.edu/~alinde/Eternal86.pd
121. Harari H. (1977). "Three generations of quarks and leptons" (https:// f) (PDF). Phys. Lett. B. 175 (4): 395–400.
www.slac.stanford.edu/cgi-bin/getdoc/slac-pub-1974.pdf) (PDF). In Bibcode:1986PhLB..175..395L (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1
E. van Goeler; Weinstein R. (eds.). Proceedings of the XII 986PhLB..175..395L). doi:10.1016/0370-2693(86)90611-8 (https://d
Rencontre de Moriond. p. 170. SLAC-PUB-1974. Archived (https://w oi.org/10.1016%2F0370-2693%2886%2990611-8). Archived (http
eb.archive.org/web/20200513180308/https://www.slac.stanford.edu/ s://web.archive.org/web/20131127164909/http://www.stanford.edu/~
cgi-bin/getdoc/slac-pub-1974.pdf) (PDF) from the original on May alinde/Eternal86.pdf) (PDF) from the original on November 27,
13, 2020. Retrieved May 29, 2020. 2013. Retrieved March 17, 2011.
122. "Experiment confirms famous physics model" (http://web.mit.edu/ne 137. Everett, Hugh (1957). "Relative State Formulation of Quantum
wsoffice/2007/neutrino.html) (Press release). MIT News Office. April Mechanics" (https://semanticscholar.org/paper/066c796be96aaec3e
18, 2007. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20130705100832/h d3e77b99f5589f8847bf34f). Reviews of Modern Physics. 29 (3):
ttp://web.mit.edu/newsoffice/2007/neutrino.html) from the original on 454–62. Bibcode:1957RvMP...29..454E (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.e
July 5, 2013. Retrieved June 2, 2015. du/abs/1957RvMP...29..454E). doi:10.1103/RevModPhys.29.454 (ht
123. "Thermal history of the universe and early growth of density tps://doi.org/10.1103%2FRevModPhys.29.454). S2CID 17178479 (h
fluctuations" (http://wwwmpa.mpa-garching.mpg.de/~gamk/TUM_Le ttps://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:17178479). Archived (http
ctures/Lecture4.pdf) (PDF). Guinevere Kauffmann. Max Planck s://web.archive.org/web/20200728102605/https://www.semanticsch
Institute for Astrophysics. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/201 olar.org/paper/Relative-state-formulation-of-quantum-mechanics-Ev
60821041542/http://wwwmpa.mpa-garching.mpg.de/~gamk/TUM_L erett/5faaf9aff2317c78d3b129ac8492305fd2bb826e) from the
ectures/Lecture4.pdf) (PDF) from the original on August 21, 2016. original on July 28, 2020. Retrieved December 17, 2019.
Retrieved January 6, 2016. 138. Jaume Garriga, Alexander Vilenkin (2007). "Many Worlds in One".
124. "First few minutes" (https://www.cfa.harvard.edu/~ejchaisson/cosmic Physical Review D. 64 (4). arXiv:gr-qc/0102010v2 (https://arxiv.org/
_evolution/docs/fr_1/fr_1_part3.html). Eric Chaisson. Harvard abs/gr-qc/0102010v2). doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.64.043511 (https://do
Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics. Archived (https://web.archive. i.org/10.1103%2FPhysRevD.64.043511). S2CID 119000743 (https://
org/web/20131204050252/https://www.cfa.harvard.edu/~ejchaisson/ api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:119000743).
cosmic_evolution/docs/fr_1/fr_1_part3.html) from the original on 139. Tegmark M. (2003). "Parallel universes. Not just a staple of science
December 4, 2013. Retrieved January 6, 2016. fiction, other universes are a direct implication of cosmological
125. "Timeline of the Big Bang" (https://www.physicsoftheuniverse.com/to observations". Scientific American. 288 (5): 40–51. arXiv:astro-
pics_bigbang_timeline.html). The physics of the Universe. Archived ph/0302131 (https://arxiv.org/abs/astro-ph/0302131).
(https://web.archive.org/web/20200330140345/https://www.physicso Bibcode:2003SciAm.288e..40T (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2
ftheuniverse.com/topics_bigbang_timeline.html) from the original on 003SciAm.288e..40T). doi:10.1038/scientificamerican0503-40 (http
March 30, 2020. Retrieved January 6, 2016. s://doi.org/10.1038%2Fscientificamerican0503-40). PMID 12701329
126. Zeilik, Michael; Gregory, Stephen A. (1998). "25-2". Introductory (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12701329).
Astronomy & Astrophysics (4th ed.). Saunders College Publishing. 140. Tegmark, Max (2003). "Parallel Universes". Scientific American. 288
ISBN 978-0-03-006228-5. (5): 40–51. arXiv:astro-ph/0302131 (https://arxiv.org/abs/astro-ph/03
127. Raine & Thomas (2001, p. 12) 02131). Bibcode:2003SciAm.288e..40T (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.e
128. Raine & Thomas (2001, p. 66) du/abs/2003SciAm.288e..40T). doi:10.1038/scientificamerican0503-
40 (https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fscientificamerican0503-40).
129. Friedmann A. (1922). "Über die Krümmung des Raumes" (http://pub PMID 12701329 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12701329).
likationen.ub.uni-frankfurt.de/files/16735/E001554876.pdf) (PDF).
Zeitschrift für Physik. 10 (1): 377–86. Bibcode:1922ZPhy...10..377F 141. Francisco José Soler Gil, Manuel Alfonseca (2013). "About the
(https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1922ZPhy...10..377F). Infinite Repetition of Histories in Space". Theoria: An International
doi:10.1007/BF01332580 (https://doi.org/10.1007%2FBF01332580). Journal for Theory, History and Foundations of Science. 29 (3): 361.
arXiv:1301.5295 (https://arxiv.org/abs/1301.5295).
S2CID 125190902 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:12519
doi:10.1387/theoria.9951 (https://doi.org/10.1387%2Ftheoria.9951).
0902). Archived (http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20160515100312/http%3
hdl:10486/664735 (https://hdl.handle.net/10486%2F664735).
A//publikationen.ub.uni%2Dfrankfurt.de/files/16735/E001554876.pd
S2CID 52996408 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:529964
f) (PDF) from the original on May 15, 2016. Retrieved August 13,
08).
2015.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universe 17/19
10/6/22, 1:48 PM Universe - Wikipedia
142. Ellis G. F (2011). "Does the Multiverse Really Exist?". Scientific 152. Stcherbatsky, F. Th. (1930, 1962), Buddhist Logic, Volume 1, p. 19,
American. 305 (2): 38–43. Bibcode:2011SciAm.305a..38E (https://u Dover, New York:
i.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2011SciAm.305a..38E).
doi:10.1038/scientificamerican0811-38 (https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fs
cientificamerican0811-38). PMID 21827123 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nl "The Buddhists denied the existence of substantial
m.nih.gov/21827123). matter altogether. Movement consists for them of
143. Moskowitz, Clara (August 12, 2011). "Weird! Our Universe May Be moments, it is a staccato movement, momentary flashes
a 'Multiverse,' Scientists Say" (http://www.livescience.com/15530-m of a stream of energy... "Everything is evanescent",...
ultiverse-universe-eternal-inflation-test.html). livescience. Archived says the Buddhist, because there is no stuff... Both
(https://web.archive.org/web/20150505003038/http://www.livescienc systems [Sānkhya, and later Indian Buddhism] share in
e.com/15530-multiverse-universe-eternal-inflation-test.html) from common a tendency to push the analysis of existence up
the original on May 5, 2015. Retrieved May 4, 2015. to its minutest, last elements which are imagined as
absolute qualities, or things possessing only one unique
144. Gernet, J. (1993–1994). "Space and time: Science and religion in
quality. They are called "qualities" (guna-dharma) in both
the encounter between China and Europe". Chinese Science.
Vol. 11. pp. 93–102. systems in the sense of absolute qualities, a kind of
atomic, or intra-atomic, energies of which the empirical
145. Blandford R. D. (2015). "A century of general relativity: Astrophysics
things are composed. Both systems, therefore, agree in
and cosmology". Science. 347 (6226): 1103–08.
denying the objective reality of the categories of
Bibcode:2015Sci...347.1103B (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/20
Substance and Quality,... and of the relation of Inference
15Sci...347.1103B). doi:10.1126/science.aaa4033 (https://doi.org/1
uniting them. There is in Sānkhya philosophy no
0.1126%2Fscience.aaa4033). PMID 25745165 (https://pubmed.ncb
separate existence of qualities. What we call quality is
i.nlm.nih.gov/25745165). S2CID 30364122 (https://api.semanticsch
olar.org/CorpusID:30364122). but a particular manifestation of a subtle entity. To every
new unit of quality corresponds a subtle quantum of
146. Leeming, David A. (2010). Creation Myths of the World. ABC-CLIO.
matter which is called guna, "quality", but represents a
p. xvii. ISBN 978-1-59884-174-9. "In common usage the word 'myth'
subtle substantive entity. The same applies to early
refers to narratives or beliefs that are untrue or merely fanciful; the
Buddhism where all qualities are substantive... or, more
stories that make up national or ethnic mythologies describe
precisely, dynamic entities, although they are also called
characters and events that common sense and experience tell us
are impossible. Nevertheless, all cultures celebrate such myths and dharmas ('qualities')."
attribute to them various degrees of literal or symbolic truth."
147. Eliade, Mircea (1964). Myth and Reality (Religious Traditions of the 153. Donald Wayne Viney (1985). "The Cosmological Argument".
World). Allen & Unwin. ISBN 978-0-04-291001-7. Charles Hartshorne and the Existence of God. SUNY Press.
148. Leonard, Scott A.; McClure, Michael (2004). Myth and Knowing: An pp. 65–68. ISBN 978-0-87395-907-0.
Introduction to World Mythology (1st ed.). McGraw-Hill. ISBN 978-0- 154. Aristotle; Forster, E. S.; Dobson, J. F. (1914). De Mundo (https://arc
7674-1957-4. hive.org/details/demundoarisrich). Oxford: The Clarendon Press.
149. (Henry Gravrand, "La civilisation Sereer -Pangool") [in] Universität p. 2 (https://archive.org/details/demundoarisrich/page/2).
Frankfurt am Main, Frobenius-Institut, Deutsche Gesellschaft für 155. Boyer, C. (1968) A History of Mathematics (https://archive.org/detail
Kulturmorphologie, Frobenius Gesellschaft, "Paideuma: s/AHistoryOfMathematics). Wiley, p. 54.
Mitteilungen zur Kulturkunde, Volumes 43–44", F. Steiner (1997),
156. Neugebauer, Otto E. (1945). "The History of Ancient Astronomy
pp. 144–45, ISBN 3-515-02842-0
Problems and Methods". Journal of Near Eastern Studies. 4 (1):
150. B. Young, Louise. The Unfinished Universe. Oxford University 166–173. doi:10.1086/370729 (https://doi.org/10.1086%2F370729).
Press. p. 21. JSTOR 595168 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/595168).
151. Will Durant, Our Oriental Heritage: S2CID 162347339 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:16234
7339). "the Chaldaean Seleucus from Seleucia"
157. Sarton, George (1955). "Chaldaean Astronomy of the Last Three
"Two systems of Hindu thought propound physical
Centuries B. C". Journal of the American Oriental Society. 75 (3):
theories suggestively similar to those of Greece. 166–73 (169). doi:10.2307/595168 (https://doi.org/10.2307%2F5951
Kanada, founder of the Vaisheshika philosophy, held that 68). JSTOR 595168 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/595168). "the
the world is composed of atoms as many in kind as the heliocentrical astronomy invented by Aristarchos of Samos and still
various elements. The Jains more nearly approximated defended a century later by Seleucos the Babylonian"
to Democritus by teaching that all atoms were of the
158. William P. D. Wightman (1951, 1953), The Growth of Scientific
same kind, producing different effects by diverse modes
Ideas, Yale University Press p. 38, where Wightman calls him
of combinations. Kanada believed light and heat to be
Seleukos the Chaldean.
varieties of the same substance; Udayana taught that all
heat comes from the Sun; and Vachaspati, like Newton, 159. Lucio Russo, Flussi e riflussi, Feltrinelli, Milano, 2003, ISBN 88-07-
interpreted light as composed of minute particles emitted 10349-4.
by substances and striking the eye." 160. Bartel (1987, p. 527)
161. Bartel (1987, pp. 527–29)
162. Bartel (1987, pp. 529–34)
163. Bartel (1987, pp. 534–7)
164. Nasr, Seyyed H. (1993) [1964]. An Introduction to Islamic
Cosmological Doctrines (https://archive.org/details/introductiontois0
0nasr/page/135) (2nd ed.). 1st edition by Harvard University Press,
2nd edition by State University of New York Press. pp. 135–36 (http
s://archive.org/details/introductiontois00nasr/page/135). ISBN 978-
0-7914-1515-3.
165. Misner, Thorne and Wheeler, p. 754.
166. Ālī, Ema Ākabara. Science in the Quran. Vol. 1. Malik Library.
p. 218.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universe 18/19
10/6/22, 1:48 PM Universe - Wikipedia
167. Ragep, F. Jamil (2001), "Tusi and Copernicus: The Earth's Motion in 172. Jeans, J. H. (1902). "The Stability of a Spherical Nebula" (https://do
Context", Science in Context, 14 (1–2): 145–63, i.org/10.1098%2Frsta.1902.0012). Philosophical Transactions of the
doi:10.1017/s0269889701000060 (https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fs026 Royal Society A. 199 (312–320): 1–53.
9889701000060), S2CID 145372613 (https://api.semanticscholar.or Bibcode:1902RSPTA.199....1J (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1
g/CorpusID:145372613) 902RSPTA.199....1J). doi:10.1098/rsta.1902.0012 (https://doi.org/1
168. Misner, Thorne and Wheeler, pp. 755–56. 0.1098%2Frsta.1902.0012). JSTOR 90845 (https://www.jstor.org/sta
169. Misner, Thorne and Wheeler, p. 756. ble/90845).
170. de Cheseaux JPL (1744). Traité de la Comète. Lausanne. 173. Misner, Thorne and Wheeler, p. 757.
pp. 223ff.. Reprinted as Appendix II in Dickson FP (1969). The Bowl 174. Sharov, Aleksandr Sergeevich; Novikov, Igor Dmitrievich (1993).
of Night: The Physical Universe and Scientific Thought. Cambridge, Edwin Hubble, the discoverer of the big bang universe (https://book
MA: M.I.T. Press. ISBN 978-0-262-54003-2. s.google.com/books?id=ttEwkEdPc70C&pg=PA34). Cambridge
171. Olbers HWM (1826). "Unknown title". Bode's Jahrbuch. 111.. University Press. p. 34. ISBN 978-0-521-41617-7. Archived (https://
Reprinted as Appendix I in Dickson FP (1969). The Bowl of Night: web.archive.org/web/20130623075250/http://books.google.com/boo
The Physical Universe and Scientific Thought. Cambridge, MA: ks?id=ttEwkEdPc70C&pg=PA34) from the original on June 23,
2013. Retrieved December 31, 2011.
M.I.T. Press. ISBN 978-0-262-54003-2.
175. Einstein, A (1917). "Kosmologische Betrachtungen zur allgemeinen
Relativitätstheorie". Preussische Akademie der Wissenschaften,
Sitzungsberichte. 1917. (part 1): 142–52.

Bibliography
Bartel, Leendert van der Waerden (1987). "The Heliocentric System in Greek, Persian and Hindu Astronomy". Annals of the New York
Academy of Sciences. 500 (1): 525–45. Bibcode:1987NYASA.500..525V (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1987NYASA.500..525V).
doi:10.1111/j.1749-6632.1987.tb37224.x (https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1749-6632.1987.tb37224.x). S2CID 222087224 (https://api.semanticsch
olar.org/CorpusID:222087224).
Landau L, Lifshitz E (1975). The Classical Theory of Fields (Course of Theoretical Physics). Vol. 2 (revised 4th English ed.). New York:
Pergamon Press. pp. 358–97. ISBN 978-0-08-018176-9.
Liddell, H. G. & Scott, R. (1968). A Greek-English Lexicon. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-864214-5.
Misner; C.W.; Thorne; Kip; Wheeler; J.A. (1973). Gravitation. San Francisco: W. H. Freeman. pp. 703–816. ISBN 978-0-7167-0344-0.
Raine, D. J.; Thomas, E. G. (2001). An Introduction to the Science of Cosmology. Institute of Physics Publishing.
Rindler, W. (1977). Essential Relativity: Special, General, and Cosmological. New York: Springer Verlag. pp. 193–244. ISBN 978-0-387-10090-
6.
Rees, Martin, ed. (2012). Smithsonian Universe (2nd ed.). London: Dorling Kindersley. ISBN 978-0-7566-9841-6.

External links
NASA/IPAC Extragalactic Database (NED) (http://ned.ipac.caltech.edu/) / (NED-Distances (http://ned.ipac.caltech.edu/Library/Distances/)).
There are about 1082 atoms in the observable universe (https://www.livescience.com/how-many-atoms-in-universe.html) – LiveScience, July
2021.
This is why we will never know everything about our universe (https://www.forbes.com/sites/startswithabang/2019/05/21/this-is-why-we-will-ne
ver-know-everything-about-our-universe/) – Forbes, May 2019.

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Universe&oldid=1114234849"

This page was last edited on 5 October 2022, at 13:29 (UTC).

Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License 3.0;

additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy
Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universe 19/19