1.

Instrument Transformers for

Protection

Introduction:

The main tasks of instrument transformers are:

- To transform currents, or voltages, from a high value to a
value easy to handle for relays and instruments.
- To insulate the metering circuit from the primary high voltage.
- To provide possibilities of standardization, concerning
instruments and relays, of rated currents and voltages.

For the instrument transformers, the common laws for transformers

are valid.

For a short circuited transformer:

I1 / I2 =N2 / N1 it gives the current transformation in

proportion to the primary and secondary turns. The current
transformer is ideally a short-circuited transformer where
the secondary terminal voltage is zero and the magnetizing
current is negligible,

For a transformer at no load:

E1 / E 2 = N1 / N2 it gives the voltage transformation in

proportion to the primary and secondary turns. The voltage
transformer is ideally a transformer where the load current is zero
and the voltage drop only is caused by the magnetizing current and
therefore is negligible.

In practice the ideal conditions are not fulfilled as the instrument

transformers have a burden in form of relays, instruments and
cables. This causes a measuring error in the current transformer

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due to the magnetizing current , and in the voltage transformer due

to the load current voltage drop.

Current transformers:

The current transformers provide insulation against the high voltage

of the power circuit. Also supplying the relays with quantities
proportional to that of the power circuit, but sufficiently reduced in
magnitude. The current can be carried by small cross sectional area of
cables associated with panel wiring and the relays can be made small
and inexpensive.

Construction :
CTs are usually designed, so that the primary winding is the
line conductor, which passes through ring core which carries the
secondary winding. Most of the CTs are of this type and are known as
bar-primary or ring wound CTs. The high voltage C.Ts with the above
formation will be of live tank and instead some C.Ts are designed with
bell formation of primary winding which will have graded
insulation .The bell type C.Ts are the conventional ones in most
applications.

Design :
CTs conform to normal transformer e.m.f equation where the
average induced voltage is proportional to the product of the rate of
change of flux and the number of turns. The normal criterion for the
design of CT is to limit the flux to a value where the core saturation
starts, known as knee-point flux. The current that produces this
saturation flux is the maximum magnetizing current. The magnetizing
current and consequently the flux changes from zero to maximum per ¼
cycle and there fore the rate of change of flux is
f-0
¾¾¾ = 4f webers/cycle
¼
or at a frequency of f cycles
4ff webers/sec
giving an average induced voltage of
Vav = 4ffN where N is the number of turns

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or in r.m.s value the knee point voltage is

V = 4.444ffN as Vrms = 1.11Vav
Also the flux f = B´A where B is the flux density in tesla, and A is
the core area in m2
So the Knee point voltage V = 4.444BAfN

The knee point voltage can be easily estimated if the flux

density of the steel at knee-point and approximate dimension of the core
are known.
For example a CT ratio of 300/1 with a core area of 40´30mm
and a maximum flux of 1.5 tesla ,
40 30
V = 4.44 ´ 1.5 ´ ¾¾ ´ ¾¾ ´ 300 ´ 50 = 118.8 V
1000 1000
Burden :
The load on a CT is called the burden. The burden is usually
expressed either as a VA (volt-ampere) or as an impedance. In the
former case the VA is taken to be at the CT nominal secondary current.
For example a 5VA burden on a 1Amp CT would have an impedance of
5ohms.
5VA
¾¾¾ = 5V
1A
5V
Impedance = ¾¾¾ = 5W
1A
or on a 5A CT,
5VA
¾¾¾ = 1V
5A
1V
Impedance = ¾¾¾ = 0.2W
5A

The C.T is normally loaded by an impedance, consisting of

relays, instruments and, perhaps most important the cables.
The induced emf required to achieve the secondary current
through the total burden(sum of sec. impedance and burden
impedance) requires a magnetizing current, which is taken from the

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primary side current. The factor of magnetizing current is not part of

the current transformation and has to be used instead of the rated ratio.
.So, the nominal ratio defined will change with an error in amplitude
and is called as current or ratio error. The magnetizing current will give
a phase angle error according to

All burdens are connected in series and the increase in impedance

increase the burden on the CT. a CT is unloaded if the secondary
winding is short circuited. Under this condition the VA burden is zero
because the voltage is zero. The errors of CT depends on the phase angle
of the burden as well as its impedance.

The burden is defined in IEC185 as the power inVA can be connected to

a current transformer at secondary rated current and at a given power
factor(cosØ=0.8 according to IEC185) The secondary current is
standardized to 1and 5A. The output voltage of a current transformer,
shows the capability of the transformer to carry burden.

The output required of a current transformer core is dependant of the

application and the type of load connected.

To protect instruments and meters from high fault currents the metering
cores must be saturated 10-40 times the rated current depending upon
the type of burden. At lower burdens the saturation value increases. To
fill the accuracy class and to secure saturation for a lower current then
instrument/meter thermal capability the rated burden of the core must be
relatively well matched to the burden connected.

The main characteristics of the protection core CT cores are :

- Lower accuracy than for measuring transformers.
- High saturation voltage.
- Little, or no turn correction at all.
Concerning the protection relays, intended to operate during the fault, it
is important to check the core output under transient conditions.

The fault must occur between two extreme conditions:

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1. A fault at voltage maximum , the fault current will be pure sin wave
and to transform the fault current without saturation the ALF must
be more than the ratio of the instantaneous value of the fault current
and the rated current.
2. A fault at the zero voltage the short circuit current will have full
symmetry with a maximum DC component
The DC component will build up a DC flux in the core and an
interposed AC flux. The flux will increase and decrease according to the
time constants. The rise is dependent of the network time constants
(L/R) and the decay follows the current transformers secondary time
constant(Ratio of inductance of CT secondary winding/resistance of the
secondary winding)

Rated burden:
The rated burden is the maximum load impedance, expressed as rated
power, with which the current transformer can be loaded bearing in
mind the specified accuracy limit factor.
The maximum load impedance is calculated as follows:
Zmax = Sn/I²n where Sn = rated burden In = Rated secondary current
of the CT.
P1 S1

S2

S3

P2 S4

Reconnection of primary (series or parallel) = rated burden is

unchanged.
Reconnection of secondary (tap change) = rated burden changed.
The rated burden is always stated for the highest ratio (P1-P2 / S1-S4)
If the rated burden for the other ratios is not given , the following
approximate relationship can be considered valid
Relay cores: ( Selected ratio/ maximum ratio) x Rated burden = New
rated burden(reconnected secondary)

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Metering cores: (Selected ratio /maximum ratio)² x Rated burden = New

rated burden (reconnected secondary)
The above is not always applicable since the cores are often over
dimentioned. Higher burdens than those calculated above can then be
permitted.(For more accurate information , manufacturer should be
contacted)

Operation :
The equivalent circuit of a ring type CT is shown in fig 1.1. Ie
is the magnetizing current Rct is secondary winding resistance and R b &
Xb are burden resistance and reactance. In a CT the primary AT must
equal to the secondary AT and the magnetizing AT
N1I1 = N2( I2 + Ie)
In practice Ie is small compared to I2 and is therefore ignored in
all CT calculations with exception of those concerned with ratio and
phase angle error.

fig 1.1

The magnetizing current depends on the voltage V2 which in

turn depends on the product of the secondary current and the impedance
of the burden plus CT secondary winding resistance.
V2 = I2 ( Rct + Rb + jXb )

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fig 1.2
The vector diagram of the CT is shown in the fig1.2. The
difference between the I1 and I2 is the ratio error and q is the phase angle
error.
The magnetizing current Ie lags V2 by 90°. It can be seen that if
the burden was wholly resistance then the ratio error would be
minimum. Whereas if the burden was wholly reactive then the ratio
error would be maximum and the phase angle error minimum.

fig 1.3
The magnetizing characteristic of a CT is shown in fig1.3.
Since Ie small compared to the secondary current up to the knee-point of

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the magnetizing characteristic, the ratio and phase angle error will be
small in this region. This means the primary / secondary current
relationship will be maintained in this region.
i.e. the product I2 ( Rct + Rb + jXb ) is Vk
e.g. Rct = 1W, Rb + jXb = 7 + j0 W, and Vk = 150V
then linearity is repeated up to a secondary current of
V2 150
I2 = ¾¾¾¾¾¾¾ = ¾¾¾ = 18.75 A
Ö( Rct + Rb + jXb ) 1+7
If linearity is to maintain up to 20 times CT rating the total impedance
should not exceed
150
( Rct + Rb + jXb ) = ¾¾ = 7.5W
20

Effect on open circuited CT :

If the burden impedance (Rb + jXb ) is very high, then the
voltage calculated from the equation Rct + Rb + jXb would be very large,
will above knee point value and Ie would become significantly large and
I2 would be reduced in the ampere-turn balance equation
N1I1 = N2( I2 + Ie)
Since Ie = 0 in an open circuited CT, all the input amp-turns will be used
as magnetizing amp-turns and drive the CT into saturation. It can be
seen from the magnetizing characteristic that greatly increased
magnetizing current will not cause much increase in the average voltage.
However the change in flux from zero to knee-point value is not
accomplished in 1/4th cycle but in perhaps 1/100 th of this time. Thus the
rate of change of flux and therefore, the induced voltage during this
period would be 100 times the knee-point voltage. Insulation can be
damaged due to this high short duration voltage and over heating caused
by the great increase of iron losses.
Specification of CT :
The CTs are usually specified in terms of rated burden,
accuracy class and accuracy limit as follows:
15 VA, class 5P10
where 15 is the rated burden in VA
5P is the composite error at rated accuracy limit and

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10 is the accuracy limit factor.

The representation of the above CT means 15 VA burden, and the error
will be within 5% at 10 times rated current.
Standard values of rated burden are 5, 7.5, 10, 20, and 30 VA.
Accuracy limit values are usually 5P and 10P.
standard accuracy limit factors are 5, 10, 15, 20, and 30.
General protective purpose CTs are frequently specified in
terms of knee-point voltage, magnetizing current at knee-point or at
some other point and secondary resistance. The knee-point voltage is
defined as the point on the magnetizing curve of the CT at which an
increase of 10% secondary voltage would increase the magnetizing
current by 50%. Such CTs are known as class PS or class X CTs.
Bearing in mind the high value of secondary current which a
protective CT may be required to deliver, it is desirable to make the
secondary winding resistance as low as practicable to limit copper loss
and therefore heating.
Application :
while selecting a CT for a particular application, the connected
burden, the mode of operation and the variation of impedance over the
range of relay setting should be considered, rather than the range of
devices which are connected.
For example, if a relay with burden 3VA and setting range of
50% to 200% of nominal current is set at 50%, then
the relay setting is 0.5A
voltage across the coil at this current, V = 3VA / 0.5A = 6V
the impedance of the relay Z = 6V / 0.5A = 12W
If the same relay is set at 200%, then
the relay setting is 2A
voltage across the coil at this current, V = 3VA / 2A = 1.5V
the impedance of the relay Z = 1.5V /2A = 0.75A
If the characteristic of the relay is to be maintained up to 20 times the
relay setting, then the knee-point voltage should not be less than
20´6 = 120V for 50% setting
20´1.5 = 30V for 200% setting
The lowest setting must taken into account while specifying the CT. i.e.
Vk of 120V. However there is an alleviating factor that the relay will get
saturated magnetically at 20 times its setting and the impedance will be

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reduced. The reduction for over current relays is about half the
impedance at setting, which means that in the above case the knee-point
voltage of 60V would be satisfactory.
In many cases the CT associated with over current protection
must cater to earth fault relays also. If the earth fault relay having a
minimum setting of 20%,
the voltage at relay setting = 3VA /0.2A = 15V and
impedance = 15V / 0.2A = 75W
If the characteristic of the relay is to be maintained up to 10 times the
relay, the knee-point voltage should be greater than 10´15 = 150V or
allowing saturation 75V.
In this case the size is determined by earth fault relay. A
suitable CT would be 7.5VA, 5P10. This would produce a voltage of
7.5V at rated current when connected to 7.5 ohm burden and would have
only 5% error at 10 times rated current. i.e.at a voltage of 10´7.5= 75V.
As rough guide the knee-point voltage is the product of the VA
rating and the ALF divided by the rated secondary current. So for as
7.5VA, class 5P10, 5A CT
7.5 ´ 10
the knee-point voltage Vk = ¾¾¾¾ = 15V
5
If more than one relay is to be connected to one set of CTs the
total burden must be considered. It is usually sufficiently accurate to add
series burden impedance arithmetically.
Effect magnetizing current on relay setting :
The overall setting of the protection system is affected by the
magnetizing current of the CTs. The effect may not be significant in
over current relays, whereas in earth fault relays it will have some effect
on the overall setting. In differential protection system the effect of
magnetizing current is considerable where a large number of
transformers are connected together. For example, a bus-bar protection
scheme.
The primary operating current (POC) of a protective system is
the sum of the relay setting current and the magnetizing current of all
the connected CTs at the voltage across the relay at setting multiplied by
the CT ratio.

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Illustration 1:
A 2000/5 bar primary CT has 20 cm2 of iron and a secondary
winding resistance of 0.32 ohm. The maximum current for which the CT
has to operate is 40 KA, 50Hz. The relay burden 2ohm.
Given Bmax for stally 1.0 tesla
Bmax for cross 1.48 tesla
Determine the suitable core material without saturation.
40,000
Secondary current = ¾¾¾ = 100A
400
Assuming no saturation
Vk = 100 ( 2 + 0.32 ) = 232 volts
Vk = 4.44BAf N
232
B = ¾¾¾¾¾¾¾¾¾¾¾
4.44´1´20´10-4´50´400
= 1.36 tesla
Bmax for cross is 1.48 tesla. So more suitable core material
without saturation is CROSS.

Illustration 2 :
A 100/5 bar primary CT supplies to a 3VA over current relay
set at 10% with a stalloy core. The maximum dimension of the CT
housing on the circuit breaker are 22 cm dia and 19cm deep. It is
required to cater for a current of 10 times the relay setting.
Find 1) Knee-point voltage
2) Cross sectional area of the core
3) CT dimension.

Secondary current to operate the relay = 0.5 A

VA 3
Volts to operate the relay = ¾¾¾ = ¾¾ = 6 volts.
Setting 0.5
Vk, the knee-point voltage = 10´6 = 60 volts
Vk = 4.44 BAfN
60

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A = ¾¾¾¾¾¾¾ = 0.0135 m2
4.44´1.0´50´20
i.e. 0.0135´104 = 135 cm2
So the core dimension may be 11.25cm ´ 12cm.

Illustration 3 :
Three 100/5 bar primary CT with secondary resistance of
0.08W are connected to cater to three phase fault protection set to125%
and earth fault relays set to 40%. The relay burden at setting is 3VA for
phase fault relays and 2.4 VA for earth fault relays. What is the
maximum primary current to operate (POC) both phase and earth fault
relays?
3 3
O/C Relay impedance = ¾¾¾¾ = ¾¾¾ = 0.077W
(5´1.25)2 6.252
2.4 2.4
E/F Relay impedance = ¾¾¾¾ = ¾¾¾ = 0.4W
2
(5´0.4) 22
Phase fault relay setting :
Total impedance = Rct + Rrelay
= 0.08 + 0.077 = 0.157W
Volts from CT = 0.157 ´ 6.25 = 0.98 volts.
Assuming the magnetizing current from the magnetizing characteristic
curve at 0.98 volts is 0.25Amps.
Primary current = N( Is + Imag)
= 20 ( 6.25 + 0.25) = 130 Amps.
Earth fault relays setting :
Voltage across the earth fault relay = 2 ´0.6 = 1.2 Volts
Assuming the magnetizing current from the magnetizing characteristic
curve at 1.28 volts is 0.3Amps.
Now the energized CT must supply exciting current to the other two
CTs.
Current through Rph relay +
exciting current to Yph & Bph = 2 + 0.3 + 0.3 = 2.6Amps.
Volts from CT = 2.6 ( 0.077 + 0.08 ) + 1.2
= 1.608 volts
Assuming the magnetizing current from the magnetizing characteristic
curve at 1.608 volts is 0.41Amps.
Total secondary current = 0.41 + 2.6 = 3.01Amps.

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100
Primary fault current = ¾¾ ´ 3.01 = 60.2 Amps.
5

fig 1.4
Illustration 4 :
An earthed 132 KV transformer is protected by REF protection
using four CTs and an earth fault relay with stabilizing resistor set at
40%. The system fault level is 3000MVA and loop lead impedance from
CT to relay is 2 ohms. The ratio of the CT is 500/1A and Rct is 0.7
ohms. Find the primary fault setting and the minimum stabilizing
resistor value. Assume relay burden at 1VA.

3500
E/F current = ¾¾¾¾ = 15.3KA
Ö3 ´ 132
15300
CT sec. Current = ¾¾¾ = 30.6A
500
Relay voltage setting = 30.6 (0.7 + 2) = 82.6 volts.
Assuming the magnetizing current from the magnetizing characteristic
curve at 82.6 volts is 0.0246Amps.
Primary fault setting = 500{ (4´0.0246) + 0.4 }
= 250 Amps.
Stabilizing resister = ( Vk / Is ) - (VA / Is2 )
82.6 1
= ¾¾ - ¾¾
0.4 0.42

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= 250.25W

Selection of CT cores:

-Select the rated current - the primary current is select to be 10-40%

higher than the object rated current to have high resolution of the
metering equipment and instruments.
For the protection core it is to have highest possible ratio to give a least
requirement of core data. The modern relays have wide measuring
ranges.
A primary or secondary tap to get several ratios can be of useful in
metering cores. But must remember that the output is reduced when
fewer turns are used.
The CTs of 1A secondary is dominating now a days since the protection
and metering equipment have so low burdens.
The cable burden is reduced 25 times when using 1A secondary than 5A
secondary. This means that cores can be made in smaller dimensions
with a lower cost as result.
- Select the burden – do not use an over dimensioned burden
more than necessary. A too high burden will destroy the metering
equipment due to security factor of the equipment.
-Select accuracy- for ampere turns less than about 400-500 a too high
requirement can mean extra expenses, as a more expensive core material
must be used.

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Voltage transformers :
Voltage transformers can be of two types, magnetic voltage transformers
(VT) and capacitive voltage transformers (CVT) The magnetic voltage
transformers are most economical for voltages up to about 145kV and
the capacitive voltage there above.
The voltage transformer for use with protection schemes has to
fulfill only one condition, which is the secondary output voltage of the
voltage transformer must be an accurate representation of the primary
voltage in both magnitude and phase angle. To meet this requirement
voltage transformers are designed to operate at very low flux densities.
Magnetizing current at low flux densities will be very low, and therefore
the ratio and phase angle errors are also will be small. To achieve this
the core area for a given output is larger than that of power transformer,
which increases the over all sizes of the voltage transformer. In addition
a five limbed construction is used instead of three one in power
transformers in order to reduce the magnetic interference between
phases. The condition of magnetic interference doesn’t arise when three
single phase units are used as is common in EHV system, since each
phase unit will have a core with a closed magnetic circuit.

Accuracy :
Ratio error : The error in the secondary voltage due to incorrect ratio is
commonly known as the ratio error and is expressed as a percentage as
follows:
(KnVs - Vp)
¾¾¾¾¾¾ ´100%
Vp
where Kn is the nominal ratio (rated
primary/secondary
voltage
Vs is the actual secondary terminal voltage

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Vp is the actual primary terminal voltage

A small turns compensation is usually be employed in V.T, so that the
error will be positive for low burden and negative for high burden.
Phase angle error : The phase angle error is the phase difference
between the reversed secondary and the primary voltage vector. It is
positive when the reverse secondary voltage leads the primary vector
and negative when it lags the primary vector.
Limits of error and phase difference for different classes of metering and
protective voltage transformers are given in table below:

Table 1
Accuracy 0.8 to 1.2 times rated voltage
class 0.25 to1.0 times rated burden at 0.8pf
Ratio error (%) Phase difference
(minutes)
0.1 ± 0.1 ± 5
0.2 ± 0.2 ± 10
0.5 ± 0.5 ± 20
1.0 ± 1.0 ± 40
3.0 ± 3.0 ---
Limits of error for measuring voltage transformer.

Table 2
Accuracy 0.5to Vf (voltage factor) times rated voltage
class 0.25 to1.0 times rated burden at 0.8pf
Ratio error (%) Phase difference
(minutes)
3P ± 3 ± 120
5P ± 6 ± 240
Limits of error for protective voltage transformer.

Voltage factor :
the voltage factor Vf is the upper limit of operating voltage,
expressed in per unit of rated voltage. Earth faults cause a displacement

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of system neutral, particularly in the case of unearthed or impedance

earthed systems, resulting rise in voltage on the unearthed phases. These
rise in voltage are important for correct relay operation and ability of the
voltage transformer withstanding under such condition.
Voltage factors with permissible duration for different type of
connection and system earthing are shown in the table below:

Table 3
Voltage Ratin Method of primary connection and
factor Vf g System earthing
1.2 contin Between lines in any network
uous Between transformer star-point and earth in
any network.
1.2 contin Between line and earth in an effectively
uous earthed neutral system.
1.5 30s -do-
1.2 contin Between line and earth in an non effectively
uous earthed neutral system with automatic earth
fault tripping.
1.9 30s -do-
1.2 contin Between line and earth in an isolated neutral
uous system without automatic E/F tripping or in
an resonant earthed system without
automatic E/F tripping.
1.9 8 hrs -do-

Protection of voltage transformer :

voltage transformer are generally protected by HRC fuses on
the primary side for voltage up to 66KV. Above 66KV the HRC fuses
don’t have sufficient interrupting capacity. As the voltage transformers
are designed to operate at a low flux density their impedance is low and
therefore a secondary side short circuit will produce a fault current of
many times rated current. Hence the secondary side of the voltage
transformer are usually protected by fuses or miniature circuit breakers.

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Residual connection of voltage transformer :

It is important that a voltage of correct magnitude and phase
angle presented to the directional earth-fault relays and earth fault
elements of impedance relays. As an earth-fault can be in any one of the
three phase, it is not possible to derive a voltage in a conventional
manner. The residual or broken-delta connection of voltage transformers
as shown in fig 1.5 is the solution to the above problem. Under 3f
balanced condition the sum of the three voltages connected in broken
delta is zero. If one voltage absent or reduced because of earth-fault on

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fig 1.5

that phase, then the difference between the normal voltage and that
voltage is delivered to the relay.
It necessary for the primary winding neutral of the voltage
transformer to be earthed for the zero sequence exciting current to flow.
If the primary winding is not earthed, an broken-delta winding may
develop a voltage. This broken-delta voltage so developed is not related
to any residual in the primary system, but entirely third harmonic.
Voltage transformers are usually provided with a normal star connected
secondary winding and a broken-delta connected tertiary winding.
Alternatively the residual voltage can be obtained by using a
star/broken-delta connected auxiliary Voltage transformer connected
from the secondary of the main voltage transformer. For this condition
to be successful, the main voltage transformer must fulfill the
requirements for handling zero sequence voltage i.e. it must be of five
limbed construction, have an earthed primary neutral and rated for
suitable voltage factor. The star point of the main voltage transformer
secondary winding and the auxiliary voltage transformer primary
winding must be interconnected to complete the zero sequence circuit.

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The voltage transformers must have a good transient response for

protection purposes. The CVT is having the problem in facing the
transient conditions where the energy stored in capacitive voltage
divider and in the interposing voltage transformer will result in a voltage
transient voltage oscillation on the secondary side. The transient
oscillation consists of a low frequency component(2-15Hz) and a high
frequency oscillation(900-4000Hz). The time constant for the high
frequency part is (<10ms) whereas the low frequency part has long time
constants. The amplitude is decided by the fault inception angle. Higher
capacitances in the voltage divider gives lower amplitude of the low
frequency oscillation.

Ferro resonance:
Ferro resonance can occur in circuits containing a capacitor and a
reactor incorporating an iron core (a non linear inductance). Both the
CVT and a magnetic VT can be involved in Ferro-resonance
phenomenon.
Ferro resonance in magnetic VT is an oscillation between the inductance
of the VT and the capacitance of the network. Ferro resonance can only
occur at ungrounded networks, but note the risk that some part becomes
ungrounded under certain circumstances. An oscillation is normally
triggered by a sudden change in the network voltage. Ferro resonance
phenomenon can occur both with sub – harmonic frequencies or with
harmonic frequencies.
Generally it is difficult to state when a risk of ferro resonance occurs but
as soon as a system with a voltage transformer is left ungrounded,
preventive actions should be taken (also consider the risk of capacitive
charged systems with a VT) . The damping of ferro-resonance is
normally done with a 27-60W 200watts resistor connected across the
open delta winding.

The CVT with its capacitor and IVT is by itself a ferro resonance circuit.
The phenomenon is started by a sudden voltage change. A sub hormanic
oscillation can be started and must be damped to prevent damage of the
transformer. The IEC standard specifies that CVT;s must be provided
with ferro-resonance damping devices which is normally a saturating
reactor and a resistor in each phase.

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The accuracy of a voltage transformer is specified on the secondary

terminal. The voltage drop and angle error in the secondary cabling must
thus be checked in order to confirm the total accuracy of the circuit.

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