PHILOSOPHY REVIEWER

Lesson 1: Understanding Philosophy

Essence of Philosophy - the search for answers to life’s questions.

Philosophy in a broad and general sense refers to an activity to which people undertake when
they seek to understand fundamental truths about themselves, the world in which they
live, and their relationships to the world and to one another.

Etymologically, “philosophy” comes from the two Greek words “philo” means to love, and
“Sophia“ means wisdom. This term originally meant “love of wisdom”

The ultimate goal of philosophy is to attain wisdom that is necessary for understanding
himself/ herself and the world around him/her.

● Philosophy as a way of life refers to ideas, views, beliefs, principles, and behavior held
by individuals or groups that direct and give purpose in life.

● Philosophy as an activity of reasoning refers to the philosophical activity that

engages us to reason out and allows us to investigate things not by using laboratory
experiments but by means of our natural capacity to think to which is commonly called
as unaided reason.

● Philosophy as a study of all things refers to the limitless scope of the study of
philosophy and pursuit of knowledge. This made philosophy the mother of all sciences.

● Studying philosophy requires an individual to analyze almost every aspect of life; hence,
it is important to keep in mind the distinction between two philosophical perspectives —
Holistic Philosophy and Partial Philosophy.

○ Partial Philosophy
- Refers to focusing on a specific aspect of a situation, which is an
important component in analytical thinking.
- The individual focuses on certain areas or aspects of a problem in order
to understand it.

○ Holistic philosophy
- Pertains to the perspective that considers large-scale patterns in a
system. It usually requires an open mindset and ability to have a general
impression about something.
- Often described as looking at the “big picture” when describing a
situation or problem
 - Enables a person to step back and consider the general aspects of a
certain problem.
- A holistic view also gives rise to a more appreciative perspective about
life, as we are able to look at life in its totality.

● In attaining genuine wisdom, there is a great need for EMPTYING or the process of
removing all our personal judgments and biases to learn new things and understand
the very essence of something.

Notable Greek Philosophers

Phytagoras 570 BCE to 495 BCE ● Credited for formulating the Pythagorean
Theorem
● Established a community of learners who
were devoted to the study of religion and
philosophy

Heraclitus 535 BCE to 475 BCE ● Proposed that everything that exists is based
on a higher order or plan which he called
logos
● “No man ever steps in the same river
twice”

Democritus 460 BCE to 370 BCE ● Devoted himself to the study of the causes of
natural phenomena
● First to propose that matter is composed of
tiny particles called atoms

Diogenes of 412 BCE to 323 BCE ● Known as an advocate of living a simple and
Sinope virtuous life.
● For Diogenes, one should not talk only
virtue but should show it in words and
actions
● His teachings and views were later
developed by his followers and influenced the
development of several schools of philosophy
such as Cynicism and Stoicism

Epicurus 341 BCE to 270 BCE ● Believed that philosophy could enable man to
live a life of happiness
● Epicureanism - a school of philosophy which
believes that wisdom and simple living will
result in a life free of fear and pain

Socrates 470 BCE to 399 BCE ● Considered the foremost philosopher of

ancient times
● Believed that philosophy could enable a man
to live a life of virtue
● Socratic Method - means of examining a
topic by devising a series of questions.
 ● “I know that I do not know…”
● “The unexamined life is not worth living”

Plato 427 BCE to 347 BCE ● Student of Socrates

● His writings are considered as the
foundation of Western Philosophy
● Theory of Forms - proposes that everything
that exists is based on an idea or template
that can only be perceived in the mind; it is
eternal and unchanging
● Dialectic - two opposing ideas are discussed
in an attempt to arrive at new knowledge
● Academy - institution of higher learning

Aristotle 384 BCE to 322 BCE ● Attended the Academy

● Disagreed with Plato’s theory of forms
● For him, all ideas and views are based on
perception and out reality is based on
what we sense and perceived
● Deductive Reasoning - process on which
specific statements are analyzed to reach a
conclusion or generalization

● Eastern Philosophy
- Emerged from the communities and civilizations in Asia
- Is more fluid and places greater emphasis on social relations

● Western Philosophy
- Became more systematic and specialized in its approach

Why is there a need to philosophize?

● Each one of us is a philosopher, we possess the capacity to reflect on our experiences
and have a never-ending need to learn and discover

● Plato traced man’s need to philosophize to his sense of wonder.

- Where did we come from?
- Why do we exist?
- For what purpose were we created?

● Rene Descartes traced the need to philosophize to doubt.

- Ex: A scientific hypothesis must be first tested and verified before it is accepted
as truth

● Karl Jaspers saw the need to philosophize because of experience.

- Jasper called these experiences limit situations
- Feeling of helplessness
 - Anxiety
- Dread

● The need to philosophize is driven by the love for wisdom.

Framework
- Is defined as a way of thinking about the world and is composed of the views and beliefs
of a person
- Questions dealing with our own correctness and values are considered internal
questions which can be addressed using our own personal frameworks.
- There are external questions that seek to question the very frameworks upon which
people base their own beliefs and views.

Philosophy can be thought of as an examination of a particular area of knowledge. The

central principle of philosophy is examination and questioning.

Philosophy is a distinct area of knowledge with its own goals, concerns, and way of doing
things.

Reflection
- Requires a person to be willing to examine one’s thoughts, feelings, and actions
- Is vital in ensuring that our actions and decisions are well thought out and are done with
due regard for their implications and consequences on ourselves, others, and our
surroundings

Practical uses of Philosophy in our lives

● Philosophy enables a person to engage in critical analysis and interpretation of
concepts, definitions, arguments, and problems

● Philosophy improves problem-solving and decision making

● A philosopher is a good communicator who can clearly and adequately present his or
her ideas.

● Wisdom is one intended product of philosophizing, and this refers to a person’s ability to
apply knowledge to daily life

● Philosophy can contribute to self-development

Lesson 2: General and Specific Types of Philosophy

1. Thematic Types
- branches of philosophy and what we shall call disciplinal philosophies.
- The branches of philosophy are classified according to the major topics of
philosophical investigations, and they are what are usually referred to when we
speak of areas of philosophy.

Branch of Philosophy Topic of Philosophical Some

Investigation Main Concerns

1. Logic Reasoning The distinction between

correct and incorrect
forms of reasoning

2. Epistemology Knowledge The kinds, sources, and

conditions of knowledge

3. Metaphysics Reality, Existence Whether reality consists

of physical objects only,
of non physical, or both
physical and non
physical objects

4. Ethics Morality The appropriate moral

principles, meaning of
moral judgements

5. Aesthetics Beauty Criteria for judgements

about beauty

6. Social and The state Legitimizing the state,

Political limits of the state’s
Philosophy political power, social
and distributive justice

7. Philosophy of Science Difference between

Science scientific and
nonscientific statements,
induction

8. Philosophy of Religious Beliefs Meaning of religious

Religion statements, existence of
God, problem of evil

9. Philosophy of Meaning of linguistic Meaning of proper

Language expressions names, definite
descriptions, and
psychological
statements
 10. Philosophy of Mind Whether the mind is
Mind physical or not,
properties of mind,
possibility of artificial
intelligence

1. D
2. Positional Types
- correspond to what are called philosophical schools of thought or philosophical
views. For every branch of philosophy, there are competing philosophical views
or positions.

Branch of “ Some Philosophical Views

Metaphysics Materialism, Idealism, Dualism, Monism, Pluralism

Epistemology Rationalism, Empiricism, Critical Philosophy,

Pragmatism

Ethics (Normative) Consequentialism, Deontology, Virtue Ethics

Social and Political Socialism, Liberalism, Capitalism, Social

Philosophy Contractarianism

Logic Intensional Logic, Extensional Logic, Aristotelian

Logic, Mathematical Logic

Philosophy of Religion Atheism, Theism (Monotheism, Polytheism,

Pantheism, Pantheism), Religious Pluralism

Aesthetics Platonic Aesthetics, Human Aesthetics, Kantian

Aesthetics, Postmodern Aesthetics, Feminist
Aesthetics

Philosophy of Language Ideal-language Philosophy, Ordinary-language

Philosophy, Referential Theory of Meaning, Use
Theory of Meaning, Speech Act Theory

Philosophy of Mind Dualism, Materialism, Epiphenomenalism,

Physicalism, Functionalism, Computationalism,
Biological Naturalism

Philosophy of Science Realism k, Instrumentalism , Falsification,

Constructivism, Inductivism, Reductionism,
Coherentism
 3. Methodological Types
- They correspond to what are sometimes philosophical movements, approaches
and traditions.

4. Regional Types
- generally refer to philosophical activities that occur or flourish in particular
regions, and it is divided into two major kinds: Western philosophy and Eastern
philosophy.
- Western Philosophy: German Philosophy, French Philosophy, British
Philosophy, and American Philosophy
- Eastern Philosophy: Indian Philosophy, Chinese Philosophy, Japanese
Philosophy, and Filipino Philosophy

5. Historical Types
- Divided to four periods; Ancient, Medieval, Modern, and Contemporary
- Philosophies in the Eastern region (such as Indian philosophy, Chinese
philosophy, Islamic philosophy, and others ,do not seem to fit nicely into these
four major eras. According to the account of John Koller in his book “Oriental
philosophies”, the following periods constitute the history of Indian philosophy
namely Vedic period, Epic period, Sutra period, Commentary period ,and
Renaissance period.

Lesson 3: Ways of Knowing Truth

● Beliefs, statements, and sentences are candidates to be the bearer of truth. Beliefs
and statements are considered as bearers of truth, because both can be treated
independently when determining the truth.

● Beliefs are mental expressions of our claims. It is true if it can be justified or proven
using one’s senses. These are statements that express convictions that are not easily
and clearly explained by facts.

● Statements are also called propositions,which refer to a linguistic expression whose

function is to advance a claim about the world. Statements are truth bearers ,because
they make claims, either in terms of describing the world or asserting relations of ideas.

● Conclusion is a judgment based on certain facts.

● Explanations are statements that assume the claim to be true and provide reasons why
the statement is true.

● Arguments are a series of statements that provide reasons to convince the readers or
listeners that a claim or opinion is truthful.
Knowledge
- It is through knowing that we are able to determine what is true.
- Is the clear awareness and understanding of something.
- It is the product of questions that allow for clear answers provided by facts.
- Our knowledge is comprised of ideas and beliefs that we know to be true.

- These statements correspond to one important aspect of knowledge- that it is

based on reality. This simply means that what we know is what is observable or
evident in the real world.
- Example: we say that “I know that fish live in water” because do fish live in
water.’’
- Propositions or statements which are observed to be real or truthful are
considered facts.

- There are statements, however, that are not evidently or immediately known to
be true.
- Example: We can say that “I know that my school is the best school in the city”.
This statement, however, cannot be taken as true since it is simply not
immediately evident.
- This statement is a claim and further examination is required to establish whether
it is true or false.

Facts
- Propositions or statements which are observed to be real or truthful are considered facts.
- Statements that correspond to one important aspect of knowledge – that is based on
reality.
- A thing that is known or proved to be true.
- It is verifiable and objective- based on facts, statistics, data and observation.
- Example: Two plus two equals 4 (2+2=4)

- Truthful statements, therefore , can be considered based on facts. Science

considers truth as something observable and empirical. This means that any
claim can be proven by verification and experimentation.

Claims
- Statements that are not evidently or immediately known to be true.
- An assertion of the truth of something, typically one that is disputed or in doubt.
- Example: I know that my school is the best school in the city.

How do we know that what we believe is true?

 ● Philosophers who pondered upon the origins of knowledge doubted everything that
there is to know about themselves and around the world.

● In doing so, they were able to better understand the means by which humans gain
knowledge and determine the truth about everything.

● Philosophers questioned what they knew and even analyzed their methods of knowing in
order to understand themselves and the world much better.

Doubt
- A very important purpose in philosophy as it drives our desire to discover truth.
- In philosophy, systematic doubt is employed to help determine truth. This means that
every statement, claim, evidence and experience is scrutinized and analyzed.
- Nothing is taken as true unless there is sufficient reason and evidence to prove that it is
indeed true.

Basis for determining Truth

1. A belief is true if it can be justified or proven through the use of one’s senses.
- I am alive
- I have a body
- I can breath

2. A belief or statement is true if it is based on facts.

- I am a Filipino.

3. Getting a consensus or having people agree on a common belief.

4. Determining truth requires a person to prove a statement through an action.

- I can play basketball
- I can fry an egg
- I understand the lesson

5. Claims and beliefs should be subjected to tests to determine truth.

Truth
- Something that has actual and proven existence scientifically and spiritually regardless
of one’s opinion and beliefs.
- It is undisputed, objective, universal, constant, exact, and factual
- Example: Asia is the largest continent in the world.
- Types of Truth:
- Empirical Truth - established by means of sense of experience
- Rational Truth - established by means of reason
- Synthetic Truth - extends our knowledge
- Analytic Truth - does not extend our knowledge
 - Contingent truth - is not true in all possible situations.
- Private Truth - can be known by the person who has the belief or makes the
statement considered to be true
- Subjective Truth - dependent on the attitudes, preferences, or interests of a
person or group of persons

Opinion
- An expression of one’s feelings based on facts, emotions, beliefs, or views.
- It is a statement of judgement of a person about something in the world that is in need of
further justification.
- The bases for making arguments and convincing people that a certain claim is fact.
- An opinion may be based on facts, but it’s subjective.
- Example: In a study, researchers found that two-thirds of college seniors failed a
high school grammar test. This points to the state of higher education in the United
States.

Lesson 4: Methods of Philosophizing

● A method of philosophizing is a process of determining the truth or drawing a

conclusion from a statement using various philosophical methods.

● There are four methods of philosophizing: socratic, dialectic, scientific, and

historical.

● Socratic method was developed by Socrates. In this process, statements are

deconstructed or questioned to come up with the actual truth that is believed to rest
on the roots of the argument. Conflicting ideas are seen as invalid sources of the truth,
and probing questions are immediately derived from the given statements.

● Dialectic method is a method of coming up with a conclusion from an exchange of

contradicting logical arguments. The aim of dialectics, as a process of the dialogue, is
the clarification of controversial notions and arguments with other people. In this
process, personal and shared conceptions should be considered and corrected.

● Scientific method, also called empirical method, is a process of determining truth or

knowledge through experimentation, inductive and deductive reasoning, and
hypothesis or theory testing.

● Historical method is the process of gathering evidence, examining them and

formulating ideas about the past to come up with present truths. The process of learning
the truth is simply through looking at past records to validate the present hypothesis. If
viewed in a more general perspective, the historical approach would include only a
historical account to differentiate truth from opinion