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Multipressure Systems

5.1 INTRODUCTION

The simple vapour compression system is a two-pressure system. Systems with more
than two pressures may arise either due to multistage, viz., compound compression
to minimize work, or due to feeding of the refrigerant to a multi evaporator system.
Cascade systems which employ more than one refrigerant also have multipressures
although each refrigerant circuit operates on a two-pressure system only.

5.2 MULTISTAGE OR COMPOUND COMPRESSION

It has been shown in Sec. 3.5 that the slope of the constant entropy lines on the
p-h diagram decreases for the isentropics away from the saturated vapour line.
Multistage or compound compression with interstage cooling is one effective
method of reducing work of compression by working on isentropics closer to the
saturation curve.
It is, however, desirable to employ compound compression only when the pres-
sure ratio between the condenser and evaporator is greater than 4 or 5. This will
happen either as a result of a very high condensing temperature, and/or a very low
evaporator temperature.
As shown in Secs. 6.3 and 6.6, with increasing pressure ratio, the volumetric effi-
ciency and hence the refrigerating capacity of a reciprocating compressor tends to
zero. Thus multistaging is necessary to reduce the power consumption and also to
increase the refrigerating capacity in high condensing temperature and/or low evapo-
rator temperature applications.
The two methods employed for cooling between stages are water intercooling
and flash intercooling with flash gas removal.

5.2.1 Flash Gas Removal

In compound compression the throttling expansion of the liquid may also be done
in stages as shown in Figs. 5.1(a) and 5.1(b). Thus the liquid from the condenser at
 Multipressure Systems 215

6 first expands into a flash chamber to 7 at the intermediate pressure pi, and then the
liquid from the flash chamber at 8 enters the evaporator through another expansion
valve and expands to 9.

5
C

6 3 4
Flash
Gas
II
Flash
Chamber

7
pi
2
1
8
I
9
E

Fig. 5.1(a) Schematic diagram of the system with flash gas removal

In a system without a flash chamber, the liquid from the condenser expands
straight to the evaporator pressure as shown by the process line 6–10 in Fig. 5.1(b).
This is wasteful of energy as the vapour flashed at the intermediate pressure at 3 is
also throttled to 11 at the evaporator pressure and is, therefore, required to be again
recompressed to the intermediate pressure. A system with a flash chamber, thus,
eliminates the undesirable throttling of the vapour generated at the intermediate
pressure.

6 5

3
8 2
7 4
p

9 10 1 11

h
Fig. 5.1(b) Thermodynamic cycle for the system of Fig. 5.1(a)

Flash gas removal with multistage compression, therefore, results in power

economy, and is always desirable whichever be the refrigerant used.
216 Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

Another method of obtaining the same result as that of flash gas removal is to
employ the flash chamber as a liquid subcooler as shown in Fig. 5.2. The liquid
subcooler subcools the liquid by the evaporation of the liquid refrigerant in the flash
chamber. Figure 5.2 also gives the mass balance of the liquid subcooler. Herein, m1
is the mass flow rate through first-stage compressor, and m2 is the mass flow rate
through second-stage compressor. The thermodynamic states correspond to those of
Fig. 5.1 (b) except that the state of liquid entering the evaporator expansion valve
shifts to 8¢ from 8.
To High Pressure Stage
(m2 – m1) kg
3
6
m2 kg
(m2 – m1)
7

m1 kg
6

8¢
m1 kg
To Evaporator
Fig. 5.2 Flash chamber as a liquid subcooler

5.2.2 Flash Intercooling

For flash intercooling, the compressed vapours from the lower stage are led and
bubbled through the liquid in the flash chamber as shown in Fig. 5.3(a). The vapours
are thus cooled to the saturation temperature at the pressure of the flash chamber and
a part of the liquid evaporates which goes to the higher stage along with the vapours
from the lower stage. Flash intercooling thus enables the higher stage compression
to take place along the steeper isentropic, nearer the saturated vapour line.
Figures 5.3 (a) and (b) show that the discharge vapours from the lower stage at 2
are cooled to 3 by the evaporation of a part of the liquid refrigerant from the flash
chamber at 6. Thus, the vapours entering the high-stage compressor m2 comprise
these vapours in addition to the vapours m1 from the low-stage.
Thus, although the specific work is reduced in the high stage because of working
along the steeper isentropic 3-4 instead of the isentropic 2-2¢, the increase of the
actual mass flow through the higher stage may increase the work of the higher stage.
It is found that in the case of ammonia, the mass of the liquid evaporated for flash
intercooling is extremely small because of its high latent heat of vaporization and the
isentropics become very flat at higher temperatures. Hence flash intercooling will
decrease the power requirement. Flash intercoolers are, therefore, commonly used
in multistage ammonia plants.
 Multipressure Systems 217

C
4

5 3

m2
II

Flash
Chamber

m2 – m 1 6
pi
2
1
m1
I

E
7
Fig. 5.3(a) Schematic diagram of a two-stage compression system with flash
inter-cooling

5 4
pk
m2
pi 6 3
2
m1
p 7
p0
1

h
Fig. 5.3(b) Thermodynamic cycle for the system of Fig. 5.3(a)

One must, therefore, notice the difference between flash gas removal and flash
intercooling. Whereas flash gas removal is always desirable, flash intercooling is
suitable in the case of some refrigerants only.

5.2.3 Choice of Intermediate Pressure

It is well known that for minimum total work, the intermediate pressures are decided
by the stage pressure ratio which should be
FG p IJ 1/ n

Hp K
k
r=
0
where n is the number of stages. In a two-stage system, this gives a geometric mean
value for the intermediate pressure as given in Eq. (5.1)
218 Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

pi = pk p0 (5.1)
However, this condition is true for complete intercooling to the initial tempera-
ture. In refrigeration systems, complete intercooling is not possible as it is done by
ambient water or air. Also, it is seen that the discharge temperature of the low-stage
is much lower than the discharge temperature of the high-stage. To reduce the dis-
charge temperature of the higher stage, therefore, the pressure ratio of the lower
stage can be increased, with a corresponding reduction in the pressure ratio of the
higher stage. The expression in Eq. (5.2) is recommended for determining the inter-
mediate pressure in refrigeration systems
pi = pk p0 Tk / T0 (5.2)
It is, however, realized that the choice of intermediate pressure is not very criti-
cal. If it is different from the optimum, then the work of one stage will be increased
while that of another stage will be decreased. In the final analysis, the total work will
not be much different from the minimum.

5.2.4 Complete Multistage Compression System

A complete two-stage compression system with flash-gas removal and water
and flash intercooling is shown in Fig. 5.4(a) and its p-h diagram in Fig. 5.4(b).
Example 5.1 illustrates the calculation procedure for an equivalent system with a
liquid subcooler.

C
5
6
4

II
3

Water
Intercooler
7
pi
2
8

1 I

E
9
Fig. 5.4(a) Schematic diagram of a two-stage compression system with flash
gas removal, and water and flash intercooling

It may be noted that a part of the heat of low-stage compression can be removed
by water intercooling, in case the discharge temperature from the stage is substan-
tially higher than the cooler water temperature.
 Multipressure Systems 219

6 5

8 7 4 3 2

p
9 1

h
Fig. 5.4(b) Thermodynamic cycle for the system of Fig. 5.4(a)

Example 5.1 A two-stage ammonia food-freezing plant—with a desired

capacity of 528,000 kJ/h at – 40°C evaporating temperature and 35°C con-
densing temperature—has a flash intercooling system with a liquid subcooler.
The vapour leaving the evaporator is at –30°C and entering the first-stage
compressor is at –15°C. The vapour leaving the flash chamber is superheated by
10°C in the suction line to the second-stage compressor. Water intercooling is
done to cool the vapour to 45°C. Adiabatic efficiencies of both compressors are
0.75. The volumetric efficiencies of first- and second-stage compressors are 0.65
and 0.77 respectively. Find the piston displacements, discharge temperatures
and power requirements of the two compressors.

Solution See Fig. 5.5. Reference state is –40°C at which hf = 0, sf = 0.

pk = 1.35 MN/m2 (at 35°C)
p0 = 0.0718 MN/m2 (at – 40°C)
FG 273 + 35IJ
pi = 1.35 ´ 0.0718 ´
H 273 - 40K = 0.355 MN/m2

The corresponding saturation temperature is

ti = – 5°C
First Stage
Enthalpy of vapour leaving the evaporator
FG 1499 - 1300IJ
h1¢ = 1390 + { – 30 – (– 40)}
H 50 K
= 1411.8 kJ/kg
Enthalpy of vapour entering the compressor
FG 1499 - 1390IJ
h1 = 1390 + {– 15 – (40)}
H 50 K
= 1444.5 kJ/kg
220 Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

1439
ti = – 5°C
1463.2
347.5
1663
158.2
35°C
6 5
103.3 °C
1560 0.36 m3/kg
– 5°C 1681.2
0°C 4 2
3
1.718 m3/kg
p

– 40°C
97.7°C
9 1
45°C
– 15°C

– 30°C

h, kJ/kg 1411.8 1444.5

Fig. 5.5 Figure for Example 5.1

Enthalpy of the liquid

h9 = h8¢ = 158.2 kJ/kg
Mass flow rate of the refrigerant through the first-stage compressor
528,000
m 1 = = 420 kg/h
. - 158.2
14118
FG 273 - 15IJ = 1.552 FG 258IJ
L1 = vg1
H 273 - 40K H 233K = 1.718 m3/kg

Piston displacement of the first-stage compressor

(420)(1.718)
V1 = = 1110 m3/h
0.65
Entropy of vapour during isentropic compression from 1 to 2
FG 6.387 - 5.693IJ
s1 = s2 = 5.963 + {– 15 – ( – 40)}
H 50 K
= 6.175 kJ/kg × K
Degree of superheat of vapour after isentropic compression
6.175 - 6.157
= 100 + (50) = 102.7°C
6.157 - 5.822
Discharge temperature
t2 = – 5 + 102.7 = 97.7°C
2.7
h2, isen = 1675 + (1675 – 1560) = 1681.2 kJ/kg
50
Isentropic work
wisen = 1681.2 – 1444.5 = 236.7 kJ/kg
 Multipressure Systems 221

236.7
Actual work w= = 316 kJ/kg
0.75
Power requirement of first-stage compressor
W1 =
(420) (316)
= 50 hp
2650
Second Stage
Enthalpy of vapour entering the flash chamber
h3 = 1560 kJ/kg
and h4 = 1439 kJ/kg
Liquid enthalpy h7 = h6 = 347.5 kJ/kg
Energy balance of the evaporator gives
1560 - 158.2
m 4 = (420) = 540 kg/h
1439 - 347.5
t4¢ = 5°C
Specific volume of vapour entering the second-stage compressor
(273 + 5)
L4¢ = 0.347 = 0.36 m3/kg
(273 - 5)
Piston displacement of the second-stage compressor
(540) (0.36)
V4 = = 252 m3/h
0.77
Entropy of vapour during isentropic compression from 4¢ to 5
10
s4¢ = s5 = 5.407 + (5.822 – 5.407) = 5.490 kJ/kg.K
50
Degree of superheat of vapour after isentropic compression
5.490 - 5.368
= 50 + (50) = 68.3°C
5.702 - 5.368
Discharge temperature
t5 = 35 + 68.3 = 103.3°C
18.3
h5, isen = 1616 + (1744 – 1616) = 1663 kJ/kg
50
Enthalpy of vapour at compressor suction
10
h4¢ = 1439 + (1560 – 1439) = 1463.2 kJ/kg
50
Isentropic work wisen = 1663 – 1463.2 = 199.8 kJ/kg
Actual work
199.8
w= = 266.5 kJ/kg
0.75
Power requirement of second-stage compressor
(540) (266.5)
W2 = = 54.3 hp
2650
222 Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

5.3 MULTI-EVAPORATOR SYSTEMS

Very often, a situation arises when varied types of cooling loads are connected to the
same refrigeration system. Each load may require an evaporator working at a differ-
ent refrigeration temperature. The whole system may, therefore, be operated either
at a suction pressure equal to the lowest evaporator pressure leading to a single-
compressor system, or at various suction pressures with individual compressors for
each evaporator, leading to a multi-compressor system.

5.3.1 Single Compressor-Individual Expansion Valves

A two-evaporator single-compressor system with individual expansion valves for
each evaporator and one compressor is shown in Fig. 5.6(a). Operation under these
conditions means the dropping of pressure from high pressure evaporators through
back pressure valves as can be seen in Fig. 5.6(b). This necessitates the compression
of the vapour from the higher temperature evaporators through a pressure ratio
greater than necessary, and hence at the expense of operating economy.

C
3
2

E2
6 Back 8 1
4 Pressure
Value

E1

5 7

Fig. 5.6(a) System with two evaporators and single compressor, with
individual expansion valves

The mass flow rates through evaporators 1 and 2 are respectively

Q Q01
m1 = 01 =
q01 h7 - h5
Q02 Q0 2
m2 = =
q02 h6 - h4
The enthalpy of the vapour mixture entering the compressor is
m h + m2 h6
h1 = 1 7 (5.3)
m1 + m2
and the net work done is given by
W = (m1 + m2) (h2 – h1) (5.4)
 Multipressure Systems 223

pk 3 2

4 6

p
p0 2

p0 1 8
5 7 1

h
Fig. 5.6(b) Thermodynamic cycle for the system of Fig. 5.6(a)

5.3.2 Single Compressor—Multiple Expansion Valves

The operation of a two-evaporator single-compressor system with multiple arrange-
ment of expansion valves is shown in Figs 5.7(a) and (b). The only advantage of the
arrangement is that the flashed vapour at the pressure of the high temperature evapo-
rator is not allowed to go to the lower temperature evaporator, thus improving its
efficiency. To gain thermodynamic advantage from this, it will be necessary to use
individual compressors for each evaporator, thus eliminating the throttle losses of
the back pressure valves.
The refrigerating effects for the evaporators are
q 01 = h 8 – h 6
q 02 = h 7 – h 4

C
3 2

7 9
4 E2
1
5 (Liquid)
6 8
E1

Fig. 5.7(a) System with two evaporators and single compressor with multiple
expansion valves

3 2

x4
5 7
p

4
6 8 1 9
x6

h
Fig. 5.7(b) Thermodynamic cycle for the system of Fig. 5.7(a)
224 Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

The mass flow rates of the refrigerant comprising the liquid and vapour fractions, are:

Q0 1
Evaporator 1 m1 =
q0 1

Q01 FG x IJ
H1 - x K
4
Evaporator 2 m2 = + m1
q01 4

where the second term on R.H.S. represents the mass of vapour flashed at 4
corresponding to the mass of liquid going to the second evaporator.

5.3.3 Individual Compressors—Multiple Expansion Valves

The total power requirement can be reduced by the use of an individual compressor
for each evaporator and by the multiple arrangement of expansion valves as shown
in Figs 5.8(a) and (b). This amounts to parallel operation of evaporators and is called
sectionalizing. There may be a separate condenser for each compressor or a com-
mon condenser for the whole plant.
The calculations for mass flow rates are similar to those of the preceding case.
5

C
6
2 4

1
7
E2
II
8

E1
9 3 I

Fig. 5.8(a) System with two evaporators, individual compressors and

multiple expansion valves

6 2 5 4
2
m

1
m

8 7 1
p

9 3

h
Fig. 5.8(b) Thermodynamic cycle for the system of Fig. 5.8(a)
 Multipressure Systems 225

5.3.4 Individual Compressors with Compound Compression and Flash

Intercooling
When one or more evaporators are in operation at very low temperatures, and
individual compressors are installed, then compound compression can be used to
effect power saving as shown in Figs 5.9(a) and (b) with multiple arrangement of
expansion valves and flash intercooling. The flash chamber is maintained at the
pressure of the high temperature evaporator.

C
5
4
3b

6 3
E2
3a
II

6 2

7
1

E1 I
8
Fig. 5.9(a) System with two evaporators, compound compression and
flash intercooling

pk 5 4
2
m

p0 2 6 3
2
p

7
p01 m1
8 1

Fig. 5.9(b) Thermodynamic cycle for the system of Fig. 5.9(a)

226 Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

5.4 CASCADE SYSTEMS

The use of a single refrigerant in a simple vapour compression cycle for the produc-
tion of low temperatures is limited by the following reasons.
(i) Solidification temperature of the refrigerant.
(ii) Extremely low pressures in the evaporator and large suction volumes if a
high-boiling refrigerant is selected.
(iii) Extremely high pressures in the condenser if a low-boiling refrigerant is
selected.
(iv) Very high pressure ratio pk/p0 and, therefore, a low coefficient of performance.
(v) Difficulties encountered in the operation of any mechanical equipment at very
low temperatures.
We know that multistage compression is employed when low evaporator tempera-
tures are required and when the pressure ratio pk/p0 is high. Refrigerant 22 is used in a
two-stage system up to –50°C and in a three-stage system up to about –65°C.
If vapour compression systems are to be used for the production of low tempera-
tures, the common alternative to stage compression is the cascade system in which a
series of refrigerants, with progressively lower boiling points, are used in a series of
single-stage units. The system provides a solution to all the problems mentioned
above except the last one.
The cascade system combines two or more vapour compression units as shown in
Fig. 5.10. The high temperature cascade produces refrigeration at a certain low
temperature t02. The low temperature cascade produces refrigeration at a still further
low temperature t01, using the refrigerating effect of high temperature cascade at
temperature t02 for rejecting heat in its condenser at temperature tk1, which in the
limit is equal to t02. In practice, however, there is a certain overlap between these
temperatures, i.e. the temperature tk1 is about 5°C higher than the temperature t02.
Qk 2

Condenser tk2

m2

Qk1

II High Temperature
Cascade
t02 tk1
Evaporator m1
Condenser
Q02

Evaporator t01 Low Temperature

I Cascade

Q01
Fig. 5.10 Cascade system
 Multipressure Systems 227

It is also to be noted that each cascade works on a separate refrigerant. Each

refrigerant can be chosen in such a way that it operates best within the required
comparatively narrow temperature limits. The high temperature cascade uses a high-
boiling refrigerant such as NH3 or R 22, whereas the low temperature cascade uses a
low-boiling refrigerant such as CO2, ethylene, methane, etc., depending on the
requirements. The use of a low boiling and, therefore, a high pressure refrigerant
ensures a smaller compressor displacement in the low temperature cascade and a
higher coefficient of performance.
The cascade system was first used by Pictet in 1877 for the liquefaction of
oxygen employing SO2 and CO2 as intermediate refrigerants. Another set of
refrigerants commonly used for the liquefaction of gases in a three-stage cascade
system is ammonia, ethylene and methane. Ammonia is also used in the high
temperature cascade for the manufacture of solid carbon dioxide.
An additional advantage of the cascade system is that oil from one compressor
cannot wander to the other compressors as it generally happens in multistage systems.
In the system shown in Fig. 5.10, the high and low temperature systems have to be
balanced with each other. This means that the heat absorbed in the high temperature
cascade evaporator must be equal to the heat rejected in the low temperature cascade
condenser. Thus, the two systems are designed such that
Q02 = Qk1
In operation, however, the balancing problem creates difficulty since during the
pull-down period, the high temperature cascade system is inadequate. Hence, it has
to be slightly oversized.

5.4.1 Optimum Coupling Temperature between Cascade Circuits

The intermediate temperature between the two cascade circuits, such as t02 £ tk1, may
be called the coupling temperature. For optimum sizing of the two circuits, Schmidt5
has shown that the optimum coupling temperature can be approximately represented
by the square-root of the condensing temperature in warm, and evaporating
temperature in cold circuit. This is based on the assumption that the Carnot COP of
the two circuits is the same, as shown in Eq. (5.5)
T01 T02
= (5.5)
Tk1 - T01 Tk2 - T02

so that when T02 = Tk1, we have

T 02 = Tk2 × T01 = Tk1 (5.6)
Schmidt derives a more accurate relation in terms of the coefficients of the
vapour pressure curves of the two refrigerants. This derivation is based on the con-
dition that the pressure ratios of the compressors in each circuit are the same. Thus
pk1 pk
= 2 (5.7)
p01 p02
Then if the pressure-temperature relationships of the two substances are
governed by the relation.
b
log p = a –
T
228 Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

we have
F1 I
log pk1 – log p01 = b1 GH T
k1
- JK1
T0 1
(5.8)

F1 1 I
log pk2 – log p02 = b2 GH T
k2
-
T JK 02
(5.9)

and from Eq. (5.7) we obtain

F1 I= 1
b1
b2 GH T
k1
-
1
T0 1 JK T k2
-
1
T0 2
(5.10)

which for T02 = Tk1 becomes

b1 + b2
T 02 = = Tk 1 (5.11)
b2 / Tk2 + b1 / T01
A more appropriate semi-empirical relation is suggested in Eq. (5.12)
b1 + 1.05 b2
T 02 = – 10 (5.12)
b2 / Tk2 + b1 / T01

5.5 SOLID CARBON DIOXIDE—DRY ICE

Figure 5.11 shows the relevant thermodynamic characteristics of carbon dioxide

which make it suitable to be used in the solid state at atmospheric pressure, com-
monly known as dry ice. The name is derived from the fact that solid carbon dioxide
sublimates into vapour at atmospheric pressure and temperature. The sublimation of
solid carbon dioxide into vapour at normal atmospheric pressure is made possible
because its triple point pressure is 5.18 bar, i.e., greater than one atmosphere. Also,
the triple point temperature is – 56.6°C, which is much below the normal ambient
temperature. Hence, heat can flow from the surroundings to solid carbon dioxide,
exposed to atmosphere, to sublimate it. Thus the heat of sublimation of carbon
dioxide in the solid state at atmospheric pressure can be conveniently utilized to
provide refrigeration specially for the preservation of foods in transport.
The triple point pressure for water is 0.00611 bar, viz., much below one
atmosphere. Thus, at atmospheric pressure water-ice first melts and then evaporates.
Also, the triple point temperature of water is only 0.01°C and its fusion temperature
is 0°C. Thus water-ice, even with melting, can be used for refrigeration only above
0°C. The normal boiling point of water is 100°C.
In the case of carbon dioxide, the fusion temperature and normal boiling point
have no meaning. We have, however, the normal sublimation temperature which is
– 78.52°C.

5.6 MANUFACTURE OF SOLID CARBON DIOXIDE1,6

The critical temperature of carbon dioxide is very low, viz., 31°C whereas its critical
pressure is quite high, viz., 73.8 bar. The use of carbon dioxide in a simple vapour
 Multipressure Systems 229

compression cycle is possible only if condensation is achieved at a temperature

below 31°C. Even then the condensing pressure will be very high. Such a cycle is
shown in Fig. 5.11. For manufacture of solid CO2, the gaseous carbon dioxide is
compressed from 1 to 2, condensed from 2 to 3 at 28°C and 69 bar and then
expanded to atmospheric pressure at 4 in a snow chamber. The solid carbon dioxide
or dry ice can be removed at 5; the vapour at 6, after mixing with the make-up gas at
7, is led to the compressor.

73.8 bar Critical Point

69 bar 3 2

31°C
28°C

5.18 bar
p, bar

Triple Point Line Make-up

gas
Sublimation Line
1.01325 bar
6 1
5 4
x4 = 0.76
– 56.6°C 35°C (say)
–78.5°C
h
Fig. 5.11 Simple vapour compression cycle for manufacture of dry ice

The power requirement for the above cycle is of the order of 400–500 hp-hr per
ton of solid carbon dioxide. One of the main reasons for such high power consump-
tion is the high pressure ratio that is nearly equal to 70. This suggests the use of
three-staged compression with the pressure ratio of each stage equal to (70)1/3 = 4.1.
Another problem in the process of manufacture is the blocking of the expansion
device by the formation of dry ice. This is eliminated by first producing liquid
carbon dioxide at a pressure slightly above the triple point pressure and then reduc-
ing its pressure to one atmosphere in a snow chamber. This makes it necessary to
have two snow chambers, one receiving liquid carbon dioxide at a pressure higher
than the triple point pressure, and the other reducing pressure to form solid carbon
dioxide and vapour, both working alternately. Such a method is known as the
pressure snow chamber method.
Thus if 6 bar is chosen as the pressure of liquid formation in the snow chamber,
then the various stage pressures would be nearly equal to 69, 20, 6 and 1.01325 bar
respectively.
Further, the condensing temperature of 28°C is impractical when the cooling
water temperature itself is 30°C or more in summer. Also, even with 28°C, the COP
of the system would be very low as it is close to the critical temperature. The high
pressure stage of the carbon-dioxide cycle is, therefore, replaced with a separate
ammonia circuit in cascade with the carbon dioxide circuit.
230 Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

The schematic diagram of a system using the pressure snow chamber method and
ammonia in the cascade circuit is shown in Fig. 5.12. The condensing pressure of
carbon dioxide is generally kept at 15 to 20 bar. The p-h diagram of the carbon
dioxide circuit is shown in Fig. 5.13. In the position shown in Fig. 5.12, high pres-
sure liquid carbon dioxide is being prepared in snow chamber II at 6 bar, whereas
snow chamber I is shown to be reducing in pressure from 6 bar to 1.01325 bar. Dry
ice is formed at 12 and the vapour leaves at 13. During this cycle of operation,
expansion valve A is open and B is closed. Also, shut-off valves C and F are open
and D and E are closed.
b 5 3 2

a II I
10 1
6 14

NH3 Circuit
13
C

m10

Open
Open

C D E F
d Closed
II I 12
c
6 bar 1.01325 bar
7 8

Open A Pressure B Closed

Snow
7 Chambers

System
Fig. 5.12 Pressure snow chamber method with ammonia in the cascade
circuit for manufacture of dry ice

7 20 6 5
x8

8 6 10 3 2
p, bar

9
4
1
x1

1.01325 13 Make-up
12
CO2
Dry ice 11 1 14

h
Fig. 5.13 p-h diagram of CO2 circuit for pressure snow chamber method
 Multipressure Systems 231

For the analysis of the cycle, the section enclosed within the broken lines, shown
in Fig. 5.12, may be considered as a system. Then assuming steady-state conditions,
writing the mass balance for the system, we obtain
m7 = m8 = m9 + m10
and
m9 = m11 = m12 + m13
Thus, from the above two relations
m7 = m10 + m12 + m13 (5.13)
Also, by energy balance
m7 h7 = m10 h10 + m12 h12 + m13 h13 (5.14)
In Eqs. (5.13) and (5.14), m12 represents the yield of dry ice which can be consid-
ered as specified. The mass of make-up CO2, m14 is also equal to m12. The three
unknowns m7, m10 and m13 in the two equation can be found by solving these equa-
tions together with the relation for dryness at 11, viz.,
m13 x11
= (5.15)
m12 1 - x11

Example 5.2 Calculate the power required to produce 500 kg of dry ice
per hour using the pressure snow chamber method in conjunction with ammonia
in the cascade circuit. The pressures and temperatures may be assumed as
follows:
Temperature in snow chamber after liquid throttling = – 50°C
Condensing temperature of CO2 = – 5°C
Temperature of make-up gas = 30°C
Condensing temperature of NH3 = 35°C
Evaporating temperature of NH3 = – 10°C
Temperature after water-intercooling = 35°C
Temperature after second-stage cooling = 40°C

Solution The various enthalpies are as follows:

For CO2 Circuit
From chart
h13 = 312 kJ/kg h7 = 72 kJ/kg
h14 = 433 kJ/kg h9 = – 18 kJ/kg
h10 = 320 kJ/kg h12 = – 250 kJ/kg
Dryness fractions
h - h9 72 + 18
x8 = 7 = = 0.266
h10 - h9 320 + 18
h9 - h12 - 18 + 250
x11 = = = 0.413
h13 - h12 312 + 250
Consider yield = m12 = m14 = 1 kg. Then
x11 0.413
m13 = m12 = (1) = 0.704 kg
1 - x11 0.587
232 Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

m9 = m12 + m13 = 1.704 kg

x8 0.266
m10 = m9 = (1.704) = 0.618 kg
1 - x8 0.734
m7 = m8 = m9 + m10 = 1.704 + 0.618 = 2.232 kg
m13 h13 + m14 h14 (0.704) (312) + (1) (433)
h1 = = = 383 kJ/kg
m13 + m14 1.704
From chart
h2 = 435 kJ/kg
t2 = 75°C
Water intercooling is, therefore, essential. Then
t3 = 35°C
h3 = 396 kJ/kg (From chart)
m10 h10 + m3 h3 (0.618) (320) + (1.604) (396)
h4 = = = 376 kJ/kg
m10 + m 3 2.322
From chart
t4 = 11°C
h5 = 471 kJ/kg
t5 = 120°C
After water inter-cooling
t6 = 40°C
h6 = 380 kJ/kg
Power requirement of the first-stage CO2 compressor
W1 = m 1 (h2 – h1)
500
= (1.704) (435 – 383)
3600
= 12.31 kW
Power requirement of the second-stage CO2 compressor
W2 = m
 4 (h5 – h4 )
500
= (2.322) (471 – 376)
3600
= 30.6 kW
For NH3 Circuit
ha = 1450 kJ/kg
hb = 1680 kJ/kg
hc = 366 = hd
Energy balance of the CO2 condenser and NH3 evaporator gives
h6 - h7
mNH3 = m6
ha - hd
 Multipressure Systems 233

380 - 72
= (2.322) = 0.66 kg
1450 - 366
Power requirement of the NH3 compressor
WNH = m
3
 NH (hb – ha)
3

500
= (0.66) (1680 – 1450)
3600
= 21.08 kW
Total power requirement = 12.31 + 30.6 + 21.08 = 64 kW

5.7 SYSTEM PRACTICES FOR MULTI-STAGE SYSTEMS

Rotary vane or centrifugal compressors are commonly used for the booster stage of
a multistage system where large gas volumes are handled. There are also some appli-
cations in which oil-free and dry-cylinder compressors are used where the effects of
oil in the refrigerant are of great consideration.
When LP stage temperatures are below –70°C, the pull-down load may be three
times the normal. Compressor motors are, therefore, selected for about 150 per cent
above the normal loading.
Some thought must also be given for sizing the condenser for the maximum
amount of heat rejection that is expected during the pull-down period.
One problem in low temperature evaporators is the return of oil to the compres-
sor. Another is the pressure drop through the evaporator. A D-X (direct-expansion)
type evaporator is the most common because of its improved ability to return oil to
the compressor, as well as the smaller charge of the refrigerant required with it.
Sometimes an oil separator is used in low-temperature applications such as freeze-
drying. The effect of pressure drop in evaporators at very low pressures is very
serious because of its large magnitude which is a result of the large increase in vol-
ume of the refrigerant during vaporization. Hence, pumped systems such as a flash-
cooler type evaporator can be used, in which the refrigerant is used like brine under
pressure by a pump from a flash chamber so that vaporization does not take place
inside the evaporator, but only on return to the flash cooler. Or a recirculation type
evaporator may be used.
Receivers should not be used as the temperature of the surroundings may make it
difficult for the liquid to enter into it.
It may be necessary to raise the temperature of the low-stage suction gas for main-
taining the lubricating ability of the oil in the compressor. In cascade systems, this
can be best done through a heat exchange between this gas and the high pressure
stage liquid.
It is desirable to charge the system with a fade-out charge such that on shut down,
all liquid in the system will evaporate into gas without excessively increasing the
system pressure. In practice, however, the system may not have enough volume to
permit this. In that case, an expansion tank may be provided and connected to the
evaporating side of the system.
234 Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

References
1. Anon, ‘Cut costs in making dry ice’, Chemical Engineering, Vol. 63, No. 8,
Aug. 1956, p. 114.
2. Arora C P and P L Dhar, ‘Optimization of multistage refrigeran compres-
sors’, Proc. XIIIth International Congress of Refrigeration, Washington,
1971, Paper No. 326, pp 693–700.
3. Dhar P L and C P Arora, ‘Optimum interstate temperature for cascade
system’ Proc. Second National Symposium on Refrigeration and Air
Conditioning, University of Roorkee, March 1973, pp. 211–215.
4. Missimer D J, ‘Cascade refrigeration systems for ultra low temperatures’,
Refrigerating Engineering, Vol. 64, No. 2, Feb. 1956, p. 37.
5. Schmidt H, ‘Die bemessung von kältekompressoren in kaskadenschaltung’,
Kältetechnik, Vol. 17, No. 5, May 1965, pp. 151–155.
6. Stickney A P, ‘The thermodynamics of CO2 cycles’, Refrigerating Engineer-
ing, Vol. 24, No. 6. Dec. 1932, p. 334.

Revision Exercises
5.1 An R 22 refrigerating plant with back pressure control has a capacity of
30,000 kJ/h at –30°C and 45,000 kJ/h at –25°C. The refrigerant flow is con-
trolled by thermostatic expansion valves with 8°C superheat. The condensing
temperature is 35°C. There is no heat exchanger. The vapours are superheated
by 15°C in the suction line. The compressor is single-acting and has four
cylinders. It runs at 930 rpm and its bore/stroke ratio is 1.25. Volumetric
efficiency may be assumed as 70 per cent. Calculate the dimensions of the
cylinders. Also calculate the power consumption and COP.
5.2 An ammonia refrigerating plant is working at an evaporating temperature
of – 30°C and a condensing temperature of 37°C. There is no subcooling of
the liquid refrigerant, and the vapour is in the dry-saturated condition at the
inlets to the compressors. The capacity is 150 kW refrigeration. Estimate the
power consumption
(i) when one-stage is used,
(ii) when two-stage compression with flash intercooling is used, and
(iii) when two-stage compression with flash chamber and liquid subcooler is
used. Assume suitable intermediate pressure.
Explain why it is not advisable to use multistage compression to produce
refrigeration temperatures of the order of, say, – 90°C.
5.3 A two-stage 10 tons NH3 refrigeration plant with shell and coil type flash
intercooler as shown in Fig. 5.14 is operating at the following conditions:
Condensation temperature 35°C
Evaporator temperature – 40°C
Interstage pressure 2.91 bar
Subcooling of liquid in flash intercooler by 30°C
Thermostatic expansion valve setting 5°C superheat