CHAPTER 2 Sustainability in Material Forming Zhengjie Jia Litens Automotive Group R. Ganesh Narayanan IIT Guwahati N. K.B. M. P, Nanayakkara University of Peradeniya Jay S. Gunasekera Ohio University CONTENTS 2.1 Introduction 20 2.2. Metal-Forming Process Design. 22 2.3 Aspects of Green Forming 25 2.3.1 Energy Consumption in Hot, Warm, and Cold Forming vs. Green Forming 26 2.3.2 Number of Forming Stages vs. Green Forming 27 2.3.3 Amount of Plastic Deformation. otnnnnnnnnsnnnnnennnsnn 27 2.3.4 Parasitic Energy Loss due to Friction oe oe 2B 235 Minimizing Material Waste toward Green Forming... oe 29 2.3.6 Indirect Energy Consumption in Material Forming... oe 30 2.3.7 Continuous Improvement of Quality toward Green Forming oe 30 24 Green Rolling sess seomnnennnnee 24.1 Thermal Energy Consumption in Rolling Processes vsu.sssusssvonnsnnnanensonee 31 2.4.2. Amount of Plastic Deformation and Roll Forces....n.0.:snnnsunnnnsnennns 31 2.4.3. Lubrication to Reduce Friction in Rolling.......0ssn sssnnansnnnnisin 32 2.4.4 Arrangement of Rolling Mills vs. Green Rolling so 33 2.5 Green Forging and EXtrusion 0c. - en 33 2.6 Green Wire Drawing... 2.7 Green Stamping... 28 Summary References, 1920 SUSTAINABLE MATERIAL FORMING AND JOINING. 2.1 INTRODUCTION Environmental sustainability and sustainable manufacturing are widely discussed and investi- gated due to the requirement of reducing the environmental impact. Sustainable material forming is part of such investigation. The sustainability in material-forming industry generally includes three aspects: (1) environmental sustainability—about planet, (2) economic sustainability—about profit, and (3) social sustainability—about people. Significant research has been done to investigate sus- tainability in material forming mainly on the envitonmental sustainability. This includes (1) how to efficiently use materials and resources, (2) how to effectively reduce the energy consumption and wastes during material forming, and (3) how to improve the forming quality with existing resources. The three most critical factors that have excessive impact to environment in material-forming pro- cesses are high energy consumption that generates significant CO,, significant water usage, and generation of nonrecyclable/nondegradable waste materials from production. The material-forming processes should be designed, optimized, and controlled with environmental sustainability as one of the major objectives, and products produced by material forming should not be harmful to people during production and use in terms of health and safety. In the past decade, material-forming industry has faced new challenges of sustainability requirement (o minimize the overall environmental impact under a life cycle perspective, in addi- tion (o the traditional requirements for lower cost, better quality, and faster to market. More and more stringent standards and policies have come into effect to accomplish the task. The tradi- tional “trial and error” approach or “try-outs” in material forming has been frequently replaced by sophisticated and efficient analysis methods such as finite-element method/analyses (FEM/ FRA) and virtual metal forming. Product quality, production economy, and environmental impact have become fundamental considerations for the material-forming process design in most cases. The growing tie-up between steel makers and vehicle manufacturers through Ultralight Steel Automotive Body (ULSAB) concept aiming to reduce the carbon footmark throughout the life- cycle of the vehicle is one of the best examples. As road vehicles significantly contribute to global energy consumption and greenhouse gas emissions, the European Union (EU) regulators have imposed to reduce average CO, emission to about 130 g/km by 2015 and 95 g/km in 2020 across all new vehicles. The impact of vehicle weight on the CO, emissions is shown in Figure 2.1 (www. imoa info). The test data show that a weight reduction of 100kg saves 0.10.51 per 100km, which corresponds to 8-12 g/km reduction of CO, emission. The data have been fit and it is observed that the CO, emission increases following a power law with an increase in vehicle weight. Itis also seen that the emission from luxury vehicles is much larger than other class of vehicles, especially the compact cars. A substantial effort has been put into the development of light weight vehicle, including body, components, and structures, in order to achieve the emission target, as a car body using high-strength steels can reduce body weight by more than 100kg as compared with a car using conventional steel grades (www.imoa info). Moreover, increased strength is favorable in terms of safety and crash resistance. In 1994, Audi developed the all-aluminum Audi Space Frame (ASF) system using extruded, die-cast, and flat rolled high-strength aluminum (www.aluminium.org), in order to achieve a sig- nificant reduction in vehicle weight. The weight of A8's first-generation ASF aluminum body was reduced from 478 kg (steel body of similar-sized car) to 273 kg, and further it was reduced to 239kg in the second-generation ASF, and now just 220kg, which represents a total of 45% reduction in vehicle weight (www.audiusa.com; www.audi-journals.com). In 1999, Audi began to apply the ASF aluminum body-in-white (BIW) technology into the A2, a mass production full-size family passen- ger car, which converted many iron and steel components into aluminum, including the engine and wheels, and have achieved a diesel fuel consumption performance of 3L per 100km (www.audi= world.com). If the aluminum BIW’s technology were applied to all passenger vehicles produced in‘SUSTAINABILITY IN MATERIAL FORMING. 21 CO; emission (g/km) European union target: Data upper jimit 2015: 130 g/km Data fit 2020: 96 g/km ~ 400) 360) 300] 260) 200) Mini vehicles Data lower limit 160] +00] 50 500 700 900 1100 1300 1500 1700 1900 2100 2300 2500 Vehicle weight (ka) Figure 2.1 Influence of automobile weight on CO; emission. (www.imoa.info}) the USA and Canada, at least an additional 40 million tons of aluminum would be required. On the other hand, savings of about 132-211 million barrels of crude oil can be achieved, with a reduction of about 54-86 million tons of CO, equivalent in greenhouse gas (GHG) emission annually (www. aluminium org). Sustainability is a concept, which is difficult to measure, Therefore, a comparison of precise sustainability of different material-forming processes can be impractical, but the reduction of CO, emission that is directly linked to energy consumption is a measurable target. To achieve the green and sustainable material forming, energy consumption, water usage, and materials’ waste in material-forming processes can be managed and reduced by the following factors: + System-level eco-design and optimization of energy consumption, water usage, and materials’ waste through product lifecycle assessment and management (PLA and PLM). + Virtual forming process development to reduce or eliminate the physical forming tests, and to reduce the total number of forming stages/steps and minimize the real shop floor trials + Integrate virtual-physical forming process design and development methodology for lower cost, better quality, faster-to-market, and sustainable material-forming practice. + Use of new and efficient material-forming technologies and materials It is a well-known fact to scientific community that large tonnage of metals is plastically deformed (or formed) every day to fabricate products in automotive, food packaging, aerospace, construction, and agriculture sectors, Because of use of high-strength metals such as steel and cast iron, the energy consumption during forming is substantially high as compared with non- metals such as polymers, ceramics, etc., during part manufacturing, As a result, the industry has been shifting away from steel family in many of the traditional applications, switching to usage of light weight metals such as aluminum and magnesium alloys. However, steel grades account for most of the tonnage of forming in today’s industry and certain applications need steel grades as raw material.22 SUSTAINABLE MATERIAL FORMING AND JOINING. 2,2 METAL-FORMING PROCESS DESIGN The various metal-forming processes and their classification are discussed in the first chapter. Such metal-forming processes can be done at room temperature and at elevated temperature; both these temperatures have their own advantages and disadvantage including energy consumption, quality enhancement, and material utilization, Both analytical knowledge and technology informa- tion ate required to design metal-forming processes. The flow of metal, deformation stresses and strains, microstructure, friction, heat transfer, lubricant types, heat input, and recovery methods, material handling system, tool design, and forming equipment are involved. However, the key is the understanding and control of metal flow, which determines the quality, elimination of defects such as cracks or folds, and the mechanical properties of the final product. The significant variables in a metal-forming process (Altan et al., 1983) include (1) billet and tool material properties; (2) tool/billet interface conditions such as lubricant/friction and cooling characteristics; (3) deformation mechanics including modeling assumptions, evolution of stress, strain, strain-rate and temperature; (4) equipment conditions including its ram tonnage, rigidity, and accuracy; (5) product complexities such as dimensional accuracy/tolerances, surface texture, and structural properties; (6) ecological conditions including manufacturing facilities and control. Considering all such aspects, metal-forming process design becomes complex and time consuming. In recent years, some of the above variables have been in severe scrutiny among academicians and industrialists. The final product was the first and foremost expectation in a traditional forming process and the success of the forming process was directly related to the pass/fail criteria of the quality of the product and the cost incurred in manufacturing, However, to meet today's growing concerns, energy consumption, use of resources, and direct and indirect environmental pollution have become more focused topics. In line with this requisite, many of the recent studies on metal forming have been diverted from its traditional path and started focusing on the process-based concerns such as lean adoption in forming, green forming, and sustainability. However, it should be noted that such new paradigm of issues depends on traditional scientific problems such as strain and stress analyses, lubrication effect, temperature effect, etc., and analysis methods. Minimizing adverse effects of metal forming on the society and the environment has been, therefore, in high demand. In order to minimize the impact on the environment to achieve sustain- ability in material forming, and to optimize the variables, many modeling methods such as force equilibrium analysis, lower and upper-bound method, FEM/FEA, Taguchi experimental design and statistical methods, axiomatic design approach, geometric methods, and neural networks (NN), and hybrid methods are used to model the processes. However, each of these methods has its own advantages and disadvantages in terms of accurate prediction and computational simplicity. The slab method has been applied to various types of forming processes for a long time since 1934. Due to simplified assumptions in the slab model, FEM generally provides a much more accurate solution as compared with the slab model. In recent years, an integrated analysis and design method that combines the advantages of a few of these methods for metal-forming processes has been adopted as a multidisciplinary systematic approach. For instance, Veera Babu et al. (2009, 2010) developed an “expert system” based on FEM-NN hybrid mode! that can predict the formability of tailor welded blanks. The expert system is developed considering different material grades, and weld conditions. Since the expert system is, based on FE simulations, the prediction accuracy depends on the material models and formability criteria, The deliverables from the FE simulations were trained by NN. Until now, the expert sys- tem can predict the tensile behavior and deep drawing behavior of welded sheets accurately. Ow et al. (2004) developed an FE-optimization strategy to minimize errors during hot forging of aero engine components, The authors have considered press deflections and die clearance for optimiza tion, They found that the die elasticity governs that aero foil thickness error and press deflections decide the aero foil bow and twist errors. Similarly, Yang et al. (2007) performed FE-NN modeling‘SUSTAINABILITY IN MATERIAL FORMING. 23 analyses of manufacturing bevel gears and optimized the effect of a few material properties on maximum forging load and effective stress distribution. With this attempt, one can optimally select the material quality and process conditions for successful gear manufacturing. There is still lack of knowledge, effective methods, and quantitative studies on modeling the sustainability and its parameters for a formed product in its lifecycle. However, some efforts have been made towards this end as well, Paolo Nava (2009) proposed a method to quantify the envi- ronmental impact of a metal-forming process in terms of equivalent CO, emissions. The method includes the following four steps: (1) calculation of the mechanical work; (2) conversion of energy into CO, emissions; (3) quantification of the non-energy-related CO, emissions, such as operation- related energy consumption; and (4) optimization of the total energy consumption on the CO, emis- sions. The author used this method to quantify and minimize the carbon emissions in an open dic cold upset forging process to produce a 6061 aluminum alloy disk. In the first step, work done for shearing the raw material was calculated by an approximate analytical model and work done dur- ing compression was calculated using FEM. In the second step, the energy-related CO, emission was calculated as the summation of individual contributions from shearing and compression, ic, CE,+CEp. For this, a parameter known as carbon equivalent signature has been defined. In the non-energy-related CO, emissions, global warming potential (GWP) of each lubricant (CE) was considered. The overall CO, emissions, CE,+CE,+CE,xp, from the three steps are optimized in the last step. The results show that to forge a 6061 aluminum alloy disk with the final height of 6mm and diameter of 30mm, the worst scenario is that the initial height of 7mm and using mineral oil will produce a CO, emission of 157.4g, while the optimized case is that the initial height of 10.95mm and using used cooking oil ester will produce a CO, emission of 136.1 g, which is aredue- tion of about 14% in CO, emissions. Extrusion of Al alloy 7003 with varying Mg content is a crucial task in terms of extrudability and energy consumption, The experimental analyses of Jo et al. (2002) reveal that Mg content (in wt%) have an adverse effect on the extrusion pressure and total energy consumption. The total energy con- sumption is increased from 16,639 to 16,652MJA with increasing the Mg content from 0.5% to 1% in AA7003. Moreover, for a particular Mg content, the total energy consumption (1) decreased in the case of indirect extrusion as compared with direct extrusion and (2) decreased with a decrease in extrusion rate from 10 to 5 mm/s, Its also clear from the analyses that the CO, emission can be minimized from 225 to 194kg when induction heating system is used instead of a heater with light oil. Thus, lower Mg content, indirect extrusion, lower extrusion rate, and induction heating system are the requirements, of sustainable extrusion of AA7003 material, Modification in manufacturing process will also reduce energy consumption and CO, emissions. A helical pinion gear was manufactured by cold extrusion process, instead of traditional machining route. Yun et al. (2014) followed the LCA technique as per 18014000 and equation 2.1 to quantify sustainability in the gear manufacturing operation: (my Xe,) G=——. 21) Py where Gis the quantity of carbon emissions generated by fuel usage during part manufacturing, my is the fuel and energy used to manufacture products in a year, ¢, is the fuel emission factor, and p, is the yearly production of products. About 25% and 49% of energy consumption for the single- and double-type extrusion processes, respectively, has been attained in comparison with the traditional machining process. The billet preparation for making gear through machining consumed about 9MJ of energy, while for extrusion it is about 6-7.3MJ. The CO, emission was also minimized by 40% by adopting cold extrusion route. Because of strain hardening, the hardness of the final part has enhanced by 35% in the case of cold extrusion, Reduction in energy consumption and emission, and improvement in strength of the final part are examples of sustainable metal forming,24 SUSTAINABLE MATERIAL FORMING AND JOINING. In the past decade, one of the popular approaches is to use the strategy of “virtual metal form- ing” to design, analyze, and optimize the metal-forming processes in a virtual world, instead of physical experiments or real shop floor testing. This not only reduces the energy consumed in physical tests but also reduces the costs and curtails the time to market, thereby making the metal- forming process environmentally and economically sustainable, The virtual metal forming using computer-aided engineering simulations has been widely employed to investigate the complicated metal-forming process, which takes into account all the input variables listed carlier. FEA, as a tool, plays an important role during such activity. This will help us in lowering the environmental impact from resource extraction and energy consumption, Several real industrial examples that demonstrate the impressive achievements are given here. Hadley Group, UK uses FEA to reduce the number of the traditional physical testing to achieve the sustainable cold rolling forming process for the improvement of the rolling product quality (English, 2013), Hadley Group, UK developed the UltraSTEEL process, a patented cold roll forming process (dimples are introduced on the sheet before cold roll forming, Figure 2.2) to produce the strip steel for building and construction industries. In the past years, in order to understand and improve the mechanical and structural properties of the strip steel produced by the UltraSTEEL process, Hadley has to invest in a complete set of tooling, costing at $30,000-$150,000, to produce proto- types and to perform physical testing. This is expensive in terms of dollars and is eco-unfriendly as mote physical prototype testing means more steel materials wasted and more energy consumed in prototype testing. Due to the complicated geometry formed by the UltraSTEEL process, theoreti- cal analysis and calculations cannot be used to accurately predict the performance and behavior. Finally, Hadley successfully addressed this challenging task by using nonlinear FEA to analyze the UltraSTEEL process. Such a green and sustainable metal-forming practice has resulted in the increase of $4 million in sales (English, 2013). Another example is that Pilsen Steel, Czech uses FEA to eliminate the multiple heating~ cooling-reheating cycles in physical testing to achieve the sustainable forging forming process for the ingots cracking issue in a forging operation (Tikal, 2013). Pilsen Steel, Czech Republic, a leading producer of castings, ingots, and forgings, had an issue with ingots cracking in a forging process. Pilsen Steel was to cool the ingots in water to between 500°C and 600°C after casting, The ingots were then placed in the forging furnace at 1,100°C-1,200°C (Figure 2.3). During forg- ing, multiple cracks were found in the ingots. In order to investigate the origin of the formation of longitudinal cracks in 34CrNiMo6 steel ingots in the forging process, both the ingots heating process and forging operation were needed to be investigated, which would require multiple times of heating—cooling-reheating cycles. In addition to the expensive nature of the trials, the energy consumption could be significantly high. Pilsen successfully used nonlinear FEA to analyze the thermal stress in the ingots during heating and to predict the parameters for the soaking process Figure 2.2 Strip steel produced by the UltraSTEEL process. (With permission from English, 2013.)SUSTAINABILITY IN MATERIAL FORMING. 25 Figure 2.3 34CrNiMo6 steel ingots. (With permission from Tikal, 2013) used to cool the ingots after casting before placed in the furnace. The ingot's cracking issue was successfully solved by increasing the temperature of the ingot before the forging process and a sig- nificant heating/reheating energy was saved during the analyses, in which FEA plays an important role in the sustainable forging process (Tikal, 2013), ‘The importance of virtual metal-forming analyses can also be understood from the FEA of 3D transfer die simulation, and stamping tool design. Transfer die problems and relevant solutions cause disruption on shop floor production and delays that affect profits in long run, By using FEA of transfer die problems, tool fabricators and stamping analysts can troubleshoot and successfully run the transfer die stamping trials before the real production, In the 3D transfer die simulations, kinematic analyses can be conducted, crashes can be avoided, and strokes per minute and transfer motion can be optimized. Using such CAE facility, a supplier of metal stampings has improved the productivity rate, and another supplier has increased 11-15 parts per min by optimizing the motion curves and timing (Hansen, 2015). FEA software used for stamping analyses is capable of predict- ing the shape and size of initial sheet, sheet failures such as thinning, wrinkling, necking, etc, dic/ tool design like drawbead location and addition, blank holder and addendum modifications, fric~ tion, and lubricant requirements, etc. (Hedrick, 2002). It can even simulate the actual crash event and predict the final strength of the part. In many case studies, one step FE simulation gives quick and acceptable answer and solves problems well before real manufacturing (Goodmonson, 2010; Hansen, 2015). 2.3 ASPECTS OF GREEN FORMING A number of aspects in material forming can be taken into account in minimizing the impact to the environment. The sustainable and green material forming can be achieved by using the following factors: + Reduce energy consumption in each forming stage by reducing the preheating temperature, using warm forming instead of hot forming whenever possible, and well controlling the thermal energy released to the atmosphere, + Reduce energy consumption by reducing the total number of forming stages.26 SUSTAINABLE MATERIAL FORMING AND JOINING + Reduce energy consumption by decreasing the forming load through uniform straining using optimum product/die geometries, lubrication to reduce friction, etc. + Reduce energy consumption by reducing/eliminating trimming and finishing processes. + Aiming for near net shape forming so that energy consumed in the post-forming operations can be minimized + Reduce material wastes by reducing redundant work, such as for flash formation. + Reduce water usage. + Reduce nonrecyclable/nondegradable materials in the forming processes, such as using biodegrad- able vegetable oils instead of petroleum-based lubricants when possible. + Reduce waste and nonconforming products through quality enhancement. + Reduce or eliminate rework on defects. + Reduce handling and excessive movements and transportation inside and outside the facilities + Reduce the use of inappropriate processes and high energy-consuming technologies The latter approaches are from the classical lean technology through which the metal-forming industry can be heavily enriched. It is obvious that on top of direct approaches on transforming the metal-forming system into green, the lean adaptation is capable of enhancing the outcome further through a “system” based approach. 2.3.1 Energy Consumption in Hot, Warm, and Cold Fort \g vs. Green Forming ‘The energy consumption throughout the material-forming operations has a significant effect on the green and sustainable material forming. Many different forms of energy, such as thermal energy, mechanical energy, and electric energy, are used in material-forming processes. The energy con- sumed in the forming operation essentially includes (1) the thermal energy in preheating the stock/ billet, (2) the work done against yield stresses to achieve plastic deformation, (3) the work done against friction, and (4) indirect energy consumption in tool preparation and handling. The total energy consumed in a forming process is the summation of all these different forms of energies. In addition, the actual energy consumed would also be greatly affected by how the rolls, dies, and presses are set, types of presses, etc. In general, the energy consumed is significantly dissimilar in different forming conditions, In hot forming, such as hot forging, hot rolling, and hot extrusion operations, the thermal energy consumed in preheating the stock/billet to a temperature above the recrystallization temperature of the material accounts for a major portion of the total energy consumption, but the work done during deformation is significantly reduced due to softness of the stock. On other hand, in cold forming, extra thermal energy in preheating is not a prerequisite, but relatively a large amount of mechanical/electrical energy is con- sumed to achieve plastic deformation. The energy consumed in warm forming for both heating the stock and the plastic deformation is at intermediate level, and therefore optimization of the total energy intake should be critically attempted rather than focusing on energy consumed on one of the aspects. The form of energy used in the metal-forming process acts as a constraint for the journey toward green. In hot forming processes, almost all the thermal energy used during preheating process is released back to the environment ultimately. Therefore, use of warm forming or cold forming instead of hot forming whenever possible will greatly eliminate the thermal energy in billet preheat- ing and the thermal energy loss to the atmosphere. However, in cold forming, due to the increased use of mechanical energy, a direct energy dump to the environment is not a concern, but 2 similar level of indirect environmental effect would have created during the energy generation. In addition, the recrystallization does not occur in warm or cold forming, and thus subsequent heat treatment which is needed to restore material properties is eliminated as the original material properties are not greatly distorted, Therefore, the (otal energy input to the operation is reduced and a greener forming process is achieved. Moreover, in hot forming, the metals become strain-rate sensitive, and high forming speed will result in surface defects. Optimizing the forming speed for a given‘SUSTAINABILITY IN MATERIAL FORMING 27 reduction ratio in hot forming becomes a crucial activity. The objective of sustainable forming is achieved by carefully controlling the stock temperature as to optimize the material flow. For example, a research project undertaken by one of the authors for American Axle & Manufacturing Co in Detroit, USA revealed that the temperature of the steel billet can be lowered by carefully re-designing the dies. The research indicates that it was possible to reduce the number of forging stages, and still to fill the dies while reducing the temperature of the billet, which results in the lower energy consumption and the better product quality. In another example, during cold extru- sion, the die design was optimized using FEA to reduce the load requirement, finally reducing the energy consumed for extrusion (Joun and Hwang, 1993). Two different die profiles, (1) die profile represented by small line segments, and (2) die profile described by cubic spline, are used for opti- mization, With the optimum die profile, strain distribution was made uniform and energy consumed during cold extrusion was minimized However, forming load in cold and warm forming will be much higher than that in hot forming, meaning that more mechanical/electric energy will be used in the cold and warm forming opera- tions to achieve plastic deformation. In addition, some annealing may be needed between cold form- ing steps, meaning that some additional thermal energy will be consumed in cold forming, which is not a requitement in a hot forming. Therefore, there is a trade-off, and the increased heating energy intake in hot forming process and increased mechanical energy in cold forming process should be carefully balanced to achieve total energy optimization. Often the trade-off is decided by material selection. Some metals like Ti are formable at elevated temperature to make useful products. In such situations, optimum design of cooling ducts becomes prominent. Hot stamping of quenchable boron manganese alloyed steel 22MnBS of 1.75 mm thickness was attempted by Hoffmann et al. (2007). FE-based thermal analyses of two optimized duct geometries (diameters), small and large cooling ducts, reveal that cooling rates of about 40°C/s with smaller duct and 33°C/s with larger duct, which are greater than the desired minimum cooling rate of 27°C/s, are possible. The smaller duct provided better cooling rate. The true benefit to the environment can be estimated by the vir- tual metal-forming analysis, like the examples quoted above, in terms of equivalent CO, emissions 2,3,2 Number of Forming Stages vs, Green Forming Reducing the number of forming stages will significantly reduce the total energy consump- tion because the energy consumed in the extra forming stages and the cumulative thermal energy released to the atmosphere (energy waste) between consecutive forming steps will be eliminated. Furthermore, the need of heating between forming states will also diminish. In addition, reduced number of forming stages also means the reduced handling effort, the possible savings through the overheads of the forming process, and the increased tool life in terms of number of products manufactured. Additional benefits associated with social sustainability such as less exposure to forming presses enhances health and occupational safety concerns. A typical example of reducing the number of stages of forging operations by converting warm forging to cold forging is done by Ku and Kang (2014) during the manufacture of outer race of constant velocity joints. The nine-stage multistage warm forging process is converted to a six-stage forging process that combined the back- ward extrusions as one operation, and the necking, ironing, and sizing are combined into another operation. Thus, the proposed cold forging consists of six operations only. The final process design and tool life analyses using FEA proved that the new process is capable of manufacturing the outer race within acceptable tolerances. 2.3.3 Amount of Plastic Deformation Energy required for plastic deformation and the process temperature are interrelated: the higher the forming process temperature, the more thermal energy consumed in preheating, the more heat28 SUSTAINABLE MATERIAL FORMING AND JOINING. energy lost to the atmosphere. But lesser the forming load, lesser the mechanical/electric energy required for plastic deformation and longer life of forming equipment. The objective is to opti- mize the total energy consumption, including thermal, mechanical, and electric energies. This will be challenging to all the classic analytic modeling and analysis techniques. FEA and virtual metal forming can be used to investigate the interactions and the relationships between these vari- ables (temperature and deformation) and the objective function (the minimum overall total energy consumption), In general, energy consumption in rolling, forging, extrusion and drawing can be reduced by reducing the forming load, and optimizing the product/die geometries. FEA and soft computing methods have been widely used to improve die geometries and product geometries to achieve the green material-forming goal. Just to quote an example for improving the efficiency of product manufacturing, a two-stage tube drawing process for the manufacture of straight-type cowl cross bar of automobile was analyzed by FEA (Kim et al., 2014). It has been found that the reduction ratio that decides the amount of plastic deformation exceeded the 30% allowable limit in each stage. Increasing the number of stages was not recommended because of economic concerns. Hence, a process modification that involves an external compressive force was recommended and later examined using FEA. For the same reduction ratio, a compressive force of 10% of forming load produced a defect free cross bar, but with 4% thinning at a particular location of the tube. By increasing the compressive force, the thinning is reduced to about 0.6% yielding a defect free part in two stages, without modifications in reduction ratio. 2.3.4 Parasitic Energy Loss due to Friction Friction is a critical factor that greatly affects the material-forming operations and has a sig- nificant effect to green forming practice due to parasitic energy loss and the use of lubricants. The energy consumed to overcome the friction between billet and forming tool contact surfaces is largely a redundant work and parasitic energy loss. Friction must be carefully controlled because too high or too low friction results in defects in the finished products. Lubrication is typically used in reducing the friction in forming processes. Liquid lubricants, such as mineral oils, can effectively reduce friction, but not suitable in hot and cold forming because most of the lubricants chemically breakdown and lose lubrication properties at high temperatures, and also tend to breakdown in high pressures. In these cases, solid film lubrication is highly appropriate. In certain forming processes, such as warm forming, it may be possible to substitute harmful petroleum-based lubricants with more environmentally friendly counterparts, such as biodegradable vegetable oils, coconut or palm. seed oils, animal fat, and used cooking oil, It is worth of undemanding the environmental effects due to the excessive use of lubricants. GWPs of some lubricants are described by Dettmer (2006) and Nava (2009). The GWP is the quantity of equivalent CO, emissions connected to the life cycle of the lubricants including resource extraction, manufacturing, and discarding. It is defined as grams of CO, equivalent per gram of lubricant. By knowing the GWP, the CO, emissions due to lubricant use (CE,y,) can be assessed as follows: CEs man X GWPim, 22 where mzyp is the mass of the lubricant used and GWPyyp is for the lubricant. It is evident from the data given by Nava (2009) that out of all the lubricants, mineral oil (Castrol) has the highest GWP of 3.08 g CO,/;p and used cooking oil ester has the lowest of about 0.6 g CO4/g;17g, While other lubricants such as rapeseed oil ester, palm oil ester, or animal fat ester, fall in between. On the other hand, rapeseed oil ester and palm oil ester are costlier, valuing about 3.3 euro/kg, as compared with mineral oil (Castrol) costing about 1.5 euro/kg‘SUSTAINABILITY IN MATERIAL FORMING. 29 Nava (2009) also compared the environmental impact and frictional properties of two eco- friendly lubricants namely palm oil ester and used cooking oil ester, and Castrol mineral oil in the ring compression test of A16061-T6. It is found that used cooking oil ester and Castrol mineral oil deliver a friction coefficient of 0.14 and palm oil ester of about 0.16. A small difference in the tribo- logical performance between them has been revealed. Baosteel Stainless Steel Co., Ltd., Shanghai, China achieved stable batch production of fer- ritic stainless steels for automotive exhaust systems using the tandem cold rolling mill (TCM), instead of the Sendzimir mill (www.worldstainless.org/). In order to replace traditional rolling oil, Baosteel optimized the ingredients in the emulsion to reduce the potential surface scratches on the sttip surface and also optimized the cold rolling process to control the profile during processing. Baostcel finally achieved the increased production efficiency, the reduced energy consumption, the better surface quality, and the properties of the product, Baostecl has successfully transferred this technology into the production of other super-pure ferritic stainless steels (www.worldstainless. org/). In the recent past years, use of nanoparticles in lubricants is of interest to many research groups. Optimum nanoparticle concentration will yield better friction and lubrication characteris- tics. Zareh-Desari and Davoodi (2016) studied the lubrication performance of vegetable oil based nanolubricants for metal-forming applications. Rapeseed oil and soybean oil with SiO, and CuO nanoparticles at varying concentrations are compared during ring compression tests of pure copper and A16061 samples. It is observed that 0.5-0.7 wt% concentration of nanoparticles is the optimum level for achieving minimum friction coefficient in all the cases. Moreover, the deformation load is reduced significantly when nanoparticles are added as compared with traditional vegetable oils. Reduction in deformation load is an indication of reduction in energy consumption, and sustainable manufacturing. Kim and Altan (2008) evaluated the performance of five different lubricants based on their maximum load requirement during strip drawing tests. The sheet used is a dual-phase steel (DP 590/600), with two different Zinc coatings—galvannealed and galvanized. Their performances are tabulated in Table 2.1. The polymer-based lubricant with EP additives and water-soluble dry film lubricants are found to be most effective in all the situations, Therefore, selection of lubricant and additives (if any) plays a vital role in deciding the forming performance. Nanayakkara (2007) carried out extensive tests with water-soluble lubricants manufactured by FUCHS lubricants and perceived significant improvements in friction properties while ensuring lesser environmental impacts 2.3.5 Minimizing Material Waste toward Green Forming Elimination of material waste is another milestone along the journey toward green forming. The material scraped at the end of the forming process is a significant waste and has a significant effect Table 2.1. Performance of Lubricants from Strip Drawing Tests on DP Steel (Kim and Altan, 2008) Performance from Strip Drawing Tests Uncoated Die PVD Coated Die Galvannealed Galvanized Galvannealed Galvanized Lubricant Sheet Sheet Sheet Sheet Polymerbased with extrame-pressure Most effective Mosteffectve Masteffective Most effective additives Water-soluble dry film lubricant Most effective Most effective Most effective Most etfective Water free dry film lubricant Not acceptable Most effective Reasonable Acceptable ‘Synthetic Not acceptable Not acceptable Reasonable Acceptable Straight oil More friction Reduced friction More friction Reduced friction30 SUSTAINABLE MATERIAL FORMING AND JOINING. on environmental sustainability, economic sustainability, and social sustainability, as all of these wasted materials, such as flash in forging, have gone through all the forming processes and have consumed a substantial amount of energy in preheating and plastic deformation, in addition to the increased costs to the business, increased waste to human living environment and health. In other words, the elimination of material waste will realize more products to be manufactured using the same volume of raw materials with the same amount of energy. Eliminating or minimizing material waste can be achieved by the use of optimum billet size, Such analyses using experiments are time consuming and resource intensive. In these situations, FEA will be helpful. Khaled et al. (2011) analyzed the manufacturing of front and back hubs of an autonomous underwater vehicle by flash- less cold forging and experimental validation has been done. The volume of the initial billet has been optimized by modifying the diameter of the billets using volume constancy principle between final forged product and initial billet. Underfilling and flash are the two defects that are monitored by FEA. Such FEA yielded an optimum billet diameter of 27mm and length of 26mm in the case of front hub, and 28.2mm diameter with a blind hole diameter of Smm in the case of back hub. The thermal analyses also reveal that the optimum billet size is acceptable in terms of maximum temperature achieved. The products are made successfully by experiments as well. Similar attempts have been made to optimize the sheet raw material for reducing material wastes and enhancing die life during sheet stamping. Many computer-aided methods and algorithms are developed for raw material optimization. Nye (2000) developed an exact algorithm based on Minkowski Sum concept to optimize the strip orientation and strip width. Such algorithm would be helpful in optimum nest- ing, finally minimizing the sheet wastes. 2.3.6 Indirect Energy Consumption in Material Forming The energy consumed in material forming also includes the different forms of energies spent on material handling, moving, transportation, etc., in material-forming production operation. Those indirect energy consumptions do not directly contribute to the material plastic deformation, but may represent a significant amount of energy consumed in the production operation, which has an impact to the green forming goal. This portion of energy consumption can be minimized by proper process design, effective layouts, and enhanced scheduling in the design stages and the press shop to achieve the green objectives in material-forming processes. 2.3.7 Continuous Improvement of Quality toward Green Forming Quality is a growing concern in manufacturing today not only to satisfy consumers and end users but also due to other issues leading toward sustainability and environment. After the world war, Japan gave a different dimension to quality. With the help of Edward Deming, Genichi Taguchi, and other experts, the field has been enriched. Furthermore, one of the leading manufacturers of automobiles, Toyota, has focused on their customized manufacturing concepts, for example, Toyota Production System (TPS) [X2]. Through the approaches like Lean, Six Sigma, etc, elimination of overall wastes of the process was engrossed and has gained huge advantages on cost of operation to become competitive. The outcome has been tremendous looking at these approaches through the view of energy conservation. Quality is primarily elimination of wastes; however, indirectly it is the saving of resources which would have been consumed by the defects. In metal forming, one of most contributive operations in automotive manufacture is following green manufacturing. Continuous improvement, or in technological terms kaizen, covers all the aspects of improvements, including defects and resource utilization leading to sustainability. Therefore, it is apparent that by adopting novel concepts such as Lean, Six Sigma, and Continuous Improvement, sustainability in the metal- forming industry can be enhanced.‘SUSTAINABILITY IN MATERIAL FORMING 31 2.4 GREEN ROLLING Rolling consumes significant energy. Green rolling is one of the most important aspects in the sustainable material forming. Any energy efficiency improvement in rolling can produce a signifi- cant benefit to the environment and business. Outokumpu Oyj, Tornio, Finland (www.worldstain- less.org/) sets a long-term target in its energy efficiency and low carbon program in 2010, to reduce the Group's emission profile by 20% by 2020. Outokumpu’s facility in Tornio is well known for its modern production facility and unique energy efficiency. Since late 2011, Outokumpu’s Tornio Works converted 50 separate refrigeration compressors in the cold rolling plant to a centralized cooling system, and installed new cooling towers and absorption coolers to utilize process waste heat as primary energy. Such a modified, novel system resulted in 11 gigawatt hours’ (GWh) reduc- tion of the annual electricity consumption from 15 to 3.9 GWh and the reduction of 6,700 tons of CO, emissions. Another example is that Yieh United Steel Corporation (YUSCO) Kaohsiung, Taiwan, uses natural gas in place of fuel oil to reduce both energy consumption and CO, emissions from its steam system of the cold rolling processes (www.worldstainless.org/). YUSCO achieved the reduction of the proportion of fuel oil burned for the total heat demand from 89% in 2009 to 67% in 2011, and a 22% increase in the proportion of natural gas (clean energy) in 2009-2011, which results in the reduction of 3.3 million kg of CO, emissions. In addition to energy consumption, parasitic energy loss, material waste, etc., are crucial in rolling as well. Some critical facts related to the green rolling are specifically discussed below. 2.4.1 Thermal Energy Consumption in Rolling Processes Itis a practice that the initial steps of the rolling process are carried out as hot rolling and the final/finishing stages are usually done in cold condition. Ifthe desired deformation is predetermined, some of the intermediate stages may be carried out as warm rolling. In hot rolling, preheating and heat loss to the atmosphere has a significant effect on the green rolling practice. Heat loss to the atmosphere should be minimized through proper process sequencing, layouts, and delays in han- dling, etc. However, in warm rolling and cold rolling, these thermal energy consumptions can be optimized or eliminated. In addition, several other facts also should be taken into account in the optimization of the total energy consumption, such as cooling rates, the need of heat treatment, and the heat absorption to the rolls and presses. The case study analyses done by Worrell et al (2001) on the energy use and CO, emissions in US steelmaking industry till 1994 reveal that hot rolling takes about 157 PY of fuel energy, 34 PY of electrical energy, 191 PJ of final energy, 263 PJ of primary energy, and 3.7 MtC of CO, emissions, which falls next to iron making and boilers in integrated steelmaking. On the other hand, cold rolling and finishing takes only 43 PY of fuel energy, 15 PJ of electrical energy, 58 PJ of final energy, 89 PJ of primary energy, and 1.3 MtC of CO, emis- sions. During integrated steel production, many state-of-the-art technologies were introduced to reduce CO, emissions. In the integrated hot rolling, CO, emissions reduction in kgC/t are 7.18 in hot charging, 3.59 in hot rolling mill, 8.38 in recuperative burners, 1.91 in furnace insulation, 3.95 in controlling oxygen levels and VSDs on combustion air fans, 0.39 in rolling mill drives, and 0.46 in heat retrieval. Similarly, a considerable reduction of about 10 kgC/t of CO, emission is observed in integrated cold rolling and finishing (Worrell et al., 2001). 2.4.2. Amount of Plastic Deformation and Roll Forces As discussed earlier, energy required for plastic deformation and the process temperature are interrelated: the higher the rolling process temperature, the more thermal energy consumed in pre= heating and lost to the atmosphere, but the lesser rolling forces on rolls and the lesser mechanical32 SUSTAINABLE MATERIAL FORMING AND JOINING. energy for plastic deformation. The objective is to optimize the overall energy consumption. In gen- eral, energy consumption can be reduced by reducing the roll forces and optimizing the product/roll geometries. In addition, reducing roll forces in hot working will reduce roll deflection and increase the roll life. Under high roll forces, the roll stand may deflect to such an extent that the roll gap can open up significantly. As a result, the roll gap should be reduced to compensate for the deflection. Some of strategies (o reduce roll forces (Kalpakjian and Schmid, 2009), which will mainly lead to process efficiency and less energy consumption, are given as follows: + Effective lubrication to reduce friction at the deforming zone. + Using small-sized rolls to reduce the contact area for narrow billets. However, roller deflection could have an adverse effect. In addition, guide rollers could be employed. + Considering lesser reductions/roll pass to reduce the contact area. However, it will increase the number of passes to attain the required reduction. + High-temperature rolling to soften the material. But the additional thermal energy input will trade off some mechanical energy savings. The optimal condition should be determined by minimizing the total energy in both the thermal and mechanical energies. + Applying tensions on the entry and exit of the strip, but this adds additional work to the process. The optimal condition should be determined by minimizing the total energy in both the additional work due to added front/back tensions and the work savings due to reduced roll forces. Roll life also depends on selection of roll material and roll manufacturing methods. In hot roll- ing mills, untimely failure of rolls is a major concern as it critically affects the mill operation and production schedule. Maintenance of roll and rolling mills and analyses of such failures are time consuming and are inevitable for extending the service life of rolls. Palit et al. (2015) investigated two roll failure case studies: (1) roller in the fifth stand of a hot strip mill made of Indefinite Chilled Double Poured (ICDP) cast iron failed in the neck region, and (2) roller in the sixth stand made of the same material failed because of subsurface defect. In the first case, the microstructural analy- ses revealed segregation of ferrite around graphite flakes forming large clusters in pearlite matrix. This would have originated through improper roll manufacturing process. Such clusters would have reduced the strength of the roller. In the second case, subsurface defect got revealed after the roll diameter was reduced to 566.5 mm from original 620mm. The defect was a lumpy entrapment in the shell and its chemical composition is very different than the neighboring regions. This is again claimed to have originated from the inappropriate roll manufacturing process. By proper selection of roll material, appropriate roll manufacturing methods, reducing forming load, etc., the energy consumed to fabricate new rolls can be conserved due to less need of replacement of rolls. 2.4.3 Lubrication to Reduce Friction in Rolling Lubrication is typically used in reducing the friction in rolling processes. Kalpakjian and Schmid (2009) have stated that the 20% of the forces applied in rolling process is expended (o over- come friction. Therefore, the use of lubricants is evident in rolling process. As discussed earlier, liquid lubrication, such as mineral oils, can be used for effective reduction of friction, However, high temperature in hot rolling and high pressure in cold rolling makes such lubricants not suitable in hot and cold rolling. In order to secure lubrication to reduce friction, and in turn to reduce rolling work, solid film lubrication is highly appropriate. In general, the working temperature affects the interface friction and evolution of strength of the rolled strips. Making aluminum strips involves three rolling stages. In the first stage, an ingot of several hun- dred millimeters thick is reduced to about 30mm in a hot reversing mill. The ingot is rolled 15-20 times in the reversing mill. The lubricants used in hot reversing mill are formulated to generate high friction to reduce the refusal cases, at the entry of the roll. These lubricants are very stable emulsions containing petroleum sulfonate, and nonionic emulsifiers with low levels of film strength‘SUSTAINABILITY IN MATERIAL FORMING 33 additives, additives like oxidation inhibitors, corrosion inhibitors, and antifoaming agents. In the second stage, using a hot continuous tandem mill, the sheet is rolled to 2-5 mm thickness, typically through two to six stands. For this stage, lubricants containing petroleum oils and either anionic or nonionic emulsifiers with high levels of triglyceride film additives are used. The oil concentration for both the stages in the lubricant is about 5%. These lubricants have shorter lives because of hot rolling conditions and careful monitoring is required. The coil is then annealed and allowed to cool. After this, in the third stage, cold rolling is done to reduce thickness to 0.3-0.9mm. Cold rolling- annealing cycle is possible to reduce the hardening effect. In cold rolling stage, straight petroleum oils with small amounts of fatty acids, esters, alcohols are used as lubricants. In the hot rolling stages, the lubricants have 100mm?/s viscosity, while it is 37 mm/s in cold rolling. 2.4.4 Arrangement of Rolling Mills vs, Green Rolling ‘The arrangement of the rolling mill directly affects the energy intake to achieve the desired prod- uct. Three main arrangements of the rolling mills are reversing mills, high rolling mills, and continu- ous mills. Each has its own advantages and disadvantages in terms of production rates, costs, and energy consumption. Energy consumption in each of the processes are dependent on the setup condi- tions, amount of plastic deformation, and the condition (hot, cold, or warm) of the stock being rolled, Ina reversing mill, at each pass, the rolls have to come to a momentary stop and then accelerate backward to their regular rolling speed, which causes a significant kinetic energy loss due to stop- ping, significant addition of mechanical energy due to acceleration, thermal energy loss due to time delay in reversing direction operation, and an indirect energy loss due to additional handling required. In addition, reversing mills have limitations associated with the length of the billet, but have great advantages in the use of resources, ie., rolls, space, etc. Thus, it is ideal for the product with low production rates and shorter lengths of work pieces. High rolling mills have fewer number of rolls as compared to continuous mills. However, in continuous mills, the handling effort is reduced and the rolling process happens in a seamless man- net, so it is ideal for mass o a flow manufacture of long rolled products. On the other hand, cluster mills can well balance roll deflection to obtain uniform rolled cross sections and therefore, to reduce scraps and rework, and thus to indirectly reduce net energy intake. Since the arrangements are dissimilar and the energy is consumed in a different way in each of the above four arrangements, the process design, layouts, and systems planning for the optimization of the energy consumption should be done on a system level, rather than a local operation or stage level, in order to achieve the best arrangement for the rolling and to achieve the green rolling goal 2.5 GREEN FORGING AND EXTRUSION In addition to energy consumption, parasitic energy loss, material waste, etc., discussed in ear- lier, the flash formation is of special concern in green forging practice. In a closed die forging, the excess billet materials (flash) is squeezed out through the parting off surface of die halves. This flash will be subsequently trimmed and followed up with a finishing process. The flash results in the material waste and the extra energy consumed in forming and trimming the flash as well as in finishing the product. The total energy in deformation is a function of both stress and the strain. Managing the strain effectively is critical (o climinate redundant work in the process, Straining can be managed through proper die design. Many techniques have been used to optimize the forging process and die design, such as smoother die corner radii and smoother die walls to allow easy flow oof materials through the cavities, and to minimize the flash and energy. Ranatunga et al. (2001) used upper-bound elemental technique to optimize the billet geometry during disk forging of a rotor like turbine component. The die filling and extrusion of flash are optimized for successful component34 SUSTAINABLE MATERIAL FORMING AND JOINING. making with optimum extrusion height. A scaling factor for die fill and extrusion height has been presented. A typical case study has been demonstrated. Similar attempt made by Shabriari et al. (2008) using FEA for optimizing the finisher die forging of a super alloy reveals that the flash height and outer draft angle influence the load requirement significantly, while other parameters like web thickness and inner draft show moderate effect, and inner fillet and outer fillet radius show insig- nificant effect. A larger flash height and outer draft yield lesser load for forging the part, Lubrication is a typical way of optimizing forging loads, Fellers and Hunt (2001) have emphasized the use of soaps and silicones and polytetrafluorocthene-based low friction lubrication in reducing energy loss. Therefore, minimizing the flash by the process and die optimization will not only achieve a sustainable forging process but also the cost reduction and quality improvement. Similar efforts are made by researchers to optimize extrusion outputs as a function of material, temperature, lubricants, and die design. Extrusion is typically carried out in hot condition, but few products such as automotive axles can be cold extruded using vegetable-based oils. A refined palm oil can be a potential lubricant for cold extrusion of pure aluminum as compared with paraffinic mineral oils. Reduced load, good part surface finish, and uniform strain distribution are the charac- teristics of extrusion when the palm oil is used for extrusion (Syahrullail et al., 2011). Furthermore, the use of the warm forming approach—warm extrusion will reduce the net energy intake signifi- cantly. Because of temperature effect, the lubricant used for cold extrusion may not be appropriate for warm and hot extrusion. A separate optimization analyses should be followed for the purpose. In addition, the use of dry film lubrication as illustrated earlier is also applied in extrusion process 2.6 GREEN WIRE DRAWING In drawing operation, the total energy consumed is the aggregate of thermal energy required for heating the stock, mechanical energy transferred for deformation and overcoming friction, and indi- rect energy inputs accounted for handling and feeding the wire and tool (die) preparation, etc. The similar considerations and techniques discussed earlier can be used to manage the thermal energy required for heating the stock in a warm drawing and the lubrication (¢.g., dry films) to reduce fric- tion for the green drawing operation, In addition, + Drawing life of the dies has a critical importance, When excessive reduction ratios are achieved, it negatively affects the tool life due to excessive rubbing. + Ithas been found that if the draw ratio is more than 45%, the lubricants may chemically breakdown (Kalpakjian and Schmid, 2009). + Another way of optimizing the drawing force is the bundle drawing (Kalpakjian and Schmid, 2009) in which the wires are drawn in a bundle reducing the (ool cost as well. Through this, the effective drawing force may be a multiple of the number of wires, but friction and the use of equipment could be greatly saved, which reduces the parasitic loss due to friction, 2.7 GREEN STAMPING In sheet stamping operations, sustainability is attained by adopting new deformation process, process conditions like working temperature, strain-rate, lubrication, and friction, etc., tool design, and material characteristics. Sheet materials like steel grades are generally cold stamped, while some aluminum alloys, magnesium alloys, and titanium are hot stamped as they show enhanced formability at elevated temperatures. Computations help in such optimization activities. Takuda et al’s (2003) results indicate the capability of FE simulations to predict the desired draw ratios of $S304 during warm deep drawing conducted at 120°C of about 2.7. The martensite content‘SUSTAINABILITY IN MATERIAL FORMING 35 prediction at various locations of cup is also consistent. El-Morsy and Manabe (2006) conducted FE simulations of warm deep drawing of AZ31 sheet with the blank holder and the die at 300°C, keeping the punch and sheet at room temperature, and in another case with all the parts at uniform temperature. The case with the assumption of uniform temperature shows early failure. The other case with different temperatures shows a successful cup forming. ‘An appropriate tool design minimizes stamping defects such as wrinkling, earing, springback, etc, Springback is of concern in stamping industries. This can be compensated by suitable die design methods and computations. If not minimized, springback disrupts the sheet assembly operations and creates mismatch between the mating sheets, Joinability becomes a problem then, questioning the existence of sustainable manufacturing, “Displacement adjustment method (DA)" is used in many stamping situations for springback prediction (Gan and Wagoner, 2004). In this case, the displace= ment of surface nodes is followed defining a new die surface in a direction opposite to springback error. The sheet is deformed to the new target surface and checked for error in dimensions, This is performed iteratively until springback error is minimized to a desired level. Springforward method, in which the sheet is displaced iteratively depending on the force equilibrium after forming, is com- pared. Forming operations such as arc bending, U-channel bending, compound curvature bending, and arbitrary 2D shape are done to ensure the efficiency and accuracy of the proposed DA method, The quality of results from DA method is better than springforward method. The lubricants suggested for cold stamping and hot stamping of variety of sheet materials are available in ASM handbook (Semiatin et al., 2006). These are meant for sustainable forming. For example, for Al alloys, graphite suspension can be used during hot forming, while synthetic solu- tions, emulsions, lanolin suspensions, water suspensions, soap solutions, mineral oil, fatty oils can be used in cold forming. Similarly, for carbon and low-alloy steels, graphite suspension can be used during hot forming, while emulsions, soap pastes, water, fatty oils plus mineral oils, polymers, con- version coating, molybdenum disulfide, graphite in grease, synthetic solutions can be used in cold forming. The lubricant applying methods, its recovery and disposing strategies contribute a lot to sustainability. 2.8 SUMMARY In this chapter, an overview of sustainable material forming has been presented with numerous practical examples from the industry and research case studies. The importance of partaking at room temperature and elevated temperatures, defect minimization, new process design and mate~ rial selection, load reduction, etc,, in bulk forming and sheet forming for the purpose of energy and waste savings are elaborated. Some of the developments in material forming are discussed sepa- rately in the forthcoming chapters. Sustainability not only includes CO, emission reduction, but also waste reduction, which means cost reduction. Thus, the environmental sustainability in material-forming industry is proportional to economic sustainability in material forming. The more sustainable material-forming process, the less costs to the business. Green material-forming benefits not only the environment but also the busi- ness. The virtual material forming can be used to design, analyze, and optimize material-forming processes without much involvement of physical experiments and tests, and therefore to help reduc~ ing both thermal energy and mechanical energy to yield a sustainable manufacturing environment. As the core tool of the virtual material forming, CAD/CAMICAE provides the integration of design, analysis, and manufacturing functions into a system. CAD/CAMICAE not only reduces costs in the process development but also leads time from concept to design to manufacture. In addition, other routine and monotonous (but important) tasks such as the preparation of bills of materials, costing, production scheduling, etc., can be also performed automatically in the same systems.36 SUSTAINABLE MATERIAL FORMING AND JOINING. Environmental sustainability, economic sustainability, and social sustainability should be con- sidered simultaneously. The Design-to-Environment and Design-to-Cost should be combined to form up the Integrated Management System for environmental factors, quality, costs, and occupa- tional health and safety to achieve a sustainable material forming, REFERENCES Altan, T, Oh, S., Gegel, HL. 1983. Metal Forming, Fundamentals and Applications. American Society for Metals, Metals Park, OH. Dettmer, T. 2006, Nichtwassermischbare Kithlschmierstoffe auf Basis nachwachsender Rohstoffe (Non- water-miscible cooling lubricants based on renewable raw materials). Dr-Ing. Dissertation, Technische Universitat Braunschweig, Vulkan Verlag, Essen, Germany. ELMorsy, AW., Manabe, K.1. 2006, Finite element analysis of magnesium AZ31 alloy sheet in warm deep- drawing process considering heat transfer effect. Materials Letters 60: 1866-1870. English, M. 2013. Simulation helps increase sales by $4M - Nonlinear FEA validates new cold roll forming process. Simulating Reality Magazine II: 2. ‘ellers, W.O., Hunt, W1W. 2001. Manufacturing Processes for Technology, Second Edition, Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, New Jersey. Gan, W,, Wagoner, RH. 2004, Die design method for sheet springback. International Journal of Mechanical Sciences 46: 1097-1113, Goodmonson, G. 2010. Simulation empowers toolmaking creativity. Stamping Journal, May/Tune issue, 16-19, Hansen, M. 2015. 3-D transfer die simulation eliminates transfer die headaches. Stamping Journal, November! December issue, 28-29. Hedrick, A. 2002. Taking advantage of simulation technology. Stamping Journal, September/October issue, 60-62. Hoffmann, H., So, H., Steinbeiss, H. 2007, Design of hot stamping tools with cooling system. Annals of the CIRP 56: 269-272 Jo, H., Cho, H., Lee, K., Kim, ¥, 2002, Extrudability improvement and energy consumption estimation in Alextrusion process of a 7003 alloy. Journal of Materials Processing Technology 130-131: 407-410. Joun, M.S., Hwang, SM. 1993. Optimal process design in steady-state metal forming by finite element method-II. Application to die profile design in extrusion, International Journal of Machine Tools and Manufacture 33: 63-10. Kalpakjian, S., Schmid, S.R. 2009. Manufacturing Engineering and Technology, Sixth Edition, Pearson, India Khaled, HMT, Samad, Z., Othman, AR, Mujecbu, M.A., Abdullah, A.B., Zihad, MM. 2011. Work-picce optimization and thermal analysis for flash-less cold forging of AUV propeller hubs - FEM simulation and experiment, Journal of Manufacturing Processes 13: 41-49. Kim, H,, Allan, T. 2008. R&D Update: Lubrication and galling in stamping of galvanized AHSS - Part III - B.pillar simulations and the Strip Drawing Test (SD). Stamping Journal, January/February issue, 1-15, Kim, H,, Youn, 1, Rhee, H. 2014. Development of combined tube drawing process for straight-type cowl cross bar of automobile. International Journal of Precision Engineering and Manufacturing 15: 2093-2099. Ku, T,, Kang, B. 2014, Tool design and experimental verification for multi-stage cold forging process of the outer race. International Journal of Precision Engineering and Manufacturing 15: 1995-2004. Nanayakkara, N. K. BM. P. 2007. Experimental analysis of friction in forming automotive coated steels PAD thesis, Deakin University, Australia Nava, P. 2009. Minimizing carbon emissions in metal forming. Master degree thesis, Department of ‘Mechanical and Materials Engineering, Queen's University, Ontario, Canada Nye, TJ. 2000. Stamping strip layout for optimal raw material utilization, Journal of Manufacturing Systems 9: 239-248 Ou, H., Lan, J, Armstrong, C.G., Price, M.A. 2004. An FE simulation and optimization approach forthe forg- ing of aeroengine components. Journal of Materials Processing Technology 1S\: 208-216.