Tourism Recreation Research

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Food as a Tourism Resource: A View from

Singapore

Joan C. Henderson (Associate Professor)

To cite this article: Joan C. Henderson (Associate Professor) (2004) Food as a Tourism
Resource: A View from Singapore, Tourism Recreation Research, 29:3, 69-74, DOI:
10.1080/02508281.2004.11081459

To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/02508281.2004.11081459

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TOURISM RECREATION RESEARCH VOL. 29(3), 2004: 69-74

Research Report

This section is devoted to research reports, notes, conference resumes and other significant research events. Two copies
of write-ups, not exceeding 3,000 words, may be mailed to the Section Editor, Professor David A. Fennell, Brock
University, St. Catharines, Ontario, Canada L2S 3Al; e-mail: dfennell@arnie.pec.brocku.ca. In all cases, one copy of the
report should be mailed to the Chief Editor, TRR.

Food as a Tourism Resource: A View from Singapore

Joan C. Henderson is Associate Professor, Division of Marketing and International Business, Nanyang Business School,
Nanyang Technological University, Nanyang Avenue, Singapore 639798. e-mail: ahenderson@ntu.edu.sg

The relationship between food and tourism seems shaped within the framework of the country's distinctive
comparatively under-researched given its importance, but features.
greater attention is now being devoted to the subject by
academics and practitioners. New terms have emerged to Food and Tourism
describe the demand for and supply of travel experiences in
which a significant component is the enjoyment of food; Eating is obviously a human necessity, but food can
these include culinary tourism (Wolf 2004), gastronomy be a tourist attraction and reason for travel. Food service has
tourism (Hjalanger and Richards 2002) and tasting tourism been shown to affect vacation choice (Sheldon and Fox 1988)
(Boniface 2003). A degree of exclusivity is sometimes implied and gastronomy to be a powerful travel motivator (Polaceck
by such phrases, with connotations of haute cuisine, and 1986), Quan and Wang (2004: 297) distinguishing between
food tourism (Hallet al. 2003) is perhaps a more inclusive food consumption as the primary or 'peak' and secondary
label which is used hereafter. Definitions often incorporate or 'supporting' tourist purpose. Hall and Sharples (2003)
appredation of alcoholic and other beverages and many present a spectrum of food tourism types related to the
wine-produdng areas have evolved into centres of culinary intensity of food as a motivating factor and it seems likely
interest and excellence, although wine tourism is recognized that those who travel for reasons of food alone are
as a discrete type of spedal interest tourism (Hallet al. 2000, comparatively few in number. They may, nevertheless, be a
Telfer 2001). vital market for certain suppliers such as cookery school
operators. Even when food is not the prindpal driver of tourist
Food alone, or in combination with drink, is an element behaviour, sampling native dishes and browsing in markets
of many tourism marketing and development strategies. are popu1ar leisure pastimes (WTO 2003) and Williams
Certain destinations continue to exploit an established (1997: 168) writes of an 'ethic of release and relaxation on
reputation for quality food while others attempt to define a holidays in relation to food'. However, it should be
food culture and heritage which can be utilized as a remembered that an unaccustomed diet may be a cause of
marketable tourist commodity. Linkages between food and anxiety for some and food-related illnesses and safety scares
tourism are thus being forged in areas lacking a strong can mar a visit and damage tourist arrivals (MacLaurin
culinary identity, encouraged by authorities in pursuit of 2001). Food is thus a matter of concern to both tourists and
the economic rewards of food tourism, which is often viewed the industry at every destination and a core ingredient in the
as a catalyst for rural development with a capadty to boost overall tourist product and experience.
local agricultural production. However, it is also a marketing
and positioning tool which allows differentiation in an As well as satisfying biological and hedonistic needs,
extremely competitive environment and can be oriented food has a social and psychological function and holiday
towards urban economies as demonstrated by the Asian dty meals permit interaction and bonding with family members,
state of Singapore. This report identifies some of the critical friends, and strangers. In addition, demonstrating a
connections between food and tourism with spedfic reference familiarity with exotic foods on returning home may be
to Singapore where food and eating out is a tourism deemed to enhance the traveller's self-esteem and prestige.
promotion theme of growing prominence, and polides are Eating is also an activity through which cultures can be

©2004 Tourism Recreation Research

Food as a Tourism Resource: Singapore: J. C. Henderson

understood (Hegarty and O'Mahony 2001) and food is Nevertheless, official appreciation of popular
'packed with sodal, cultural and symbolic meanings' (Bell enthusiasm about food and its possible commerdal returns
and Valentine 1997: 4), even affording insights into a have led to it being allocated a heightened priority in tourism
country's geography and history. National, regional, local marketing and development. This is marked by the inclusion
and ethnic cuisine is an expression of identity and a vehicle of the topic in broader strategies and the formulation of
for its preservation and affirmation (Reynolds 1993), famous spedfic plans such as those prepared by Canada (Canadian
dishes assuming iconic status (Riley 2000). The authentidty Tourism Commission 2002), several Australian states
and uniqueness of traditional foods have an appeal for many (Tourism New South Wales 2000; Tourism Tasmania 2002)
tourists and partaking of these or attending cookery classes and the countries of the United Kingdom (Boyne et al. 2003).
could be regarded as a manifestation of cultural tourism in The foundation for many of these schemes is rural
which meaningful contact with host sodeties is sought. development objectives involving diversification and the
consolidation of economic ties between countryside
At the same time, there are dangers of commodification industrial sectors. A destination's food history and renown
and possible invention, which all representations of cultural may be exploited in its branding, but there are general
heritage fashioned by the tourism industry are vulnerable to challenges to confront related to service quality, government
(Graham et al. 2000). Other forces are also at work in the regulations, education, public awareness and the backing
post-modern era which further complicate conceptions of of appropriate businesses which might not see themselves
authentic and indigenous dishes. Foods from around the as part of the tourism industry (Wolf 2004). Hjalager (2002:
globe now can be quickly transported to retailers and 33) classifies formal gastronomy tourism initiatives and
restaurants where they are accessible to those with suffident organizational structures into four stages, as depicted in
income, this ease of purchase and consumption confounding Figure 1, and proposes that tourists too progress from a
conventional notions of what constitutes a local product and straightforward enjoyment of food to educational attainment
helping to construct a 'new global cuisine' (Scarpato and and the sharing of knowledge. While the model has still to
Daniele 2003: 298). Globalization may thus act as a champion be thoroughly tested and implies a conformity that might
of diversity, but more negative aspects are apparent in
international dietary trends symbolized by the worldwide
presence of fast food chains which is part of the
'McDonaldization' of culture in general (Alfino et al. 1998) 1-l Culinary aspects in regional promotions
Campaigns for particular products

L::J
whereby differences are eroded or obscured. Regional food trademarks
Marketing food fairs and food events
Irrespective of the debate about origin and authentidty,
food consumption by tourists is an economic exchange and
generates substantial revenues. Au and Law (2002) record
that dining in Hong Kong makes up 10% of total tourism
receipts and is increasing its share, a situation echoed around D Quality standards
Certification and branding

the world (DuRand et al. 2003). Customers for local foodstuffs

are caterers and tourists, the latter buying goods as souvenirs
EJ Reinventing and commodification of historical
food traditions

and for immediate use. Tourism is an avenue for showcasing

products and fosters good relations among suppliers, their
partners and customers (Plummer et al. forthcoming), with Opening production plants and sites
the chance of extending markets overseas. The protection
and strengthening of local food supply chains is often the
r-=-1 Routes and trails
Visitor centres and museums

major imperative determining official support for food

tourism schemes, as explained by several commentators
EJ New events based on tourism
Cookery classes and holidays

(Hall2003). Opportunities are not always realized, however,

espedally in developing countries where linkages between
agriculture and tourism are weak and food processing
capabilities are restricted (Belisle 1983; Telfer and Wall1996).
A similar dilemma may occur in more advanced nations
D Research and development
Media centres
where local chains have been broken and food manufacture
and distribution is dominated by large centralized
EJ Demonstration projects

corporations. Figure 1. Gastronomy Tourism Initiatives

70 Tourism Recreation Research Vol. 29, No.3, 2004

 Food as a Tourism Resource: Singapore: J. C. Henderson

not exist in practice, it does illustrate the diversity of measures According to the Minister for Trade and Industry,
employed by food tourism providers and promoters. Singaporeans'spend a lot of time eating and thinking about
food. Even while we are eating, we are already thinking of
Food, Tourism and Singapore the next meal. It is an inseparable part of our culture' (STB
2004a) and such statements are commonly made in public
As already indicated, Singapore is not a typical food
and private. Food is also perhaps one domain in which
tourism destination if this is perceived as a rural site of
passions can be expressed and indulged without offending
agricultural activity. The small size of the republic (682 sq
authorities noted for their exercise of control over many
km) and extent of urbanization and industrialization leave
aspects of life (George 2000), although there are constant
very little space for farming and most basic foodstuffs are
pronouncements about the health benefits of a balanced diet.
imported. The operation of food trails and the opening of
There is little empirical evidence to quantify these sentiments
production and processing plants are thereby constrained,
and the proportion of the average household budget spent
and the scenic rustic landscapes commonly associated with
on food declined from 39% in 1988 to 27% in 1998, but the
many sorts of culinary tourism are absent. It is also a
figures do reveal a preference for eating out compared to
comparatively new country, its population of just over four
home-cooked food which accounted for 14.7% and 12.2% of
million comprising an assortment of races, where there is a
expenditure respectively (Statistics Singapore 2000). There
preoccupation with questions of identity and security.
has been a corresponding increase in food outlets which
Emphasis is, therefore, placed on the great selection of foods
numbered almost 3,500 at the end of the 20th century, in
available and the manner in which these represent the
addition to 139 government administered hawker centres
country's socio-cultural composition and dynamics. The
(Goi et al. 2002), and the food and beverage sector earned 8%
rationale accompanying food tourism promotion remains
of Singapore's GDP in 2002 (STB 2004a).
principally economic, although other influences operate to
create a policy making environment which is uniquely The choice of food on offer reflects Singapore's history
Singaporean. as a British colony which drew immigrants from China, India,
the Malay Archipelago, the Middle East and beyond. Many
Food tourism is one constituent of a tourism strategy practices derived from ancestral cultures have disappeared
dedicated to making the best use of scarce resources in an and cooking methods have been modified over time, yet an
approach commended by Teo and Chang (2000) for its appetite for customary dishes persists and some specifically
creativity and adaptability, made necessary by the lack of Singaporean foods have resulted from a coalescence ofradal
conventional natural and cultural tourism assets. The influences. There has been a degree of hybridization as ethnic
expansion of tourism is one dimension of a wider economic cuisines have borrowed from each other, one interesting
programme to secure Singapore's future which trend being the Islamization of Chinese food to accommodate
acknowledges the existing and potential contribution of the Muslim sensitivities (Chua and Rajah 2001). Although
service industries (ERC 2002). Economic goals are rooted in the civilisations of Asia, Singapore is a modem
underpinned by political considerations as the government metropolis and home-grown and international enterprises
of the People's Action Party, in power since the 1960s, seeks supply food from outside the region. Cooks experiment with
to retain and assert its position as the architect and guardian recipes which profess to synthesise styles and tastes and
of Singapore's successes. Tourism is a vehicle for the well known Western chains have a strong presence, spending
communication of official visions which reflect favourably on the fast food sector rising by 51% between 1993 and 1998
on the regime and can be harnessed to a hegemonic agenda (Goi et al. 2002). The tropical climate also has consequences
(Hall and Oehlers 2000), conveying images such as those of for diet, the propensity for open-air eating, and the design of
racial harmony and outstanding economic progress. Food some dining establishments.
is frequently used as a marker of ethnicity and metaphor for
a polyglot society whose members retain and respect ethnic Singapore's geography, history and contemporary
loyalties while also united by a shared destiny; for example, traits of multiculturalism and modernity are thus evident in
a salad of fruit and vegetables known as rojak (wild mix in the array of food which has been recognized as a selling
Malay) to which other ingredients and spices can be added point by the Singapore Tourism Board (STB), which asserts
is often quoted as an embodiment of Singapore's racial that it tells a 'tasty tale' of an 'unique cultural tapestry' (STB
medley. Prevailing political, economic and social 2004b). The country's food is heavily advertised in print and
circumstances therefore infuse the meanings and electronic promotion material and initial emphasis was given
significance attached to food and decisions about food to 'New Asian' cuisine (Scarpato and Daniele 2003: 310),
tourism. coinciding with a general advertising campaign of the same

Tourism Recreation Research Vol. 29, No. 3, 2004 71

Food as a Tourism Resource: Singapore: J. C. Henderson

name which commenced in 1997. An annual programme of As well as food suppliers, the rest of the tourism
events organized by the Board includes the month-long industry has a part to play in these projects and the STB is
Singapore Food Festival 'demonstrating how food is collaborating with other groups to devise specialized tours
interwoven into the Singaporean lifestyle' and the World promising a 'gastronomic adventure'. Food is a theme of
Gourmet Summit in which the talents of international chefs 'Uniquely Singapore Shop and Eat Tours' which take visitors
are displayed (STB 2002). Festival advertising is directed at off the beaten track and introduce them to the Singaporean
the domestic and tourist markets and everyone is reassured way of life through local shopping and food (STB 2004e).
about standards due to the strict rules governing public The 'Ethnic Trail' covers the ethnic enclaves of Chinatown,
hygiene and food preparation. There is also a system of halal Little India and Arab Street, while 'Heartland Trail'
food regulation and a list of outlets certified by the Islamic highlights typical suburbs of public Housing Development
Religious Council is published in a guide to Muslim dining Board estates where most of the population live. Culinary
(STB 2003a). instruction is on offer, some classes conducted by individuals
in their own homes which allow closer observation of
Visitors already spend 13% of their budget on food everyday life. Specialist guides also combine visits to wet
(STB 2004a) and the government is intent on taking advantage and dry markets, traditional shops and ethnic eateries in
of its linkages with other branches of tourism and food their tours (The Straits Times 2004).
manufacturing. As a result, food tourism marketing and
development efforts have intensified in recent years and the It thus seems that Singapore is moving towards
STB set up a dedicated unit in 2003. The Food and Beverage becoming a higher order food destination (Hjalanger 2002)
Division is responsible for market, product and industry and developing a distinctive form of food tourism adapted
development, channel management and investment with a to the conditions which prevail there. However, the success
mission to establish Singapore as a destination with a of the initiatives summarized above is not yet clear.
'compelling mix of local and international cuisine, dining Preliminary studies (Bauer 2000; Lee et al. 1999) indicate an
experiences and nightlife entertainment' (STB 2004c). awareness of and willingness to experiment with local food
amongst tourists, but a more comprehensive review is
The Board launched a food drive entitled 'Let's Makan! currently underway which should allow firmer conclusions
Delight in Singapore's Unique Flavours' in 2004 to celebrate to be derived about actual attitudes and actions.
the country's cuisine at home and abroad, rnakan meaning to
eat in the Malay language. Ten 'must try' dishes are
advertised which it is hoped will become symbolic of Conclusion
Singapore and measures are being implemented to improve The study of food and tourism in Singapore serves to
the tourist experience of food. In cooperation with the illuminate the complex relationship between the two
National Environment Agency, storyboards have been phenomena which finds expression in psychological, soda-
installed at food centres to convey information about their cultural, and economic arenas. Enjoyment of and
history and Singapore's food culture. Residents are urged to experimentation with food is seen to be a motive underlying
act as 'food ambassadors' and recommend Singaporean much tourist decision making and its marketing and
delicades to visitors (STB 2004d), a survey disclosing that development is considered a route towards attaining a
more than 50% of the former believe food to be Singapore's commerdal competitive advantage while stimulating rural
main attraction (STB 2004e). and urban economies. Specialist and non-spedalist tourist
products and experiences are enhanced and finandal gains
The campaign complements that of 'Tasty Singapore' accrue to both the tourism and food industries, although
organized by offidals of the International Enterprise agency critics might claim that dining practices are in danger of
to stimulate foreign sales and investment in domestic food becoming a commodity. Nevertheless, in the case of
manufacturing. The Singapore Premium Food Gift Singapore, the population's zeal for eating is striking to the
Programme is another joint effort by the Tourism Board, the outside observer and food habits are one key to uncovering
Productivity and Standards Board and sixteen leading interesting facets of sodety, if the topic is appropriately
manufacturers. Almost 40 items produced in Singapore were presented and interpreted.
selected to be packaged and marketed as food gifts which
are distributed through eight selected retail chains, many However, further conceptual and empirical studies of
with branches at the airport. The programme is seen as the role of food in tourism should be conducted in Singapore
meeting the previously unsatisfied demand for food and elsewhere. There is a need to better understand this
souvenirs and fadlitating the cultivation of new markets sensory dimension of tourist motivation and behaviour and
overseas by Singaporean food companies (STB 2003b ). appreciate differences in demand and expectations in order

72 Tourism Recreation Research Vol. 29, No. 3, 2004

 Food as a Tourism Resource: Singapore: J. C. Henderson

to satisfy visitors. There are also relevant questions to explore scope, tourism scholars have tended to focus on illustrations
about the sodo-cultural messages communicated to tourists from North America, Europe and Australia and New Zealand.
by food, the extent to which food tourism encourages cultural Food's significance in South-east Asian tourism, espedally
understanding, the ties between cuisine and senses of place the place of the ubiquitous street hawker, merits more
and identity, and conceptions of authentidty and the detailed analysis. There is thus a rich research agenda for
commodification of culinary heritage by the tourism the future on the subject of food and tourism, with
industry. While anthropological and cultural critiques of many worthwhile issues to discuss across a number of
food are perhaps more wide ranging in their geographical disciplines.

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Submitted: July 1, 2004

Accepted: July 23, 2004

74 Tourism Recreation Research Vol. 29, No.3, 2004