st

1 Course
Linguistics
Chapter 1 | What is Linguistics?

Linguistics : The systematic study of language, a discipline which describes

language in all its aspects and formulates theories as to how it works.
‫بؿخ‬٤‫ط‬ٝ ،‫ب‬ٜ‫اٗج‬ٞ‫ أُخزض ثذساعخ اُِـخ ثٌَ ع‬٢‫ اُلشع أُؼشك‬ٚٗ‫ ا‬١‫ أ‬،‫خ ُِـخ‬٤‫غ‬ُٜ٘ٔ‫ اُذساعخ ا‬ٞٛ :‫عٍُ اٌٍغح‬
.‫ب‬ِٜٔ‫خ ػ‬٤‫ل‬٤ً ٖ‫بد ػ‬٤‫اُلشػ‬
Language : It is the best way to communicate.
.َ‫اط‬ٞ‫وخ ُِز‬٣‫ اكؼَ ؽش‬٢ٛ :‫اٌٍغح‬
Linguist : The person who studies linguistics.
.‫ذسط ػِْ اُِـخ‬٣ ١‫ اُشخض اُز‬ٞٛ :‫ي‬
ّ ٛ‫اٌٍغ‬
The more accurate term „linguistician‟ is too much of a tongue-twister to
become generally accepted.
.ً‫ال‬ٞ‫ٕ ٓوج‬ٌٞ٤ُ ٕ‫ؼضش اُِغب‬٣ٝ ‫ ٌِّٓق‬ٌُٚ٘ ١
ّ ٞ‫ ُـ‬ٞٛ ‫أُظطِؼ األًضش دهخ‬
The word „linguist‟ is unsatisfactory. (Justify)
ّ ٞ‫ًِٔخ ُـ‬
.‫خ ثشس‬٤‫ش ٓشػ‬٤‫ ؿ‬١
Answer: It causes confusion, since it also refers to someone who speaks a large
number of languages.
.‫شاً ٖٓ اُِـبد‬٤‫زٌِْ ػذداً ًج‬٣ ١‫ اُشخض اُز‬٠ُ‫ش ا‬٤‫ب رش‬ٜٗ‫ب رغجت اسثبى ثٔب ا‬ٜٗ‫أل‬

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Q: How does linguistics differ from traditional grammar?
‫اعذ اٌرمٍٍذٌح؟‬ٛ‫وٍف ٌخرٍف عٍُ اٌٍغح عٓ اٌم‬
Linguistics Tradition Grammar
1- Descriptive ; linguists are interest in 1- Prescriptive ; prescriptive grammar
what is said, not what they think out to refers to the structure of a language as
be said, they describe language in all its certain rules people think it should be
aspects but don't prescribe rules of used.
Correctness. ‫ت‬٤ً‫ رش‬٠ُ‫ش ا‬٤‫خ رش‬٣‫بس‬٤‫اػذ أُؼ‬ٞ‫ اُو‬:ّ١‫بس‬٤‫ ٓؼ‬ٚٗ‫ا‬
ٕٝ‫ؼزوذ‬٣ ‫َ ال ثٔب‬٤‫ٕ ثٔب ه‬ٞٔ‫ز‬ٜ٣ ٕٞ٣ٞ‫ اُِـ‬:٢ّ ‫طل‬ٝ ٚٗ‫ا‬ .ّ‫غت إ رغزخذ‬٣ ‫ب‬ٜٗ‫ؾغت اُ٘بط ا‬٣ ‫اػذ‬ٞ‫كن ه‬ٝ ‫اُِـخ‬
‫ال‬ٝ ‫ب‬ٜ‫اٗج‬ٞ‫ٕ اُِـخ ثٌَ ع‬ٞ‫ظل‬٣ ْٜ‫ ك‬،ٍ‫وب‬٣ ٕ‫غت ا‬٣ ٚٗ‫ا‬
.‫اػذ اُظؾّخ‬ٞ‫ٕ ه‬ِٞٔ٣
2- Focus on spoken language. 2- Focus on written language.
.‫هخ‬ٞ‫ اُِـخ أُ٘ط‬٠ِ‫شًض ػ‬٣ .‫ثخ‬ٞ‫ اُِـخ أٌُز‬٠ِ‫شًض ػ‬٣
3- It describe the language as it is, 3- It follows or based on Latin (Greek)
without based on specific rules. grammar.
‫اػذ‬ٞ‫ ه‬٠ُ‫ٕ االعز٘بد ا‬ٝ‫ ثذ‬،٢ٛ ‫ظق اُِـخ ًٔب‬٣ .‫خ‬٤٘٤‫اػذ اُالر‬ٞ‫ اُو‬٠ِ‫ؼزٔذ ػ‬٣ ٝ‫زجغ ا‬٣
.‫٘خ‬٤‫ٓؼ‬

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The scope of Linguistics ‫ٌاخ‬ٛ‫ ٔطاق اٌٍغ‬:
Linguistics covers a wide range of topics and its boundaries difficult to define.
.‫ب‬ٛ‫د‬ٝ‫ذ ؽذ‬٣‫ٖٓ اُظؼت رؾذ‬ٝ ‫غ‬٤‫اػ‬ُٞٔ‫اعؼخ ٖٓ ا‬ٝ ‫ػخ‬ٞٔ‫ ػِْ اُِـخ ٓغ‬٢‫ـط‬٣

Phonetics: the study of the characteristics of speech sounds.

.ّ‫اد اٌُال‬ٞ‫ دساعخ خظبئض أط‬:‫اخ‬ٛ‫عٍُ االص‬
Phonology: the study of the systems and patterns of speech sounds in languages.
.ّ‫اد اٌُال‬ٞ‫ دساعخ خظبئض أط‬:‫ذٍح‬ٛ‫عٍُ إٌظُ اٌص‬
Syntax: the study of the arrangement of words.
.‫ت أٌُِبد‬٤‫ دساعخ رشر‬:ًّ‫عٍُ تٕاء اٌج‬
Semantics: the study of meaning.
.٠٘‫ دساعخ أُؼ‬:‫عٍُ اٌذالٌح‬
Pragmatics: the study of speaker meaning and how more is communicated than is
said.
.َ٤‫ ه‬١‫ اثِؾ ٖٓ اُز‬ًٚٗٞ ‫خ‬٤‫ل‬٤ًٝ ٌِْ‫ هظذ أُز‬ٝ‫ ا‬٠٘‫ دساعخ ٓؼ‬:‫اٌثشاغّاذٍح‬
Psycholinguistics: the study of language and mind.
.َ‫اُؼو‬ٝ ‫ دساعخ اُِـخ‬:ً‫عٍُ اٌٍغح إٌفغ‬
Sociolinguistics: the study of language and society.
.‫أُغزٔغ‬ٝ ‫ دساعخ اُِـخ‬:‫ٌاخ االجرّاعٍح‬ٛ‫عٍُ اٌٍغ‬
Applied linguistics: the study of application of linguistics to language teaching.
.‫ظ اُِـخ‬٣‫ رذس‬٠ِ‫بد ػ‬٤ٗ‫ن اُِغب‬٤‫ دساعخ رطج‬:‫ٌاخ اٌرطثٍمٍح‬ٛ‫اٌٍغ‬

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Computational linguistics: the study of use of computers to simulate language and its
workings.
.‫ب‬ُٜ‫أػٔب‬ٝ ‫رش ُٔؾبًبح اُِـخ‬ٞ٤‫ضح أٌُج‬ٜ‫ دساعخ اعزخذاّ أع‬:‫تٍح‬ٛ‫ٌاخ اٌذاع‬ٛ‫اٌٍغ‬
Stylistics: the study of language and literature.
.‫األدة‬ٝ ‫ دساعخ اُِـخ‬:‫ب‬ٍٛ‫عٍُ األع‬
Q : There are two aspects of linguistics which omitted of the diagram of the
scope? or there are two branches of linguistics are out of the diagram what are
they?
‫ٖ ٖٓ ػِْ اُِـخ خبسط اُ٘طبم ٓب‬٤‫٘بى كشػ‬ٛ ٝ‫ ا‬،‫ٖ ٖٓ ػِْ اُِـخ ؽزكب ٖٓ أُخطؾ‬٤‫ كشػ‬ٝ‫ٖ ا‬٤‫٘بى عبٗج‬ٛ
‫ٔب؟‬ٛ
Answer:
ّ ٞ‫ق اُِـ‬٤٘‫ػِْ اُزظ‬
1- Historical Linguistics. ٢‫خ‬٣‫ ػِْ اُِـخ اُزبس‬2-Typology Linguistics. ١
1- Historical Linguistics : It is the scientific study of language change over
time.
.ٖٓ‫ش اُِـخ ػجش اُض‬٤‫خ ُزـ‬٤ِٔ‫ اُذساعخ اُؼ‬٢ٛ :ً‫عٍُ اٌٍغح اٌراسٌخ‬
a. Synchronic linguistics: The analysis of language at a single point in time.
.‫اؽذ‬ٝ ‫هذ‬ٝ ٢‫َ اُِـخ ك‬٤ِ‫ رؾ‬:ًَٔ‫صفً ا‬ٌٛ‫اٌذسط ا‬
b. Diachronic linguistics: The study of the changes in language over time.
.ٖٓ‫ اُِـخ ػجش اُض‬٢‫ش ك‬٤‫ دساعخ اُزـ‬:ً‫اٌذسط اٌراسٌخ‬
2- Typology Linguistics : The study of different language types.
.‫اع اُِـخ أُخزِلخ‬ٞٗ‫ دساعخ أ‬:‫ي‬
ّ ٛ‫عٍُ اٌرصٍٕف اٌٍغ‬

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Chapter 2 | What is Language?

What are the design features? ‫ٍىٍٍح االعاعٍح‬ٌٙ‫ِاً٘ اٌغّاخ ا‬

1- Use of sound signals : ‫اعرخذاَ اإلشاساخ‬
When animals communicate with one another, they may do so by a variety
of means. Crabs, for example, communicate by waving their claws at one
another, and bees have a series of „dances‟. But this unlike sound of signals
which used by human and many creatures.
.َ‫عبئ‬ُٞ‫ػخ ٖٓ ا‬ٞ٘‫ػخ ٓز‬ٞٔ‫ب هذ رلؼَ رُي ٖٓ خالٍ ٓغ‬ٜٗ‫ كب‬،‫ب اُجؼغ‬ٜ‫اٗبد ٓغ ثؼؼ‬ٞ٤‫اطَ اُؾ‬ٞ‫ػ٘ذٓب رز‬
ٖٓ ‫ُِ٘ؾَ عِغِخ‬ٝ ،‫ب اُجؼغ‬ٜ‫ب ُجؼؼ‬ٜ‫ؼ ثٔخبُج‬٣ِٞ‫اطَ ػجش اُز‬ٞ‫ز‬٣ ،ٍ‫َ أُضب‬٤‫ عج‬٠ِ‫ ػ‬،ٕٞ‫اُغِطؼ‬
.‫هبد‬ِٞ‫ذ ٖٓ أُخ‬٣‫اُؼذ‬ٝ ٕ‫ب اإلٗغب‬ٜٓ‫غزخذ‬٣ ٢‫د اإلشبساد اُز‬ٞ‫ ػٌظ ط‬٠ِ‫زا ػ‬ٛ ٌُٖٝ ."‫"اُشهظبد‬
Sound signals have several advantages. They can be used in the dark, and
at some distance, they allow a wide variety of messages to be sent, and they
leave the body free for other activities.
ٍ‫ رغٔؼ ثبسعب‬،‫هذس ٖٓ أُغبكخ‬
ٍ ٠ِ‫ػ‬ٝ ،ّ‫ اُظال‬٢‫ب ك‬ٜٓ‫ٌٖٔ اعزخذا‬٣ .‫ب‬٣‫ذ ٖٓ أُضا‬٣‫ب اُؼذ‬ُٜ ‫د‬ٞ‫اشبساد اُظ‬
.ٟ‫رزشى اُغغْ ؽشاً ُألٗشطخ األخش‬ٝ ،َ‫اعؼخ ٖٓ اُشعبئ‬ٝ ‫ػخ‬ٞٔ‫ٓغ‬
All the organs used in speech have some more basic function, such as
eating or breathing. Humans may therefore have acquired language at a
relatively late stage in their evolution.
‫ٕ اُجشش‬ٌٞ٣ ‫ ُزُي سثٔب‬،‫اُز٘لظ‬ٝ ًَ‫خ ٓضَ اال‬٤‫ظبئق األعبع‬ُٞ‫ب ثؼغ ا‬ُٜ ّ‫ اٌُال‬٢‫ًَ األػؼبء أُغزخذٓخ ك‬
.ْٛ‫س‬ٞ‫ب ً ٖٓ رط‬٤‫ ٓشؽِخ ٓزؤخشح ٗغج‬٢‫ا ُـخ ك‬ٞ‫هذ اًزغج‬
2- Arbitrariness : ‫االعرثاطٍح‬
In animal communication there is a strong link between the signals and the
message. But in human language there is no link between the signal and the
message such as "elephant" and the animal it symbolizes.
ٖ٤‫عذ ساثؾ ث‬ٞ٣ ‫ ال‬،‫خ‬٣‫ اُِـخ اُجشش‬٢‫ ٌُٖ ك‬.‫اُشعبُخ‬ٝ ‫ٖ اإلشبساد‬٤‫ ث‬١ٞ‫٘بى ساثؾ ه‬ٛ ،٢ٗ‫ا‬ٞ٤‫اطَ اُؾ‬ٞ‫ اُز‬٢‫ك‬
.ُٚ ‫شٓض‬٣ ١‫إ اُز‬ٞ٤‫اُؾ‬ٝ "َ٤‫اُشعبُخ ٓضَ "اُل‬ٝ ‫اإلشبسح‬
Onomatopoeic words such as quack-quack and bang are exceptions.
.‫خ‬٤‫ ٓغزض٘بح ٖٓ االػزجبؽ‬٢ٛ ‫ ثبٗؾ‬ٝ ‫اى‬ًٞ-‫اى‬ًٞ َ‫خ ٓض‬٤‫ر‬ٞ‫ًِٔبد أُؾبًبح اُظ‬

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3- The need for learning : ٍُ‫اٌذاجح اٌى اٌرع‬
Many animals automatically know how to communicate without learning. Their
systems of communication are genetically inbuilt. , For example Bee-dancing.
This is quite different from the long learning process needed to acquire human
language, which is culturally transmitted. A human being brought up in
isolation does not acquire a language unless he learns it.
‫ب‬ٜ‫٘بر‬٤‫ ع‬٢‫ْ ٓشًت ك‬ٜ‫اطَ اُخبص ث‬ٞ‫ ٗظْ اُز‬.ِْ‫ٕ رؼ‬ٝ‫اطَ د‬ٞ‫خ اُز‬٤‫ل‬٤ً ‫ًب‬٤‫اٗبد رِوبئ‬ٞ٤‫ذ ٖٓ اُؾ‬٣‫رؼشف اُؼذ‬
‫ِخ اُالصٓخ الًزغبة اُِـخ‬٣ٞ‫خ اُزؼِْ اُط‬٤ِٔ‫خزِق رٔب ًٓب ػٖ ػ‬٣ ‫زا‬ٛ .َ‫َ أُضبٍ سهض اُ٘ؾ‬٤‫ عج‬٠ِ‫ ػ‬،ً ‫ب‬٤‫ساص‬ٝ
.‫ب‬ِٜٔ‫زؼ‬٣ ُْ ‫ٌزغت ُـخ ٓب‬٣ ‫ ػضُخ ال‬٢‫٘شؤ ك‬٣ ١‫ اإلٗغبٕ اُز‬.ً ‫ب‬٤‫ ر٘زوَ صوبك‬٢‫اُز‬ٝ ،‫خ‬٣‫اُجشش‬
4- Duality : ‫اجٍح‬ٚ‫االصد‬
The organization of language into two layers, one layer of mostly meaningless
sounds arranged into a second layer of larger units, makes language powerful and
flexible, and is rare in animal communication.
ٖٓ ‫ صْ ؽجوخ‬،٠٘‫ أُؼ‬٠ِ‫ ٓؼظْ اُؾبالد اُذالُخ ػ‬٢‫ب ك‬ٛ‫ص‬ُٞ‫اد رؼ‬ٞ‫ ؽجوخ ٖٓ األط‬،ٖ٤‫إ اٗزظبّ اُِـخ ثطجوز‬
‫اٗبد‬ٞ٤‫ اُؾ‬٢‫اطَ ك‬ٞ‫ اُز‬٢‫زا ٗبدس ك‬ٛٝ .‫ٗخ‬ٝ‫ٓش‬ٝ ‫خ‬٤ِ‫ٌُغت اُِـخ كبػ‬٣ -‫اد‬ٞ‫ األط‬ٙ‫ز‬ٛ ‫ب‬ٜ٤‫ؽذاد اًجش رزغٔغ ك‬ٝ
double articulation (duality): the organization of language into two layers – a
layer of sounds which combine into a second layer of larger units.
ٖٓ ‫خ‬٤ٗ‫ ؽجوخ صب‬٢‫اد رغٔغ ك‬ٞ‫ ؽجوخ ٖٓ األط‬- ٖ٤‫ ؽجوز‬٠ُ‫ْ اُِـخ ا‬٤‫ ر٘ظ‬:)‫اجٍح‬ٚ‫ج (االصد‬ٚ‫اٌرعثٍش اٌّضد‬
.‫ؽذاد األًجش‬ُٞ‫ا‬
5- Displacement : ‫االصادح‬
Most animals can communicate about things in the immediate environment only.
And unlike most other animals, humans can discuss objects and events that are
removed in time and place.
‫اٗبد‬ٞ٤‫ ػٌظ ٓؼظْ اُؾ‬٠ِ‫ػ‬ٝ .‫ئخ أُجبششح كوؾ‬٤‫ اُج‬٢‫بء ك‬٤‫اطَ ػٖ األش‬ٞ‫اٗبد اُز‬ٞ٤‫ٌٖٔ ُٔؼظْ اُؾ‬٣
.ٕ‫أٌُب‬ٝ ٕ‫ اُضٓب‬٢‫ذح ك‬٤‫ ثؼ‬٢ٛ ٢‫األؽذاس اُز‬ٝ ‫بء‬٤‫ٌٖٔ ُِجشش ٓ٘بهشخ األش‬٣ ، ٟ‫األخش‬
Human can communicate about things that are absent as that are present.
.‫ب ؽبػشح‬ٜٗ‫ ا‬٠ِ‫ش ؽبػشح ػ‬٤‫بء ؿ‬٤‫ٍ أش‬ٞ‫اطَ ؽ‬ٞ‫ٌٖٔ ُإلٗغبٕ اُز‬٣

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6- Creativity (productivity): )‫اإلتذاعٍح (اإلٔراجٍح‬
Most animals are restricted in what they can communicate about. Humans can
talk about anything, and be understood. A person can utter a sentence which has
never been said before, in the most unlikely circumstances, and still be
understood. ( The ability to produce novel utterances.)
ٌٖٔ٣ٝ ،ٜٚٔ‫ك‬ٝ ‫ء‬٢‫ ش‬١‫ْ اُزؾذس ػٖ أ‬ٌٜ٘ٔ٣ ‫ آب اُجشش‬،ٚٗ‫اطَ ثشؤ‬ٞ‫ْ اُز‬ٌٜ٘ٔ٣ ‫خ ٓب‬٣‫د‬ٝ‫اٗبد ثٔؾذ‬ٞ٤‫رزغْ اُؾ‬
‫ٓخ‬ٜٞ‫ اُغِٔخ ٓل‬٠‫رجو‬ٝ ٚٗ‫ ؽغجب‬٢‫ٕ ك‬ٌٞ‫ف أثؼذ ٓب ر‬ٝ‫ ظش‬٢‫ ك‬،َ‫ذح ُْ روبٍ ٖٓ هج‬٣‫ٍ عِٔخ عذ‬ٞ‫و‬٣ ٕ‫ُِشخض ا‬
.)‫ذ‬٣‫ اٗزبط ًالّ عذ‬٠ِ‫(اُوذسح ػ‬
7- Patterning : ‫ٌثح‬ٛ‫اٌم‬
Many animal communication systems consist of a simple list of elements. There
is no internal organization within the system. Human language, is most definitely
not a haphazard heap of individual items In human language, they link sounds
and words in a few well-defined pattern. According to rules. We are obliged to
follow the rules in combining words each other.
َ‫ داخ‬٢ِ‫ت داخ‬٤‫عذ رشر‬ٞ٣ ‫ ال‬.‫طخ ٖٓ اُؼ٘بطش‬٤‫خ ٖٓ هبئٔخ ثغ‬٤ٗ‫ا‬ٞ٤‫ذ ٖٓ أٗظٔخ االرظبالد اُؾ‬٣‫ٕ اُؼذ‬ٌٞ‫رز‬
‫ب رشثؾ‬ٜٗ‫ كب‬،‫خ‬٣‫ اُِـخ اُجشش‬٢‫خ ك‬٣‫خ ٖٓ اُؼ٘بطش اُلشد‬٤‫ائ‬ٞ‫ٓخ ػش‬ًٞ ‫غذ‬٤ُ ‫ذ‬٤ً‫ ثبُزؤ‬٢ٛ ‫خ‬٤ٗ‫ اُِـخ اإلٗغب‬.ّ‫اُ٘ظب‬
‫ٖ أٌُِبد‬٤‫ اُغٔغ ث‬٢‫اػذ ك‬ٞ‫ٕ ثبرجبع اُو‬ٞٓ‫ٗؾٖ ِٓض‬ٝ ‫اػذ‬ٞ‫كوب ُِو‬ٝ .‫ذًا‬٤‫ ٗٔؾ ٓؾذد ع‬٢‫أٌُِبد ك‬ٝ ‫اد‬ٞ‫األط‬
.‫ب اُجؼغ‬ٜ‫ثؼؼ‬
8- Structure dependence : ‫االعرّاد عٍى اٌثٍٕح‬
language operations are structure-dependent – they depend on an understanding
of the internal structure of a sentence, rather than on the number of elements
involved. This feature presence has not been proved in any animal system.
٢ِ‫ت اُذاخ‬٤ً‫ْ اُزش‬ٜ‫ ك‬٠ِ‫بد رؼَٔ ػ‬٤ِٔ‫ إ اُؼ‬٠٘‫ ثٔؼ‬،‫خ‬٤٘‫خ اُجبؽ‬٤٘‫ اُج‬٠ِ‫بد اُِـخ ثـ االػزٔبد ػ‬٤ِٔ‫ض ػ‬٤ٔ‫رز‬
َ‫اط‬ٞ‫ ٗظبّ ر‬١‫ظخ ُْ رضجذ ػ٘ذ أ‬٤‫ اُخظ‬ٙ‫ز‬ٛ ،‫ب‬ٜ٣ٞ‫ رؾز‬٢‫ ٓؼشكخ ػذد اُؼ٘بطش اُز‬٠ِ‫خ اُغِٔخ ال ػ‬٤٘‫ُج‬
.‫ آخش‬٢ٗ‫ا‬ٞ٤‫ؽ‬

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Human language versus animal communication :
: ًٔ‫ا‬ٍٛ‫اصً اٌذ‬ٛ‫اٌٍغح اٌثششٌح ِماتً اٌر‬
Human language animal communication
1- Using sound signals. 1- Large number of animal systems use
.‫خ‬٤‫ر‬ٞ‫ اعزخذاّ اإلشبساد اُظ‬sound signals.
‫اٗبد رغزخذّ اإلشبساد‬ٞ٤‫ش ٖٓ اٗظٔخ اُؾ‬٤‫ػذد ًج‬
.‫خ‬٤‫ر‬ٞ‫اُظ‬
2- There is no link between the signal 2- There is a connection between the
and the message sent (Arbitrariness). signal and the message sent
‫اُشعبُخ أُشعِخ‬ٝ ‫ٖ اإلشبسح‬٤‫ سثؾ ث‬١‫عذ أ‬ٞ٣ ‫( ال‬genetically inbuilt).
.)‫خ‬٤‫(االػزجبؽ‬ ‫د‬ٞ‫ع‬ٞٓ( ‫اُشعبُخ أُشعِخ‬ٝ ‫ٖ اإلشبسح‬٤‫٘بى سثؾ ث‬ٛ
.)ً‫ب‬٤٘٤‫ع‬
3- The ability of Duality and 3- No animal communication system
displacement. has both these features.
.‫ االصاؽخ‬ٝ ‫خ‬٤‫اع‬ٝ‫ االصد‬٠ِ‫ هذسح ػ‬.ٖ٤‫ٖ اُظلز‬٤‫بر‬ٛ َٔ‫ؾ‬٣ ٢ٗ‫ا‬ٞ٤‫اطَ ؽ‬ٞ‫عذ ٗظبّ ر‬ٞ٣ ‫ال‬
4- Creativity, the ability to produce 4- Creativity cannot be present in
novel utterances. animal communication.
.‫ذ‬٣‫ هذسح اٗزبط ًالّ عذ‬،‫خ‬٤‫اإلثذاػ‬ .٢ٗ‫ا‬ٞ٤‫اطَ اُؾ‬ٞ‫ اُز‬٢‫ش ك‬ٜ‫خ ال رظ‬٤‫اإلثذاػ‬
5- Patterning and structure dependence. 5- There's no patterning and structure
.‫خ‬٤٘‫خ اُجبؽ‬٤٘‫ اُج‬٠ِ‫االػزٔبد ػ‬ٝ ‫ُجخ‬ٞ‫ اُو‬dependence in animal communication.
َ‫اط‬ٞ‫ اُز‬٢‫خ ك‬٤٘‫ اُج‬٠ِ‫ال اػزٔبد ػ‬ٝ ‫ُجخ‬ٞ‫عذ ه‬ٞ‫ال ر‬
.٢ٗ‫ا‬ٞ٤‫اُؾ‬

Language: is a patterned system of arbitrary sound signals, characterized by

structure dependence, creativity, displacement, duality and cultural transmission.
٠ِ‫ض ثبالػزٔبد ػ‬٤ٔ‫ز‬٣ٝ ،‫خ‬٤‫خ اػزجبؽ‬٤‫ر‬ٞ‫زؤُق ٖٓ اشبساد ط‬٣ ،‫ أُخزِلخ‬ٚ‫ٗبر‬ٌٞٓ ْ‫اُت ر٘زظ‬ٞ‫ ه‬ٝ‫ ٗظبّ ر‬:‫اٌٍغح‬
.٢‫ االٗزوبٍ اُضوبك‬ٝ ‫خ‬٤‫اع‬ٝ‫االصد‬ٝ ‫االصاؽخ‬ٝ ‫خ‬٤‫االثذاػ‬ٝ ،‫خ‬٤٘‫خ اُجبؽ‬٤٘‫اُج‬
One similarity links human language with animal communication:
:‫أاخ‬ٍٛ‫اصً ِع اٌذ‬ٛ‫جٗ اٌرشاتٗ ٌشتظ اٌٍغح اٌثششٌح تاٌر‬ٚ‫أدذ أ‬
It is predestined to emerge. Just as frogs inevitably croak, and cows moo, so
humans are prearranged for talking.
.‫ٖ ُِزؾذس‬٣‫ؤ‬٤ٜٓ ‫اس االثوبس ُزا كؤٕ اُجشش‬ٞ‫خ‬ٝ ‫ن اُؼلذع‬٤‫ ٗو‬٢‫س ًٔب ك‬ٜٞ‫خ اُظ‬٤ٔ‫ؽز‬

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innately guided: Human infants (Child) are not born speaking, but they know
how to acquire any language to which they are exposed.
.‫ب‬ُٜ ٕٞ‫زؼشػ‬٣ ‫ ُـخ‬١‫خ اًزغبة أ‬٤‫ل‬٤ً ٕٞ‫ؼشك‬٣ ٌُْٜ٘ ،ٖ٤‫ٕ ٗبؽو‬ٝ‫ُذ‬ٞ٣ ‫ األؽلبٍ اُشػغ ال‬:‫جٍٗ اٌفطشي‬ٛ‫اٌر‬
Origin of the language : ‫اصً اٌٍغح‬
Language probably developed in east Africa, around 100,000 years ago.
.‫ ٓئخ اُق ع٘خ‬٢ُ‫ا‬ٞ‫ب ٓ٘ز ؽ‬٤‫و‬٣‫ ششم اكش‬٢‫سد ك‬ٞ‫ٖٓ أُؾزَٔ إ اُِـخ ؽ‬
Three preconditions must have existed to found a language:
:‫ اٌجاد٘ا‬ٚ‫اجذ اٌٍغح ا‬ٛ‫ط ِغثمح ٌر‬ٚ‫ٕ٘ان ثالثح شش‬
First, humans had to view the world in certain common ways: they noticed
objects and actions.
.ٍ‫األكؼب‬ٝ ‫بء‬٤‫ا األش‬ٞ‫ الؽظ‬:‫٘خ‬٤‫ اُؼبُْ ثطشم ٓشزشًخ ٓؼ‬٠ُ‫ا ا‬ٝ‫٘ظش‬٣ ٕ‫ اُجشش أ‬٠ِ‫ ًبٕ ػ‬،ً‫ال‬ٝ‫أ‬
Second, they were able to produce a range of sounds.
.‫اد‬ٞ‫ػخ ٖٓ األط‬ٞٔ‫ اٗزبط ٓغ‬٠ِ‫ٖ ػ‬٣‫ا هبدس‬ٞٗ‫ ًب‬،ً‫ب‬٤ٗ‫صب‬
Third, they must have attained the „naming insight‟, the realization that sound
sequences can be symbols which „stand for‟ people and objects.
،‫خ‬٤‫ر‬ٞ‫خ اعزؼٔبٍ اُززبثؼبد اُظ‬٤ٗ‫ آٌب‬١‫ أ‬،"‫خ‬٤ٔ‫خ "اُزغ‬٤ِٔ‫ ػ‬١‫ا ثؼذ أل‬ٝ‫ئالء اُجشش هذ اعزجظش‬ٛ ٕ‫ الثذ ا‬،ً‫صبُضب‬
.‫بء‬٤‫االش‬ٝ ‫ اُ٘بط‬٠ِ‫صاً رذٍ ػ‬ٞٓ‫ٕ س‬ٌٞ‫ُز‬
These preconditions enabled early humans to build up a store of words. But
what about linguistic „rules‟ , conventional word arrangements?
‫خ‬٣ٞ‫اػذ" اُِـ‬ٞ‫ٌُٖ ٓبرا ػٖ "اُو‬ٝ .‫ائَ ٖٓ ث٘بء ٓزغش ٌُِِٔبد‬ٝ‫ؽ أُغجوخ اُجشش األ‬ٝ‫ اُشش‬ٙ‫ز‬ٛ ‫ٌٓ٘ذ‬
‫خ؟‬٣‫ذ‬٤ِ‫جبد أٌُِبد اُزو‬٤‫رشر‬ٝ
Briefly, preferences tend to become habits, and habits become „ rules ‟.
."‫اػذ‬ٞ‫اُؼبداد رظجؼ "ه‬ٝ ،‫ إٔ رظجؼ ػبداد‬٠ُ‫الد ا‬٤‫َ اُزلؼ‬٤ٔ‫ ر‬،‫ثبخزظبس‬

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The role of language : ‫ظٍفح اٌٍغح‬ٚ
Social chit-chat may be the main reason why language emerged. Information
talking is not the main role of language: persuasion and interaction may be more
important.
َ‫غذ ٗو‬٤ُ ٢ٛ ‫خ ُِـخ‬٤‫لخ األعبع‬٤‫ظ‬ُٞ‫ ا‬.‫ساء ٗشؤح اُِـخ‬ٝ ٖٓ ٢‫غ‬٤‫خ اُغجت اُشئ‬٤‫ش االعزٔبػ‬٣‫ٕ االؽبد‬ٌٞ‫سثٔب ر‬
.‫خ‬٤ٔٛ‫اُزلبػَ اًضش أ‬ٝ ‫ذف االه٘بع‬ٜ‫ ثَ سثٔب ًبٕ اُزؾذس ث‬،‫ٓبد‬ِٞ‫أُؼ‬

“Good people are like candles;

They burn themselves up to
give others light. ”

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Chapter 3 | The study of language

Before the 19th century, language in the Western world was of interest mainly to
philosophers, the Greek philosophers Plato and Aristotle made major
contributions to the study of language.
‫ كوذ هذّ اُلالعلخ‬،٢‫ْ اُلالعلخ ثشٌَ أعبع‬ٜ‫ ر‬٢‫ اُؼبُْ اُـشث‬٢‫ ًبٗذ اُِـخ ك‬،‫هجَ اُوشٕ اُزبعغ ػشش‬
.‫ دساعخ اُِـخ‬٢‫شح ك‬٤‫ٔبد ًج‬ٛ‫ ٓغب‬ٞ‫أسعط‬ٝ ٕٞ‫ٕ أكالؽ‬ٞ٤ٗ‫ٗب‬ٞ٤ُ‫ا‬
Plato : the first person to distinguish between nouns and verbs.
.ٍ‫االكؼب‬ٝ ‫ٖ األعٔبء‬٤‫ض ث‬٤ٓ ١‫ٍ اُز‬ٝ‫ اُشخض األ‬:ٛ‫تالذ‬
Nineteenth century: historical linguistics (In Europe)
)‫ستا‬ٚ‫ عٍُ اٌٍغح اٌراسٌخً (فً ا‬:‫اٌمشْ اٌراعع عشش‬
6871 is the year which regard as the birthdate of linguistics.
.‫بد‬٤ٗ‫الد اُِغب‬٤ٓ ‫خ‬٣‫ؼزجش ربس‬٣ ١‫ اُؼبّ اُز‬ٞٛ 6871
Sir William Jones,
An Englishman points out that Sanskrit (the old Indian language), Greek, Latin,
Celtic and Germanic all had striking structural similarities.
ّ ‫ض‬٤ٌِٗ‫ سعَ ا‬ٞٛ
‫خ‬٤‫اُغِز‬ٝ ‫خ‬٤٘٤‫اُالر‬ٝ ‫خ‬٤‫و‬٣‫ االؿش‬،)‫ٔخ‬٣‫خ اُوذ‬٣‫٘ذ‬ُٜ‫خ (اُِـخ ا‬٤‫ز‬٣‫ إ اُِـخ اُغ٘غٌش‬٠ُ‫ أشبس ا‬١
.١ٞ٤٘‫ت اُج‬٤ً‫ب ثبُزش‬ٜ‫ب رزشبث‬ًِٜ ‫خ‬٤ٗ‫األُٔب‬ٝ
According to these similarities he refers that these languages must spring from
one common source, he concluded.
.‫اؽذ ٓشزشى‬ٝ ‫ اُِـبد ٓ٘جضوخ ٖٓ ٓظذس‬ٙ‫ز‬ٛ ٌٕٞ‫غت إٔ ر‬٣ ٚٗ‫ أ‬٠ُ‫ أشبس ا‬،ٙ‫ز‬ٛ ٚ‫ اُزشبث‬ٚ‫ع‬ٝ‫كوًب أل‬ٝ
His discovery makes all the following linguists write about “comparative
grammar”. The work was with the reconstruction of Proto-Indo-European
languages and making hypotheses about them.
‫ اػبدح ث٘بء اُِـبد‬٠ِ‫اػذ أُوبسٗخ" ًبٕ اُؼَٔ ػ‬ٞ‫ٕ ػٖ "اُو‬ٞ‫ٌزج‬٣ ٙ‫ٖ ٖٓ ثؼذ‬٣‫ٖ اُِز‬٤٣ٞ‫ عؼَ اُِـ‬ٚ‫اًزشبك‬
.‫ب‬ٜ٤ِ‫بد ػ‬٤‫ػغ اُلشػ‬ٝٝ ‫خ‬٤‫سث‬ٝ‫خ اال‬٣‫٘ذ‬ُٜ‫ا‬

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In the mid-nineteenth century, Darwin published his famous On the Origin of
Species , putting forward the theory of evolution.
.‫س‬ٞ‫خ اُزط‬٣‫ش ؽشػ ٗظش‬٤‫ ؽ‬،"‫اع‬ٞٗ‫ش "أطَ األ‬٤ٜ‫ اُش‬ٚ‫ٖ ًزبث‬٣ٝ‫ ٗشش داس‬،‫ ٓ٘زظق اُوشٕ اُزبعغ ػشش‬٢‫ك‬
Early- to mid-twentieth century: descriptive linguistics (In Europe)
)‫تا‬ٚ‫س‬ٚ‫صفٍح (فً أ‬ٌٛ‫ٌاخ ا‬ٛ‫ اٌٍغ‬:ٌٓ‫ائً إٌى ِٕرصف اٌمشْ اٌعشش‬ٚ‫ِٓ أ‬
In the twentieth century, the emphasis shifted from language change to language
description. Instead of looking at how a selection of items changed in a number
of different language, linguists began to concentrate on describing single
languages at one particular point in time.
‫ش‬٤‫خ رـ‬٤‫ل‬٤ً ٢‫ ثذالً ٖٓ اُ٘ظش ك‬.‫طق اُِـخ‬ٝ ٠ُ‫ش اُِـخ ا‬٤٤‫ض ٖٓ رـ‬٤ً‫ٍ اُزش‬ٞ‫ رؾ‬، ٖ٣‫ اُوشٕ اُؼشش‬٢‫ك‬
‫خ‬٣‫طق اُِـبد اُلشد‬ٝ ٠ِ‫ض ػ‬٤ً‫ اُزش‬٢‫ٕ ك‬ٞ٣ٞ‫ ثذأ اُِـ‬، ‫ ػذد ٖٓ اُِـبد أُخزِلخ‬٢‫ػخ ٖٓ اُؼ٘بطش ك‬ٞٔ‫ٓغ‬
.ٖٓ‫ٖ ٖٓ اُض‬٤‫هذ ٓؼ‬ٝ ٢‫ك‬
Ferdinand de Saussure
The Swiss linguist who is called „the father of modern linguistics‟, he died
without having written any major work on general linguistics. But his students
collected together his lecture notes after his death and published them under the
title Course in General Linguistics, and he is the first person to realize that all
linguistic items are interlinked.
٢‫ ك‬٢‫غ‬٤‫ ػَٔ سئ‬١‫ٌزت ا‬٣ ٕ‫ٕ ا‬ٝ‫ ٓبد د‬،"‫ش‬٣‫ "اة ػِْ اُِـخ اُؾذ‬ٚ٤ِ‫طِن ػ‬٣ ١‫ اُز‬١‫غش‬٣ٞ‫ اُغ‬١ٞ‫اُِـ‬
٢‫ ك‬ٙ‫س‬ٝ‫إ د‬ٞ٘‫ب رؾذ ػ‬ٛٝ‫ٗشش‬ٝ ٚ‫كبر‬ٝ ‫ ثؼذ‬ٚ‫ا ٓؼب ٓزًشاد ٓؾبػشار‬ٞ‫ عٔؼ‬ٚ‫ ٌُٖ ؽالث‬.‫بد اُؼبٓخ‬٤ٗ‫اُِغب‬
.‫خ ٓزشاثطخ‬٣ٞ‫غ اُؼ٘بطش اُِـ‬٤ٔ‫ذسى إ ع‬٣ ‫ٍ شخض‬ٝ‫ أ‬ٞٛٝ ،‫بد اُؼبٓخ‬٤ٗ‫اُِغب‬

 The term „ structural linguistics ‟ is sometimes misunderstood. It does not

necessarily refer to a separate branch or school of linguistics.
ٚ‫ ٓذسع‬ٝ‫ كشع أ‬٠ُ‫سح ا‬ٝ‫ش ثبُؼش‬٤‫ش‬٣ ‫ ال‬ٞٛٝ ."‫خ‬٣ٞ٤٘‫بد اُج‬٣ٞ‫ْ ٓظطِؼ "اُِـ‬ٜ‫غبء ك‬٣ ٕ‫ب‬٤‫ ثؼغ األؽ‬٢‫ك‬
.‫خ ٓ٘لظِخ‬٣ٞ‫ُـ‬

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Leonard Bloomfield
He is an American linguist and Structuralist he developed structure linguistics
through his comprehensive description work entitled "Language". He presents
some procedures for the description of any language, he considered that
linguistics should deal objectively and systematically with observable data. And
he refers to the weak point of studying language which is "Meaning". And he
made the framework for linguists working on unwritten languages.
ّ ٞ٤٘‫ث‬ٝ ٢ٌ٣‫ أٓش‬١ٞ‫ ُـ‬ٞٛٝ
."‫إ "اُِـخ‬ٞ٘‫خ اُشبِٓخ ثؼ‬٤‫طل‬ُٞ‫ ا‬ُٚ‫خ ٖٓ خالٍ أػٔب‬٣ٞ٤٘‫بد اُج‬٣ٞ‫ش اُِـ‬٣ٞ‫ هبّ ثزط‬١
‫ ٓغ‬٢‫غ‬ٜ٘ٓٝ ٢‫ػ‬ٞ‫ػ‬ٞٓ ٌَ‫غت إٔ رزؼبَٓ ثش‬٣ ‫بد‬٣ٞ‫اػزجش إٔ اُِـ‬ٝ ،‫ ُـخ‬١‫طق أ‬ُٞ ‫وذّ ثؼغ اإلعشاءاد‬٣
‫ػغ اؽبس‬ٝ ‫هذ‬ٝ ."٠٘‫ "أُؼ‬٢ٛٝ ‫ دساعخ اُِـخ‬٢‫ ٗوطخ اُؼؼق ك‬٠ُ‫ش ا‬٤‫ش‬٣ٝ .‫ب‬ٜ‫ٌٖٔ ٓالؽظز‬٣ ٢‫بٗبد اُز‬٤‫اُج‬
.‫ثخ‬ٞ‫ش ٌٓز‬٤‫ ُـبد ؿ‬٠ِ‫ٕ ػ‬ِٞٔ‫ؼ‬٣ ٖ٣‫ٖ اُز‬٤٣ٞ‫ػَٔ اُِـ‬
discovery procedures : a set of principles which would enable a linguist to
„discover‟ (or perhaps more accurately, „uncover‟ ) in a foolproof way the
linguistic units of an unwritten language.
،‫ سثٔب ثشٌَ أًضش دهخ‬ٝ‫" (أ‬١‫ ٖٓ "اُزؾش‬١ٞ‫ عزٌٖٔ اُِـ‬٢‫ػخ ٖٓ أُجبدة اُز‬ٞٔ‫ ٓغ‬:‫ي‬ ّ ‫إجشاءاخ اٌرذش‬
.‫ثخ‬ٞ‫ش ٌٓز‬٤‫خ ُِـخ ؿ‬٣ٞ‫ؽذاد اُِـ‬ُٞ‫ٗخ ا‬ٞٔ‫خ ٓؼ‬٣ٞ‫وخ ُـ‬٣‫"اٌُشق") ثطش‬
Mid- to late-twentieth century: generative linguistics and the search for
universals
‫اٌثذث عٓ األوادٌٍّاخ‬ٚ ‫ٌٍذٌح‬ٛ‫ٌاخ اٌر‬ٛ‫ اٌٍغ‬:ٌٓ‫اخش اٌمشْ اٌعشش‬ٚ‫ِٓ ِٕرصف إٌى أ‬
Noam Chomsky,
In 1957, linguistics took a new turning, when he was aged 29 a teacher at the
Massachusetts Institute of Technology, published a book called Syntactic
Structures. Although containing fewer than 120 pages, this little book started a
revolution in linguistics.
٢‫ ػب ًٓب ًبٕ ٓذسعًب ك‬25 ‫جِؾ ٖٓ اُؼٔش‬٣ ٕ‫ ػ٘ذٓب ًب‬، ‫ذًا‬٣‫بد ٓ٘ؼطلًب عذ‬٣ٞ‫ ارخز ػِْ اُِـ‬، 1591 ّ‫ ػب‬٢‫ك‬
ٖٓ َ‫ أه‬٠ِ‫ ػ‬١ٞ‫ؾز‬٣ ٚٗ‫ اُشؿْ ٖٓ أ‬٠ِ‫ ػ‬.‫خ‬٣ٞ‫بًَ اُ٘ؾ‬٤ُٜ‫إ ا‬ٞ٘‫ ٗشش ًزبثًب ثؼ‬،‫ب‬٤‫ع‬ٌُٞٞ٘‫عزظ ُِز‬ٞ‫ذ ٓبعبرش‬ٜ‫ٓؼ‬
.‫بد‬٣ٞ‫ اُِـ‬٢‫سح ك‬ٞ‫ش ثذأ ص‬٤‫زا اٌُزبة اُظـ‬ٛ ٕ‫ اال أ‬، ‫ طلؾخ‬120

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 Chomsky shifted attention away from detailed descriptions of actual
utterances, and started asking questions about the nature of the system
which produces the output.
‫ؼخ‬٤‫ٍ ؽج‬ٞ‫ ؽشػ األعئِخ ؽ‬٢‫ثذأ ك‬ٝ ،‫خ‬٤ِ‫خ ٌُِِٔبد اُلؼ‬٤ِ٤‫طبف اُزلظ‬ٝ‫ذاً ػٖ األ‬٤‫ ثؼ‬ٙ‫ االٗزجب‬٢ٌ‫ٓغ‬ٞ‫اخز رش‬
.‫٘زظ أُخشعبد‬٣ ١‫اُ٘ظبّ اُز‬

 According to Chomsky, Bloomfieldian linguistics was both far too

ambitious and far too limited in scope.
.ٚ‫ ٗطبه‬٢‫خ ك‬٣‫دح ُِـب‬ٝ‫ٓؾذ‬ٝ ‫ؽخ عذا‬ٞٔ‫ِذ ؽ‬٤‫ٓل‬ِٞ‫بد ث‬٤ٗ‫ ًبٗذ ُغب‬، ٢ٌ‫ٓغ‬ٞ‫كوًب ُزش‬ٝ

 Chomsky has talked about Creativity which is the ability of human beings
to produce and comprehend an indefinite number of novel utterances.
.‫ذح‬٣‫ش ٓؾذد ٖٓ اُؼجبساد اُغذ‬٤‫ْ ػذد ؿ‬ٜ‫ك‬ٝ ‫ اٗزبط‬٠ِ‫ هذسح اُجشش ػ‬ٞٛٝ ، ‫ ػٖ اإلثذاع‬٢ٌ‫ٓغ‬ٞ‫رؾذس رش‬

 Chomsky used the word grammar to mean not only the „rules‟ which a
person has inside their head which specify the sequences of their language,
but also a linguist‟s attempt to express these rules, which he labelled a
generative grammar.
٢‫ب اُجشش ك‬ٜٗ‫خض‬٣ ٢‫اػذ" اُز‬ٞ‫ "اُو‬٠ِ‫عب ً ُِذالُخ ػ‬ٝ‫ اعزخذآب ً ٓضد‬grammar ‫ ًِٔخ‬٢ٌ‫ٓغ‬ٞ‫اعزخذّ رش‬
‫ش‬٤‫ٕ ُِزؼج‬ّٞ٣ٞ‫ُخ اُِـ‬ٝ‫ ٓؾب‬٠ِ‫ُِذالُخ ػ‬ٝ ،‫خ‬ٜ‫ ٖٓ ع‬،ْٜ‫ب ُـبر‬ٜ٤ِ‫ رشزَٔ ػ‬٢‫رؾذد اُززبثؼبد اُز‬ٝ ،ْٜ‫ادٓـز‬
.ٟ‫خ أخش‬ٜ‫" ٖٓ ع‬١‫ذ‬٤ُٞ‫ اُز‬ٞ‫ ثـ "اُ٘ؾ‬ٙ‫ رئُق ٓب اعٔب‬٢‫اػذ اُز‬ٞ‫ػٖ اُو‬

 Chomsky not only introduced the idea of a generative grammar, he also

proposed a specific type of such grammars, a transformational-generative
grammar.
-ٞ‫ اُ٘ؾ‬،‫اػذ‬ٞ‫ اُو‬ٙ‫ز‬ٛ َ‫ػب خبص ُٔض‬ٞٗ ‫ ثَ اهزشػ ًزُي‬،‫ كوؾ‬١‫ذ‬٤ُٞ‫ اُز‬ٞ‫ كٌشح اُ٘ؾ‬٢ٌ‫ٓغ‬ٞ‫طشػ رش‬٣ ُْ
.١‫ذ‬٤ُٞ‫ اُز‬٢ِ٣ٞ‫اُزؾ‬

 Chomsky ‟ s later work became increasingly abstract, as he tried to specify

broad general principles underlying all languages.
‫ؾذد ٓجبدة‬٣ ٕ‫ب ا‬ٜ٤‫ٍ ك‬ٝ‫ش ؽب‬٤‫ ؽ‬،‫ذ‬٣‫ هذس اًجش ٖٓ اُزغش‬ٞ‫ ٗؾ‬ٚ‫ع‬ٞ‫شح اُز‬٤‫ األخ‬٢ٌ‫ٓغ‬ٞ‫ اػٔبٍ رش‬٢‫ ك‬٢ٓ‫ر٘ب‬
.‫خ‬٤ٗ‫ب ًَ اُِـبد اإلٗغب‬ٜ٤ِ‫ رزؤعظ ػ‬،‫اُؼبٓخ كؼلبػخ‬

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Chapter 1 | The origins of language

In Charles Darwin‟s vision of the origins of language, early humans had already
developed musical ability prior to language and were using it “to charm each
other.” But it is just a speculation and simply we don‟t know how language
originated and there's no evidence to prove its origins.
‫خ هجَ اُِـخ‬٤‫و‬٤‫ع‬ُٞٔ‫ا ثبُلؼَ اُوذسح ا‬ٝ‫س‬ٞ‫ائَ هذ ؽ‬ٝ‫ ًبٕ اُجشش األ‬،‫ٍ اُِـخ‬ٞ‫ٖ ألط‬٣ٝ‫خ رشبسُض داس‬٣‫ سإ‬٢‫ك‬
‫ق ٗشؤد اُِـخ‬٤ً ‫ثجغبؽخ ال ٗؼشف‬ٝ ‫٘بد‬ٌٜ‫ب ٓغشد ر‬ٌُٜ٘ ."‫ْ اُجؼغ‬ٜ‫ب "ُغؾش ثؼؼ‬ٜٗٞٓ‫غزخذ‬٣ ‫ا‬ٞٗ‫ًب‬ٝ
.‫ب‬ُٜٞ‫َ إلصجبد أط‬٤ُ‫٘بى د‬ٛ ‫ظ‬٤ُٝ
These are some theories about the origins of language :
:‫ي اٌٍغح‬ٛ‫ي أص‬ٛ‫٘زٖ تعض إٌظشٌاخ د‬
1- The divine source : ًّ ٌٙ‫اٌّصذس اال‬
This theory according to Bible states that God created Adam and "whatsoever
Adam called every living creature that was the name thereof", most religions
believe that the human language comes by a divine source.
‫ اؿِت‬،‫ب‬ٜٔ‫خ ًبٕ اع‬٤‫ًَ ٓب دػب ادّ راد ٗلظ ؽ‬ٝ ّ‫كوب ً ٌُِزبة أُوذط إ هللا خِن آد‬ٝٝ ‫خ‬٣‫ اُ٘ظش‬ٙ‫ز‬ٛ ‫ر٘ض‬
.٢ّ ُٜ‫خ أرذ ٖٓ ٓظذس ا‬٣‫بٕ رئٖٓ ثؤٕ اُِـخ اُجشش‬٣‫األد‬
The experiments: ‫اٌرجاسب‬
a) The Greek writer Herodotus reported the story of an Egyptian pharaoh
named (Psamtik) who tried the experiment with two newborn babies. After
two years of isolation with goats and a mute shepherd, the children were
reported to have spontaneously uttered, something that was identified as the
Phrygian word bekos, meaning “bread.” That seems very unlikely. As
several commentators have pointed out, they must have heard what the
goats were saying. (First remove the -kos ending, which was added in the
Greek version of the story, then pronounce beas you would the English
word bed without -d at the end. Can you hear a goat?).
ٖ٤ِ‫ي) هبّ ثؤعشاء اُزغشثخ ٓغ ؽل‬٤‫ (ثغبٓز‬ٚٔ‫ اع‬١‫ٕ ٓظش‬ٞ‫رظ هظخ كشػ‬ٝ‫د‬ٝ‫ش‬٤ٛ ٢ٗ‫ٗب‬ٞ٤ُ‫سد اٌُبرت ا‬ٝ‫أ‬
ْ‫ ٓب ر‬ٞٛٝ ،‫ًب‬٤‫ا رِوبئ‬ٞ‫غ إٔ األؽلبٍ هذ رِلظ‬٤‫ أش‬،ٌْ‫ اث‬٢‫ساػ‬ٝ ‫ٖ ٖٓ اُؼضُخ ٓغ أُبػض‬٤ٓ‫ ثؼذ ػب‬.‫الدح‬ُٞ‫ ا‬٢‫ض‬٣‫ؽذ‬
‫ا هذ‬ٌٞٗٞ٣ ٕ‫غت أ‬٣ ،ٖ٤‫ذ ٖٓ أُؼِو‬٣‫ ًٔب أشبس اُؼذ‬."‫ "اُخجض‬٢٘‫ رؼ‬٢‫اُز‬ٝ ،‫خ‬٤‫غ‬٣‫ ًِٔخ كش‬ٚٗ‫ أ‬٠ِ‫ ػ‬ٙ‫ذ‬٣‫رؾذ‬

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ٖٓ ٢ٗ‫ٗب‬ٞ٤ُ‫ اإلطذاس ا‬٢‫ب ك‬ٜ‫ رٔذ اػبكز‬٢‫اُز‬ٝ ، kos- ‫خ‬٣‫ب‬ٜٗ ‫ هْ ثبصاُخ‬، ً‫ال‬ٝ‫ (أ‬.‫ أُبػض‬ُٚٞ‫و‬٣ ‫ا ٓب‬ٞ‫عٔؼ‬
.)‫ٌٔ٘ي عٔبع ػ٘ضح؟‬٣ َٛ .‫خ‬٣‫ب‬ُٜ٘‫ ا‬٢‫ ك‬d- ٕٝ‫ د‬bed ‫خ‬٣‫ض‬٤ِ‫ ً٘ذ أٌُِخ اإلٗغ‬beas ‫ صْ ٗطن‬،‫اُوظخ‬
b) King James the Fourth of Scotland carried out a similar experiment. King‟s
believes that Hebrew had indeed been the language of the Garden of Eden.
It is unfortunate that all other cases of children who have been discovered
living in isolation, without coming into contact with human speech, tend
not to confirm the results of these types of divine-source experiments, they
grow up with no language at all.
‫خ ًبٗذ ثبُلؼَ ُـخ‬٣‫٘ؾ إٔ اُِـخ اُؼجش‬٤ً ‫ؼزوذ‬٣ .‫ٔظ اُشاثغ ٖٓ اعٌزِ٘ذا ثبعشاء رغشثخ ٓٔبصِخ‬٤‫هبّ أُِي ع‬
ٕ‫ٕ أ‬ٝ‫ ػضُخ د‬٢‫ٕ ك‬ٞ‫ش‬٤‫ؼ‬٣ ْٜ‫ٖ رْ اًزشبك‬٣‫ ُألؽلبٍ اُز‬ٟ‫غ اُؾبالد األخش‬٤ٔ‫ ٖٓ أُئعق إٔ ع‬.ٕ‫ع٘خ ػذ‬
‫ش‬٤‫ ؽ‬،‫خ‬٤ُٜ‫اع ٖٓ رغبسة أُظبدس اإل‬ٞٗ‫ األ‬ٙ‫ز‬ٛ ‫ذ ٗزبئظ‬٤ً‫ ػذّ رؤ‬٠ُ‫َ ا‬٤ٔ‫ ر‬،١‫اطَ ٓغ خطبة ثشش‬ٞ‫اُز‬
.‫ اإلؽالم‬٠ِ‫ٕ ُـخ ػ‬ٝ‫ٕ ثذ‬ٝ‫ٌجش‬٣
From this type of evidence there is no spontaneous language, because we
have no way of reconstructing that original language.
.‫خ‬٤ِ‫وخ إلػبدح ث٘بء رِي اُِـخ األط‬٣‫٘ب ؽش‬٣‫ظ ُذ‬٤ُ ٚٗ‫ أل‬، ‫خ‬٣ٞ‫عذ ُـخ ػل‬ٞ‫ع ٖٓ األدُخ ال ر‬ُٞ٘‫زا ا‬ٛ ٖٓ
2- The natural sound source: ‫اخ اٌطثٍعح‬ٛ‫ِصذس أص‬
The basic idea is that primitive words could have been imitations of the natural
sounds which early men and women heard around them. The fact that all modern
languages have some words with pronunciations that seem to echo naturally
occurring sounds could be used to support this theory.
‫اُ٘غبء‬ٝ ٍ‫ب اُشعب‬ٜ‫ عٔؼ‬٢‫خ اُز‬٤‫ؼ‬٤‫اد اُطج‬ٞ‫ذًا ُألط‬٤ِ‫ٕ رو‬ٌٞ‫خ هذ ر‬٤‫ إٔ أٌُِبد اُجذائ‬٢ٛ ‫خ‬٤‫ُلٌشح األعبع‬
‫ ثؼغ أٌُِبد راد أٌُِبد‬٠ِ‫ ػ‬١ٞ‫ضخ رؾز‬٣‫غ اُِـبد اُؾذ‬٤ٔ‫وخ إٔ ع‬٤‫ٌٖٔ اعزخذاّ ؽو‬٣ .ُْٜٞ‫ائَ ٖٓ ؽ‬ٝ‫األ‬
.‫خ‬٣‫ اُ٘ظش‬ٙ‫ز‬ٛ ْ‫ ُذػ‬٢‫ؼ‬٤‫ رؾذس ثشٌَ ؽج‬٢‫اد اُز‬ٞ‫ب رشدد األط‬ٜٗ‫ أ‬ٝ‫جذ‬٣ ٢‫هخ اُز‬ٞ‫أُ٘ط‬
Examples:
splash, bang, boom, rattle, buzz, hiss.

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a) The “bow-wow” theory : the idea that early human speech developed
from imitations of natural sounds in the environment (e.g. boom, hiss,
buzz).
.‫ئخ‬٤‫ اُج‬٢‫خ ك‬٤‫ؼ‬٤‫اد اُطج‬ٞ‫ذ األط‬٤ِ‫ ٗشؤ ٖٓ رو‬٢‫ اُجذائ‬١‫كٌشح إٔ اٌُالّ اُجشش‬
Onomatopoeia : words containing sounds similar to the noises they describe
(e.g. bang, cuckoo).
.ٚٗٞ‫ظل‬٣ ١‫ظ اُز‬٤‫ اُؼغ‬٠ُ‫خ ا‬ٜ‫اد ٓشبث‬ٞ‫ ًِٔبد رزؼٖٔ أط‬٢ٛ :‫ذٍح‬ٛ‫اٌّذاواج اٌص‬
The “bow-wow” theory is rejected. (Justify) ‫سفضد ٘زٖ إٌظشٌح تشس‬
While it is true that a number of words in any language are onomatopoeic, it is
hard to see how most of the soundless things as well as abstract concepts in our
world could have been referred to in a language that simply echoed natural
sounds. And language is not only a set of words used as “names” for things.
ٕ‫ ٖٓ اُظؼت أ‬ٚٗ‫ كؤ‬،‫خ‬٤‫ر‬ٞ‫ اؿِت اُِـبد ٓؾبًبح ط‬٢‫خ ك‬٣ٞ‫٘بى ػذد ٖٓ أٌُِبد اُِـ‬ٛ ٕ‫ اُشؿْ ٖٓ ا‬٠ِ‫ػ‬
‫ ػبُٔ٘ب ثِـخ رشدد‬٢‫ْ أُغشدح ك‬٤ٛ‫أُلب‬ٝ ‫بء اُظبٓزخ‬٤‫ ٓؼظْ األش‬٠ُ‫ق ًبٕ ثبإلٌٓبٕ اإلشبسح ا‬٤ً ٟ‫ٗش‬
.‫بء‬٤‫ػخ ٖٓ أٌُِبد أُغزخذٓخ ى "أعٔبء" ُألش‬ٞٔ‫غذ كوؾ ٓغ‬٤ُ ‫اُِـخ‬ٝ .‫خ ثجغبؽخ‬٤‫ؼ‬٤‫اد اُطج‬ٞ‫األط‬
b) The “pooh-pooh” theory : the idea that early human speech developed
from the instinctive sounds people make in emotional circumstances.
‫ف‬ٝ‫ اُظش‬٢‫ب اُ٘بط ك‬ٜ‫ظ٘ؼ‬٣ ٢‫خ اُز‬٣‫ض‬٣‫اد اُـش‬ٞ‫س ٖٓ األط‬ٞ‫ رط‬٢‫ اُجذائ‬١‫كٌشح إٔ اٌُالّ اُجشش‬
.‫خ‬٤‫اُؼبؽل‬

 It has also been suggested that the original sounds of language may have
come from natural cries of emotion such as pain, anger and joy.
‫اُـؼت‬ٝ ُْ‫خ ٓضَ األ‬٤‫ؼ‬٤‫خ ؽج‬٤‫ٕ ٗبرغخ ػٖ طشخبد ػبؽل‬ٌٞ‫خ ُِـخ هذ ر‬٤ِ‫اد األط‬ٞ‫ؼًب إٔ األط‬٣‫َ أ‬٤‫ه‬
.‫اُلشػ‬ٝ
The “pooh-pooh” theory is rejected. (Justify) ‫٘زٖ إٌظشٌح سفضد تشس‬
the expressive noises people make in emotional reactions contain sounds that are
not otherwise used in speech production and consequently would seem to be
rather unlikely candidates as source sounds for language.

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ّ‫اد ال رُغزخذ‬ٞ‫ أط‬٠ِ‫خ ػ‬٤‫د اُلؼَ اُؼبؽل‬ٝ‫ سد‬٢‫ب األشخبص ك‬ٛ‫ظذس‬٣ ٢‫اد أُؼجشح اُز‬ٞ‫ األط‬١ٞ‫رؾز‬
‫اد ٓششؾخ ًٔظذس‬ٞ‫ األط‬ٙ‫ز‬ٛ ٌٕٞ‫ش أُؾزَٔ إٔ ر‬٤‫ ٖٓ ؿ‬ٝ‫جذ‬٣ ٢ُ‫ثبُزب‬ٝ ، ّ‫ اٗزبط اٌُال‬٢‫ ك‬ٟ‫وخ أخش‬٣‫ثطش‬
.‫ُِـخ‬
3- The social interaction source: ًّ ‫ِصذس اٌرفاعً االجرّاع‬
The idea is that the sounds of a person involved in physical effort could be the
source of our language, especially when that physical effort involved several
people and the interaction had to be coordinated. Such as hums, grunts, groans
and curses while they carrying or lifting large bits or things.
‫ خبطخً ػ٘ذٓب‬،‫ٕ ٓظذس ُـز٘ب‬ٌٞ‫ٌٖٔ إٔ ر‬٣ ٢ٗ‫ذ اُجذ‬ٜ‫ اُغ‬٢‫شبسى ك‬٣ ‫ شخض‬١‫اد أ‬ٞ‫ إٔ أط‬٢‫رٌٖٔ اُلٌشح ك‬
ْ‫شز‬ٝ ‫بد‬ٛ‫ آ‬، ‫ٔبد‬ٜٔٛ َ‫ ٓض‬.َ‫ن اُزلبػ‬٤‫ٖ ر٘غ‬٤‫زؼ‬٣ٝ ‫ذ ٖٓ األشخبص‬٣‫زؼٖٔ اُؼذ‬٣ ٢ٗ‫ذ اُجذ‬ٜ‫زا اُغ‬ٛ ٌٕٞ٣
.‫ِخ‬٤‫بء صو‬٤‫ أش‬ٝ‫شح أ‬٤‫ٕ أعضاء ًج‬ٞ‫شكؼ‬٣ ٝ‫ٕ أ‬ِٞٔ‫ؾ‬٣ ‫ا‬ٞٗ‫٘ٔب ًب‬٤‫ث‬
The social interaction source is rejected. (Justify) ‫سفضد ٘زٖ إٌظشٌح تشس‬
It is an important idea that may relate to the uses of some humanly produced
sounds, but It does not answer our question regarding the origins of the sounds
produced.
‫زؼِن‬٣ ‫ٔب‬٤‫ عئاُ٘ب ك‬٠ِ‫ت ػ‬٤‫ب ال رغ‬ٌُٜ٘ ،ً‫ب‬٤ٗ‫اد أُ٘زغخ اٗغب‬ٞ‫ٔخ هذ رزؼِن ثبعزخذاّ ثؼغ األط‬ٜٓ ‫ب كٌشح‬ٜٗ‫ا‬
.‫اد أُ٘زغخ‬ٞ‫ٍ األط‬ٞ‫ثؤط‬
4- The physical adaptation source : ًٔ‫ِصذس اٌرىٍٍف اٌثذ‬
This theory concerned with physical features of human especially those that are
distinct from other creatures which may have been able to support speech
production. Such features would not necessarily lead to speech production, but
they are good clues that a creature possessing such features probably has the
capacity for speech.
ٌٕٞ‫ هذ ر‬٢‫ب ٖٓ اٌُبئ٘بد اُز‬ٛ‫ش‬٤‫ض ػٖ ؿ‬٤ٔ‫ رز‬٢‫خ ُإلٗغبٕ خبطخ رِي اُز‬٤‫بئ‬٣‫ض‬٤‫خ ثبُغٔبد اُل‬٣‫ اُ٘ظش‬ٙ‫ز‬ٛ ‫رزؼِن‬
٠ِ‫ذح ػ‬٤‫ب أدُخ ع‬ٌُٜ٘ ، ّ‫ اٗزبط اٌُال‬٠ُ‫سح ا‬ٝ‫ضاد ثبُؼش‬٤ُٔ‫ ا‬ٙ‫ز‬ٛ َ‫ ٓض‬١‫ ُٖ رئد‬.ّ‫ دػْ اٗزبط اٌُال‬٠ِ‫هبدسح ػ‬
.ّ‫ اٌُال‬٠ِ‫ اُوذسح ػ‬ُٚ ‫ضاد‬٤ُٔ‫ ا‬ٙ‫ز‬ٛ َ‫ٔزِي ٓض‬٣ ١‫م اُز‬ِٞ‫إٔ أُخ‬

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5- The tool-making source: ‫ االداج‬-‫ِصذس صٕع‬
A similar development is believed to have taken place with human hands and
some believe that manual gestures may have been a precursor of language.
.‫خ سثٔب ًبٗذ ٓوذٓخ ُِـخ‬٣ٝ‫ذ‬٤ُ‫ٔبءاد ا‬٣‫ؼزوذ اُجؼغ إٔ اإل‬٣ٝ ‫ اُجشش‬١‫ذ‬٣‫ساً ٓٔبصالً هذ ؽذس ثؤ‬ٞ‫ؼزوذ إٔ رط‬٣ٝ

 Tool-making, or the outcome of manipulating objects and changing them

using both hands, is evidence of a brain at work.
.َٔ‫ اُؼ‬٢‫د ٓخ ك‬ٞ‫ع‬ٝ ٠ِ‫الً ػ‬٤ُ‫ٖ د‬٣‫ذ‬٤ُ‫ب ثبعزخذاّ ًِزب ا‬ٛ‫ش‬٤٤‫رـ‬ٝ ‫بء‬٤‫غخ ٓؼبُغخ األش‬٤‫ ٗز‬ٝ‫اد أ‬ٝ‫ؼذ ط٘غ األد‬٣
 The human brain is not only large relative to human body size, it is also
lateralized, that is, it has specialized functions in each of the two
hemispheres.
ٚ٣‫ ُذ‬ٚٗ‫ أ‬١‫ أ‬،٢ّ ‫ عبٗت كظ‬ٝ‫ؼًب ر‬٣‫ أ‬ٞٛ َ‫ ث‬،‫شًا ثبُ٘غجخ ُؾغْ عغْ اإلٗغبٕ كؾغت‬٤‫ظ دٓبؽ اإلٗغبٕ ًج‬٤ُ
.‫ اٌُشح اُذٓبؽ‬٢‫ ًَ ٖٓ ٗظل‬٢‫ظبئق ٓزخظظخ ك‬ٝ
lateralization (lateralized): divided into a left side and a right side, with control
of functions on one side or the other (used in describing the human brain).
ٖٓ ‫ظبئق‬ُٞ‫ ا‬٢‫ ٓغ اُزؾٌْ ك‬، ٖٔ٣‫اُغبٗت األ‬ٝ ‫غش‬٣‫ اُغبٗت األ‬٠ُ‫٘وغْ ا‬٣ : )‫ذخصٍص جأثً اٌذِاغ (ذجٍٕة‬
.)١‫طق اُذٓبؽ اُجشش‬ٝ ٢‫ آخش (أُغزخذٓخ ك‬ٝ‫عبٗت أ‬
6- The genetic source : ًٍٕ‫اٌّصذس اٌج‬
There's an automatic set of developments and the complexity of the young
child‟s language, children who are born deaf (and do not develop speech) become
fluent sign language users, given appropriate circumstances, very early in life.
This seems to indicate that human offspring are born with a special capacity for
language. It is innate, no other creature seems to have it, and doesn't tied to any
specific language. It possible that this language capacity is genetically hard-wired
in the newborn human.
ٕٝ‫ُذ‬ٞ٣ ٖ٣‫ظجؼ األؽلبٍ اُز‬٣ ‫ش‬٤‫ ؽ‬،‫ش‬٤‫ ُـخ اُطلَ اُظـ‬٢‫ساد أُؼوذح ك‬ٞ‫خ ٖٓ اُزط‬٤‫ػخ رِوبئ‬ٞٔ‫٘بى ٓغ‬ٛ
‫هذ ٓجٌش‬ٝ ٢‫ف أُ٘بعجخ ك‬ٝ‫ ظَ اُظش‬٢‫ ك‬،‫ٕ ُـخ اإلشبسح‬ٝ‫ذ‬٤‫غ‬٣ ٖ٤ٓ‫ اٌُالّ) ٓغزخذ‬٢‫ٕ ك‬ٝ‫س‬ٞ‫زط‬٣ ‫ال‬ٝ( ً ‫طٔب‬
‫ال‬ٝ ،‫خ‬٣‫ب كطش‬ٜٗ‫ ا‬.‫ اُِـخ‬٠ِ‫ُذ ٓغ هذسح خبطخ ػ‬ٞ٣ ١‫ إٔ اُ٘غَ اُجشش‬٠ُ‫ش ا‬٤‫ش‬٣ ‫زا‬ٛ ٕ‫ أ‬ٝ‫جذ‬٣ .‫بح‬٤‫عذًا ٖٓ اُؾ‬
‫ اُوذسح‬ٙ‫ز‬ٛ ٌٕٞ‫ ٖٓ أٌُٖٔ إٔ ر‬.‫٘خ‬٤‫ ُـخ ٓؼ‬١‫شرجؾ ثؤ‬٣ ‫ال‬ٝ ،‫ اُظلخ‬ٙ‫ز‬ٛ َٔ‫ؾ‬٣ ‫هًب آخش‬ِٞ‫٘بى ٓخ‬ٛ ٕ‫ أ‬ٝ‫جذ‬٣
.‫الدح‬ُٞ‫ش ا‬٣‫ اإلٗغبٕ ؽذ‬٢‫ب ك‬٤‫ساص‬ٝ ‫خ صبثزخ‬٣ٞ‫اُِـ‬
innateness hypothesis: the idea that humans are genetically equipped to acquire
language.
.‫ب الًزغبة اُِـخ‬٤‫ساص‬ٝ ٕٝ‫ض‬ٜ‫ كٌشح إٔ اُجشش ٓغ‬:‫اٌفشضٍح اٌفطشٌح‬

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Study Questions
1. Why are interjections such as Ooh! or yuck! considered to be unlikely
sources of human speech sound?
‫خ خطاب اإلٔغاْ؟‬ٛ‫ن! ذعرثش ِصذس غٍش اٌّشجخ ٌص‬ٌٛ ٚ‫ٖ! أ‬ٚ‫ٌّارا عالِاخ اٌرعجة ِثً أ‬
Interjections contain sounds that are not otherwise used in ordinary speech
production. They are usually produced with sudden intakes of breath.
ْ‫ز‬٣ ‫ػبدح ٓب‬ٝ .١‫ اٗزبط اٌُالّ اُؼبد‬٢‫ ك‬ٟ‫وخ أخش‬٣‫اد ال رُغزخذّ ثطش‬ٞ‫ أط‬٠ِ‫ ػالٓبد اُزؼغت ػ‬١ٞ‫رؾز‬
.‫ب ٓغ ٓآخز اُز٘لظ أُلبعئخ‬ٜ‫اٗزبع‬
2. What is the basic idea behind the "bow-wow" theory of language
origin?
Primitive words could have been imitations of the sounds that early humans
heard around them and all modern languages have words that are onomatopoeic
in some way.
‫غ اُِـبد‬٤ٔ‫ع‬ٝ ُْٜٞ‫ائَ ٖٓ ؽ‬ٝ‫ب اُجشش األ‬ٜ‫ عٔؼ‬٢‫اد اُز‬ٞ‫ذ ُألط‬٤ِ‫خ ػجبسح ػٖ رو‬٤‫ٕ أٌُِبد اُجذائ‬ٌٞ‫هذ ر‬
.‫وخ ٓب‬٣‫ش ٓزغبٗغخ ثطش‬٤‫ ًِٔبد ؿ‬٠ِ‫ ػ‬١ٞ‫ضخ رؾز‬٣‫اُؾذ‬
3. Why is it difficult to agree with Psammetichus that Phrygian must
have been the original human language?
‫ْ ً٘ اٌٍغح اٌثششٌح األصٍٍح؟‬ٛ‫ط عٍى أْ اٌٍغح اٌفشٌجٍح ٌجة أْ ذى‬ٛ‫ٌّارا ٌصعة االذفاق ِع تغّاذى‬
First, his conclusion was based on very little evidence, and second, it seems more
reasonable to assume, that the children in his study were producing a goat-like
sound from their immediate environment rather than a Phrygian sound from a
distant language.
ٚ‫ دساعز‬٢‫ إٔ األؽلبٍ ك‬، ‫خ إٔ ٗلزشع‬٤‫ أًضش ٓ٘طو‬ٝ‫جذ‬٣ ، ً ‫ب‬٤ٗ‫صب‬ٝ ،‫خ‬٣‫ِخ ُِـب‬٤ِ‫ أدُخ ه‬٠ُ‫ ا‬ٚ‫ اعز٘ذ اعز٘زبع‬، ً‫ال‬ٝ‫أ‬
.‫ذح‬٤‫ ٖٓ ُـخ ثؼ‬٢‫غ‬٣‫د اُلش‬ٞ‫ْ أُجبششح ثذالً ٖٓ اُظ‬ٜ‫ئز‬٤‫ أُبػض ٖٓ ث‬ٚ‫شج‬٣ ‫رًب‬ٞ‫ٕ ط‬ٞ‫٘زغ‬٣ ‫ا‬ٞٗ‫ًب‬

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4. Where is the pharynx and why did it become an important part in the
human sound production?
not required
5. Why do you think that young deaf children who become fluent in sign
language would be cited in support of the innateness hypothesis?
‫ُ ٌذعُ فشضٍح‬ٙ‫اد ت‬ٙ‫ْ ٌغح اإلشاسج عٍرُ االعرش‬ٚ‫ٌّارا ذعرمذ أْ األطفاي اٌصُ اٌصغاس اٌزٌٓ ٌجٍذ‬
‫اٌفطش؟‬
If this deaf children do not develop speech first, then their language ability would
not seem to depend on those physical adaptations of the teeth, larynx, etc., that
are involved in speaking. If all children (including those born deaf) can acquire
language at about the same time, they must be born with a special capacity to do
so. The conclusion is that it must be innate and hence genetically determined.
‫خ‬٣‫الد اُغغذ‬٣‫ رِي اُزؼذ‬٠ِ‫خ ال رؼزٔذ ػ‬٣ٞ‫ْ اُِـ‬ٜ‫ كبٕ هذسر‬، ً‫ال‬ٝ‫ئالء األؽلبٍ اُظْ ثبٌُالّ أ‬ٛ ‫س‬ٞ‫ط‬٣ ُْ ‫ارا‬
ْ‫ْ اُظ‬ٜ٤‫غ األؽلبٍ (ثٖٔ ك‬٤ٔ‫ ارا ًبٕ ثبٌٓبٕ ع‬.‫ اُزؾذس‬٢‫ْ ك‬ٛ‫ رغب‬٢‫ اُز‬،‫ رُي‬٠ُ‫ٓب ا‬ٝ ،‫ اُؾ٘غشح‬،ٕ‫ُألع٘ب‬
‫ االعز٘زبط‬.‫بّ ثزُي‬٤‫ اُو‬٠ِ‫ا ثوذسح خبطخ ػ‬ٝ‫ُذ‬ٞ٣ ٕ‫غت أ‬٤‫ ك‬،‫جًب‬٣‫هذ روش‬ُٞ‫ ٗلظ ا‬٢‫ٕ) اًزغبة اُِـخ ك‬ٝ‫د‬ُُٞٞٔ‫ا‬
.ً ‫ب‬٤‫ساص‬ٝ ‫ٖٓ صْ ٓظٔ ًٔب‬ٝ ‫ًب‬٣‫ٕ كطش‬ٌٞ٣ ٕ‫غت أ‬٣ ٚٗ‫ أ‬ٞٛ
6. What are the six sources? ‫ِاً٘ اٌّصادس اٌغد‬
1-The divine source. ٢ُٜ‫أُظذس اال‬
2-The natural sound source. ‫خ‬٤‫ؼ‬٤‫اد اُطج‬ٞ‫ٓظذس األط‬
3-The social interaction source. ٢‫ٓظذس اُزلبػَ االعزٔبػ‬
4-The physical adaption source. ٢ٗ‫ق اُجذ‬٤٤ٌ‫ٓظذس اُز‬
5-The tool-making source. ‫ االداح‬-‫ٓظذس ط٘غ‬
6-The genetic source. ٢٘٤‫أُظذس اُغ‬

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Chapter 3 | The sounds of language

International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA): a set of symbols, each one

representing a distinct sound segment.
.‫ضح‬٤ٔٓ ‫د‬ٞ‫ؾخ ط‬٣‫ب شش‬ٜ٘ٓ ًَ َ‫ٔض‬٣ ، ‫ص‬ٞٓ‫ػخ ٖٓ اُش‬ٞٔ‫ ٓغ‬:)IPA( ‫ٌٍح‬ٚ‫ذٍح اٌذ‬ٛ‫األتجذٌح اٌص‬
phonetics: the study of the characteristics of speech sounds.
.ّ‫اد اٌُال‬ٞ‫ دساعخ خظبئض أط‬:‫اخ‬ٛ‫عٍُ االص‬
articulatory phonetics: the study of how speech sounds are produced.
.ّ‫اد اٌُال‬ٞ‫خ اٗزبط أط‬٤‫ل‬٤ً ‫ دساعخ‬:‫ذٍاخ اٌّفصٍٍح‬ٛ‫اٌص‬
acoustic phonetics: the study of the physical properties of speech as sound
waves.
.‫خ‬٤‫ر‬ٞ‫عبد ط‬ًٞٔ ّ‫خ ٌُِال‬٤‫بئ‬٣‫ض‬٤‫اص اُل‬ٞ‫ دساعخ اُخ‬:‫ذٍح اٌفٍضٌائٍح‬ٛ‫اٌص‬
auditory phonetics: the study of the perception of speech sounds by the ear, also
called “perceptual phonetics”.
."‫خ‬٤ً‫بد اإلدسا‬٤‫ر‬ٞ‫ؼًب "اُظ‬٣‫ أ‬٠ٔ‫رغ‬ٝ ،ٕ‫اد اٌُالّ ٖٓ األر‬ٞ‫س أط‬ٞ‫ دساعخ رظ‬:‫ذٍاخ اٌغّعٍح‬ٛ‫اٌص‬
Voiced and voiceless sounds : ‫عح‬ٌّّٛٙ‫ا‬ٚ ‫سٌح‬ٛٙ‫اخ اٌج‬ٛ‫األص‬
1. When the vocal folds are spread apart, the air from the lungs passes
between them unimpeded. Sounds produced in this way are described as
voiceless.
ٙ‫ز‬ٜ‫اد أُ٘زغخ ث‬ٞ‫ األط‬.‫ائن‬ٞ‫ٕ ػ‬ٝ‫ٔب د‬ٜ٘٤‫ٔش ث‬٣ ٖ٤‫اء ٖٓ اُشئز‬ُٜٞ‫ كبٕ ا‬،‫خ‬٤‫ر‬ٞ‫ػ٘ذٓب ر٘جغؾ اُؾجبٍ اُظ‬
.‫ طبٓزخ‬ٝ‫عخ ا‬ٜٞٔٓ ‫ب‬ٜٗ‫طق ثؤ‬ٞ‫وخ ر‬٣‫اُطش‬
voiceless sounds: speech sounds produced without vibration of the vocal folds.
.‫خ‬٤‫ر‬ٞ‫زضاص اُؾجبٍ اُظ‬ٛ‫ٕ ا‬ٝ‫ب د‬ٜ‫زْ اٗزبع‬٣ ٢‫اد اٌُالّ اُز‬ٞ‫ أط‬:‫عح‬ٌّّٛٙ‫اخ ا‬ٛ‫األص‬
All voiceless sounds: / tʃ, f, h, k, p, s, ʃ, t, θ /.

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2. When the vocal folds are drawn together, the air from the lungs repeatedly
pushes them apart as it passes through, creating a vibration effect. Sounds
produced in this way are described as voiced.
‫ ٓٔب‬،‫ب‬ٛ‫س‬ٝ‫رٌشاسًا أص٘بء ٓش‬ٝ ‫ب ٓشا ًسا‬ٜ‫ذكؼ‬٣ ٖ٤‫اء ٖٓ اُشئز‬ُٜٞ‫ كبٕ ا‬،‫خ ٓؼًب‬٤‫ر‬ٞ‫ػ٘ذٓب ر٘غؾت اُؾجبٍ اُظ‬
.‫ػخ‬ٞٔ‫ ٓغ‬ٝ‫خ ا‬٣‫س‬ٜٞ‫ب ع‬ٜٗ‫ أ‬٠ِ‫وخ ػ‬٣‫ اُطش‬ٙ‫ز‬ٜ‫اد أُ٘زغخ ث‬ٞ‫طق األط‬ٝ ْ‫ز‬٣ .‫زضاص‬ٛ‫ش ا‬٤‫ رؤص‬ٚ٘‫٘زظ ػ‬٣
voiced sounds: speech sounds produced with vibration of the vocal folds.
.‫خ‬٤‫ر‬ٞ‫زضاص اُؾجبٍ اُظ‬ٛ‫ب ٓغ ا‬ٜ‫زْ اٗزبع‬٣ ٢‫اد اٌُالّ اُز‬ٞ‫ أط‬:‫سٌح‬ٛٙ‫اخ اٌج‬ٛ‫األص‬
All voiced sounds: / b, d, g, j, l, m, n, ŋ, r, v, z, ð, w /, and all vowels.
Place of Articulation :- A point in the mouth at which the sound is produced,
like; bilabial, labio-dental, dental, alveolar, post alveolar (alveo-palatal), palatal,
velar or glottal.
،‫خ‬٤ٗ‫ اع٘ب‬-‫خ‬٣ٞ‫ شل‬،‫خ‬٣ٞ‫؛ شل‬٢ٛ ًٖ‫ االٓب‬،‫د‬ٞ‫ اُظ‬ٚ٤‫ِلع ك‬٣ ١‫اُز‬ٝ ْ‫ أٌُبٕ داخَ اُل‬ٞٛٝ -: ‫ِىاْ اٌرٍفع‬
.١‫ ِٓضٓبس‬ٝ‫ أ‬١َُٜٞ ، ‫خ‬٣‫ شغش‬، ) ‫خ‬٣‫ َشغش‬-‫خ‬٣َٞ‫خ ( ُِض‬٣َٞ‫ خِق اُِِض‬،‫خ‬٣َٞ‫ ُِض‬،ٚ٤ٗ‫اع٘ب‬
Consonants : ‫اخ اٌصذٍذح‬ٛ‫األص‬
a) Familiar symbols: ‫كخ‬ُٞ‫ص أُؤ‬ٞٓ‫اُش‬
bilabial: a consonant produced by using both lips (e.g. the first and last sounds in
pub).
٢‫شح ك‬٤‫األخ‬ٝ ٠ُٝ‫اد األ‬ٞ‫َ أُضبٍ األط‬٤‫ عج‬٠ِ‫ٖ (ػ‬٤‫ ثبعزخذاّ ًِزب اُشلز‬ٚ‫زْ اٗزبع‬٣ ‫ؼ‬٤‫د طؾ‬ٞ‫ ط‬:ً٘‫شفا‬
.)Pub
Bilabial sounds are : [p], [b], [m], [w]
labiodental: a consonant produced with the upper teeth and the lower lip (e.g.
the first sounds in very funny).
، ٍ‫َ أُضب‬٤‫ عج‬٠ِ‫خ (ػ‬٤ِ‫اُشلخ اُغل‬ٝ ‫خ‬٣ِٞ‫ ثبعزخذاّ األع٘بٕ اُؼ‬ٚ‫زْ اٗزبع‬٣ ‫ؼ‬٤‫د طؾ‬ٞ‫ ط‬:ًٕ‫ع‬-‫ي‬ٛ‫شف‬
.)Very funny ٠ُٝ‫اد األ‬ٞ‫األط‬
Labiodental sounds are : [f], [v].

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alveolar: a consonant produced with the front part of the tongue on the alveolar
ridge (e.g. the first and last sounds in dot).
‫اد‬ٞ‫خ (ٓضَ األط‬٤‫ اُؾبكخ اُغ٘خ‬٠ِ‫ ٖٓ اُِغبٕ ػ‬٢ٓ‫ ٓغ اُغضء األٓب‬ٚ‫زْ اٗزبع‬٣ ‫ؼ‬٤‫د طؾ‬ٞ‫ ط‬:ً‫اٌغٕخ‬
.)dot ٢‫شح ك‬٤‫األخ‬ٝ ٠ُٝ‫األ‬
Alveolar sounds are : [t], [d], [s], [z], [n], [r].
b) Unfamiliar symbols: ‫كخ‬ُٞ‫ش ٓؤ‬٤‫ص اُـ‬ٞٓ‫اُش‬
dental: a consonant produced with the tongue tip behind the upper front teeth
(e.g. the first sound in that).
.)that ٢‫د ك‬ٞ‫ٍ ط‬ٝ‫ب (ٓضَ أ‬٤ِ‫خ اُؼ‬٤ٓ‫ ثطشف اُِغبٕ خِق األع٘بٕ األٓب‬ٚ‫زْ اٗزبع‬٣ ‫ؼ‬٤‫د طؾ‬ٞ‫ ط‬:ًّ ٕ‫ع‬
Dental sounds are : [θ], [ð].
interdental: a consonant produced with the tongue tip between the upper and
lower teeth (e.g. the first sound in that).
.)‫ رُي‬٢‫د ك‬ٞ‫ٍ ط‬ٝ‫خ (ٓضَ أ‬٤ِ‫اُغل‬ٝ ‫خ‬٣ِٞ‫ٖ األع٘بٕ اُؼ‬٤‫ ثطشف اُِغبٕ ث‬ٚ‫زْ اٗزبع‬٣ ‫ؼ‬٤‫د طؾ‬ٞ‫ ط‬:ًّ ٕ‫تٍٓ ع‬
palate: the hard part of the roof of the mouth.
.ْ‫ اُغضء اُظِت ٖٓ عوق اُل‬:‫اٌذٕه‬
velar: a consonant produced by raising the back of the tongue to the velum (e.g.
the first and last sounds in geek).
َ٤‫ عج‬٠ِ‫بح (ػ‬ُِٜ‫ ا‬٠ُ‫ ٖٓ اُِغبٕ ا‬٢‫ن سكغ اُغضء اُخِل‬٣‫ ػٖ ؽش‬ٚ‫زْ اٗزبع‬٣ ‫ؼ‬٤‫د طؾ‬ٞ‫ ط‬:)Velar( ً‫دٍم‬
.)geek ٢‫شح ك‬٤‫األخ‬ٝ ٠ُٝ‫اد األ‬ٞ‫أُضبٍ األط‬
glottal: a sound produced in the space between the vocal folds (e.g. the first
sound in hat).
.)hat ٢‫د ك‬ٞ‫ٍ ط‬ٝ‫خ (ٓضَ أ‬٤‫ر‬ٞ‫ٖ اُؾجبٍ اُظ‬٤‫ اُلشاؽ ث‬٢‫٘زظ ك‬٣ ‫د‬ٞ‫ ط‬:‫ي‬
ّ ‫ِضِاس‬

ُْ )‫وخ ُلظخ‬٣‫ؽش‬ٝ ‫د‬ٞ‫ػؼ ًَ ط‬ٞ٣( ‫ اٌُزبة‬٢‫ ك‬25 ‫ طلؾخ‬TABLE 3.1 ٍٝ‫لؼَ هشاءح عذ‬٣ : ‫ِالدظح‬
.ٙ‫ق أػال‬٣‫ٕ ُِزؼبس‬ٞٔ‫ أُؼ‬٢‫ ك‬ٚ‫ ٓشبث‬ًٚٗٞ ٌٙ‫ارًش‬

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Consonants : Manner of Articulation ‫ طشٌمح إٌطك‬:‫اخ اٌصذٍذح‬ٛ‫االص‬
It is the way that sounds produced, Such a description is necessary if we want to
be able to differentiate between some sounds.
٠ِ‫ٖ ػ‬٣‫ٕ هبدس‬ٌٞٗ ٕ‫ ارا أسدٗب أ‬١‫س‬ٝ‫طق ػش‬ُٞ‫زا ا‬ٛ َ‫ إ ٓض‬،‫اد‬ٞ‫ب األط‬ٜ‫ رظذس ث‬٢‫وخ اُز‬٣‫ب اُطش‬ٜٗ‫ا‬
.‫اد‬ٞ‫ٖ ثؼغ األط‬٤‫ض ث‬٤٤ٔ‫اُز‬
stop: a consonant produced by stopping the airflow, then letting it go, also called
“plosive” (e.g. the first and last sounds in cat).
‫طِن‬٣ٝ ،َ٤‫ ثبُشؽ‬ُٚ ‫ صْ اُغٔبػ‬،‫اء‬ُٜٞ‫وبف رذكن ا‬٣‫ن ا‬٣‫ ػٖ ؽش‬ٚ‫زْ اٗزبع‬٣ ‫ؼ‬٤‫د طؾ‬ٞ‫ ط‬:‫خ أفجاسي‬ٛ‫ص‬
)cat ٢‫شح ك‬٤‫األخ‬ٝ ٠ُٝ‫اد األ‬ٞ‫َ أُضبٍ األط‬٤‫ عج‬٠ِ‫" (ػ‬١‫ؼًب "اٗلغبس‬٣‫ أ‬ٚ٤ِ‫ػ‬
Stops are : [p], [b], [t], [d], [k], [ɡ].
fricative: a consonant produced by almost blocking the airflow (e.g. the first and
last sounds in five).
‫شح‬٤‫األخ‬ٝ ٠ُٝ‫اد األ‬ٞ‫َ أُضبٍ األط‬٤‫ عج‬٠ِ‫جًب (ػ‬٣‫اء روش‬ُٜٞ‫٘زظ ػٖ ػشهِخ رذكن ا‬٣ ‫ؼ‬٤‫د طؾ‬ٞ‫ ط‬:ً‫ادرىاو‬
.)five ٢‫ك‬
fricatives are : [f], [v], [θ], [ð], [s], [z], [ʃ], [ʒ].
affricate: a consonant produced by stopping then releasing the airflow through a
narrow.
.‫ن‬٤‫اء ٖٓ خالٍ ػ‬ُٜٞ‫ش رذكن ا‬٣‫هق صْ رؾش‬ٞ‫ن اُز‬٣‫٘زظ ػٖ ؽش‬٣ ‫ؼ‬٤‫د طؾ‬ٞ‫ ط‬:ً‫ادرىاو‬-‫أفجاسي‬
Affricates are : [ʧ] and [ʤ].
nasal: a sound produced through the nose (e.g. the first sounds in my name).
.)my name ٠ُٝ‫اد األ‬ٞ‫ ٖٓ خالٍ األٗق (ٓضَ األط‬ٚ‫زْ اٗزبع‬٣ ‫د‬ٞ‫ ط‬:ً‫األٔف‬
Nasals are : [m], [n] and [ŋ].
liquid: a sound produced by letting air flow around the sides of the tongue (e.g.
the first sound in lip).
.)lip ٢‫د ك‬ٞ‫ٍ ط‬ٝ‫ اُِغبٕ (ٓضَ أ‬٢‫ٍ عبٗج‬ٞ‫اء ؽ‬ُٜٞ‫٘زظ ػٖ رذكن ا‬٣ ‫د‬ٞ‫ ط‬:‫ظ تٍطف‬ٛ‫دشف صاِد ٍِف‬
Liquids are : [l], [r].

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glides: sounds produced with the tongue in motion to or from a vowel sound,
also called “semi-vowels” or “approximants” (e.g. the first sounds in wet, yes).
ٚ‫ؼًب "شج‬٣‫ أ‬٠ٔ‫رغ‬ٝ ، ‫د ػِّخ‬ٞ‫ ط‬٠ُ‫ ا‬ٝ‫ب ثبعزخذاّ اُِغبٕ أُزؾشى ٖٓ أ‬ٜ‫زْ اٗزبع‬٣ ٢‫اد اُز‬ٞ‫ األط‬:ً‫اإلٔضالل‬
.)wet, yes ٢‫ ك‬٠ُٝ‫اد األ‬ٞ‫ األط‬، ٍ‫َ أُضب‬٤‫ عج‬٠ِ‫خ" (ػ‬٤‫ج‬٣‫ "اُزوش‬ٝ‫ف اُؼِخ" أ‬ٝ‫ؽش‬
Glides are : [w] and [j].
A consonant chart : ‫اخ اٌصذٍذح‬ٛ‫ِخطظ األص‬

Glottal stop: a sound produced when the air passing through the glottis is
stopped completely then released.
.‫ظذس‬٣ ْ‫ٔش ػجش أُضٓبس رٔب ًٓب ص‬٣ ١‫اء اُز‬ُٜٞ‫هق ا‬ٞ‫ز‬٣ ‫٘زظ ػ٘ذٓب‬٣ ‫د‬ٞ‫ ط‬:‫لف ِضِاسي‬ٛ‫ذ‬
flap: a sound produced with the tongue tip briefly touching the alveolar ridge.
.‫خ‬٤‫ضح اُؾبكخ اُغ٘خ‬٤‫ع‬ٝ ‫ِٔظ ُلزشح‬٣ٝ ٕ‫٘زظ ٓغ ؽشف اُِغب‬٣ ‫د‬ٞ‫ ط‬:ً‫خفم‬
vowel: a sound produced through the vocal folds without constriction of the
airflow in the mouth.
.ْ‫ اُل‬٢‫اء ك‬ُٜٞ‫ٕ اٗوجبع رذكن ا‬ٝ‫خ د‬٤‫ر‬ٞ‫٘زظ ٖٓ خالٍ اُؾجبٍ اُظ‬٣ ‫د‬ٞ‫ ط‬:‫خ عٍح‬ٛ‫ص‬
diphthong: a sound formed by combining two vowel sounds (e.g. boy).
.)boy َ‫ ؽشف ػِخ (ٓض‬٢‫ر‬ٞ‫ٖ ط‬٤‫ٕ ٖٓ اُغٔغ ث‬ٌٞ‫ز‬٣ ‫د‬ٞ‫ ط‬:َ‫إدْغا‬
uvula: the small appendage at the end of the velum.
.‫بح‬ُِٜ‫خ ا‬٣‫ب‬ٜٗ ٢‫شح ك‬٤‫ الؽوخ اُظـ‬٢ٛ :‫اج اٌذٍك‬ٌٙ
uvular: a sound produced with the back of the tongue near the uvula.
.‫بح اُؾِن‬ُٜ ٖٓ ‫ ٖٓ اُِغبٕ ثبُوشة‬٢‫٘زظ ٓغ اُغضء اُخِل‬٣ ‫د‬ٞ‫ ط‬:‫ي‬
ّ ٌٛٙ

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Study Questions
1. What different aspects of language are studied in articulatory
phonetics, acoustic phonetics and auditory phonetics?
‫ذٍاخ اٌفٍضٌائٍح‬ٛ‫ اٌص‬، ‫ذٍاخ اٌّفصٍٍح‬ٛ‫ا فً اٌص‬ٙ‫أة اٌّخرٍفح ٌٍغح اٌرً ذرُ دساعر‬ٛ‫ِا ً٘ اٌج‬
‫ذٍح؟‬ٛ‫اٌغّعٍاخ اٌص‬ٚ
Articulatory phonetics is the study of the physical production, via the vocal
organs, of speech sounds, acoustic phonetics is the study of the physical
properties of speech as sound waves in the air, and auditory phonetics is the
study of how speech sounds are perceived via the ear.
،ّ‫اد اٌُال‬ٞ‫ ألط‬،‫خ‬٤‫ر‬ٞ‫ن األػؼبء اُظ‬٣‫ ػٖ ؽش‬،١‫ دساعخ اإلٗزبط أُبد‬٢ٛ ‫خ‬٤ِ‫بد أُلظ‬٤‫ر‬ٞ‫اُظ‬
‫بد‬٤‫ر‬ٞ‫ػِْ اُظ‬ٝ ،‫اء‬ُٜٞ‫ ا‬٢‫خ ك‬٤‫ر‬ٞ‫عبد ط‬ًٞٔ ّ‫خ ٌُِال‬٤‫بئ‬٣‫ض‬٤‫اص اُل‬ٞ‫ دساعخ اُخ‬٢ٛ ‫خ‬٤‫بئ‬٣‫بد اُلض‬٤‫ر‬ٞ‫اُظ‬
.ٕ‫اد اٌُالّ ػجش األر‬ٞ‫خ ادساى أط‬٤‫ل‬٤ٌُ ‫ دساعخ‬ٞٛ ‫خ‬٤‫اُغٔؼ‬
2. Which of the following words normally end with voiceless (-V) sounds
and which end with voiced sounds (+V) sounds?
a) bash ( -V), b) clang ( +V) , c) din ( +V), d) fizz ( +V), e) rap ( +V),
f) smack ( -V), g) splat ( -V)., h) thud ( +V), i) wham ( +V).
3. Try to pronounce the initial sounds of the following words and identify
the place of articulation of each on (e.g. bilabial, alveolar, etc.).
a) calf velar, b) chin palatal, c) foot labiodental, d) groin velar, e) hand glottal,
f) knee alveolar, g) mouth bilabial, h) pelvis bilabial, i) shoulder palatal,
j) stomach alveolar, k) thigh dental (or interdental), l) toe alveolar.
4. Identify the manner of articulation of the initial sounds in the following
words (stop, fricative, etc.)
(a) cheery affricate, (d) funny fricative, (g) merry nasal,
(b) crazy ) stop, (e) jolly affricate, (h) silly fricative,
(c) dizzy stop, (f) loony liquid, (i) wimpy glide

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Chapter 4 | The sound patterns of language

phonology: the study of the systems and patterns.

.‫األٗٔبؽ‬ٝ ْ‫ دساعخ اُ٘ظ‬:‫ذٍح‬ٛ‫عٍُ إٌظُ اٌص‬

 phonology is concerned with the abstract or mental aspect of the sounds in

language rather than with the actual physical articulation of speech sounds.
٢ِ‫ اُلؼ‬١‫ش أُبد‬٤‫ اُِـخ ثذالً ٖٓ اُزؼج‬٢‫اد ك‬ٞ‫ ُألط‬٢ِ‫ اُؼو‬ٝ‫ أ‬١‫ذ‬٣‫خ ثبُغبٗت اُزغش‬٤‫ر‬ٞ‫زْ ػِْ اُ٘ظْ اُظ‬ٜ٣
.ّ‫اد اٌُال‬ٞ‫ألط‬

 phonology is concerned with the abstract set of sounds in a language that

allows us to distinguish meaning in the actual physical sounds we say and
hear.
‫اد‬ٞ‫ األط‬٢‫ ك‬٠٘‫ض أُؼ‬٤٤ٔ‫اد ثِـخ رغٔؼ ُ٘ب ثز‬ٞ‫ػخ أُغشدح ٖٓ األط‬ٞٔ‫زْ ثبُٔغ‬ٜ٣ ‫خ‬٤‫ر‬ٞ‫ػِْ اُ٘ظْ اُظ‬
.‫ب‬ٜ‫ٗغٔؼ‬ٝ ‫ب‬ُٜٞ‫ ٗو‬٢‫خ اُز‬٤ِ‫خ اُلؼ‬٣‫أُبد‬
phoneme: the smallest meaning-distinguishing sound unit in the abstract
representation of the sounds of a language.
.‫اد اُِـخ‬ٞ‫َ أُغشد ألط‬٤‫ اُزٔض‬٢‫خ ك‬٤‫ر‬ٞ‫ ط‬٠٘‫ض ٓؼ‬٤ٔ‫ؽذح ر‬ٝ ‫ أطـش‬: ٍُٔٛ‫اٌف‬

 An essential property of a phoneme is that it functions contrastively.

 If we substitute one sound for another in a word and there is a change of
meaning. /pat/, /kat/.
Natural class: is a set of sounds phonetic features in common such as /p/, /t/ and
/k/ in English, which are voiceless stops.
k / ٝ / t / ٝ / p / َ‫اد اُشبئؼخ ٓض‬ٞ‫ األط‬٢‫خ ك‬٤‫ر‬ٞ‫ضاد اُظ‬٤ُٔ‫ػخ ٖٓ ا‬ٞٔ‫ ػجبسح ػٖ ٓغ‬:‫اٌطثمح اٌطثٍعٍح‬
.‫عخ‬ٜٞٔٓ ‫خ‬٣‫اد اٗلغبس‬ٞ‫ أط‬٢ٛ ٢‫اُز‬ٝ ،‫خ‬٣‫ض‬٤ِ‫ ثبُِـخ اإلٗغ‬/
phone: a physically produced speech sound, representing one version of a
phoneme.
.‫د‬ٞ‫اؽذًا ٖٓ اُظ‬ٝ ‫ٔضَ اطذاسًا‬٣ٝ ،ً ‫ب‬٣‫د ًالّ ٓ٘زظ ٓبد‬ٞ‫ ط‬:‫خ‬ٛ‫اٌص‬

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Phone Phoneme
1- Any possible human speech sound in 1- A contrastive unite in the sound
any language. system of a specific language.
.‫ ُـخ‬١‫ أ‬٢‫ ك‬١‫ خطبة ثشش‬١‫أ‬ .‫٘خ‬٤‫ ُِـخ ٓؼ‬٢‫ر‬ٞ‫ اُ٘ظبّ اُظ‬٢‫ٖ ك‬٣‫ؽذح اُزجب‬ٝ
2- The smallest identifiable unite in 2- A minimal unit that serve to
speech. distinguish between word meanings.
.ّ‫ اٌُال‬٢‫ب ك‬ٜ٤ِ‫ٌٖٔ اُزؼشف ػ‬٣ ‫ؽذح‬ٝ ‫أطـش‬ ٢ٗ‫ٖ ٓؼب‬٤‫ض ث‬٤٤ٔ‫ رخذّ اُز‬٢‫ اُز‬٠ٗ‫ؽذح اُؾذ األد‬ٝ
.‫أٌُِبد‬
3-Transcribed within brackets [b]. 3- Transcribed within slashes /b/.
.‫اط‬ٞ‫رٌزت ثؤه‬ .‫ؽ ٓبئِخ‬ٞ‫رٌزت ثخط‬
4- It is concrete unit. (in the mouth) 4- It is abstract unit.(in the mind)
)ْ‫ اُل‬٢‫ (ك‬.‫عخ‬ِٞٔٓ ‫ب‬ٜٗ‫ا‬ .)َ‫ اُؼو‬٢‫ب ٓغشدح (ك‬ٜٗ‫ا‬

Phonology Phonetics
1- deals with „phoneme‟. ‫زؼبَٓ ٓغ‬٣ 1- deals with „phones‟. ‫زؼبَٓ ٓغ‬٣
2- Specific. ‫ٓخظض‬ 2- general. ّ‫ػب‬
3- concerned with the abstract, 3- Concrete.
.‫خ‬٣‫ذ‬٣‫زْ ثبُزغش‬ٜ٣ .‫ط‬ِٞٔٓ
4- Semantic function of sounds. 4- Not concerned with meaning.
.‫اد‬ٞ‫خ ٖٓ األط‬٤ُ‫لخ اُذال‬٤‫ظ‬ُٞ‫ا‬ .٠٘‫زْ ثبُٔؼ‬ٜ٣ ‫ال‬
aspiration: a puff of air that sometimes accompanies the pronunciation of a stop.
.١‫د االٗلغبس‬ٞ‫بٕ ٗطن اُظ‬٤‫ ثؼغ األؽ‬٢‫ رشاكن ك‬٢‫اء اُز‬ُٜٞ‫ ٗلخخ ا‬:‫إٌطك تًّء إٌفظ‬
Distinctive feature: is any feature that distinguishes one phoneme from the
other.
.‫خش‬٥‫اؽذًا ػٖ ا‬ٝ ‫رًب‬ٞ‫ض ط‬٤ٔ‫ضح ر‬٤ٓ ١‫ أ‬٢ٛ :‫اٌغّح اٌٍّّضج‬
minimal pair (set): two (or more) words that are identical in form except for a
contrast in one phoneme in the same position in each word (e.g. bad, mad).
٢‫اؽذ ك‬ٝ ‫د‬ٞ‫ ط‬٢‫ٖ ك‬٣‫ اُشٌَ ثبعزض٘بء اُزجب‬٢‫ أًضش) ٓزطبثوزبٕ ك‬ٝ‫ ًِٔزبٕ (أ‬:)‫عح‬ّٛ‫اج اٌّصغشج (ِج‬ٚ‫األص‬
.)bad, mad ،ٍ‫َ أُضب‬٤‫ عج‬٠ِ‫ ًَ ًِٔخ (ػ‬٢‫ػغ ك‬ُٞٔ‫ٗلظ ا‬
/kit/, /ked/ /bit/, /bet/ = it can distinguished with one sound.
.٠٘‫ش أُؼ‬٤٤‫رـ‬ٝ ٖ٤‫ٖ ًِٔز‬٤‫ض ث‬٤٤ٔ‫ٌٖٔ اُز‬٣ ‫اؽذ‬ٝ ‫د‬ٞ‫ٖٓ خالٍ ط‬

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“accidental” gaps : it is a minimal set that does not include forms such as lig or
vig. According to the dictionary, these are not English words, but they could be
viewed as possible English words.
ٙ‫ز‬ٛ ،‫ط‬ٞٓ‫كوًب ُِوب‬ٝ .vig ٝ‫ أ‬lig َ‫أشٌبال ٓض‬
ً ٖٔ‫ب ال رزؼ‬٤ٗ‫ػخ د‬ٞٔ‫ب ػجبسح ػٖ ٓغ‬ٜٗ‫ ا‬:"‫اٌثغشاخ "اٌعشضٍح‬
.‫خ ٓؾزِٔخ‬٣‫ض‬٤ِ‫ب ًِٔبد اٗغ‬ٜٗ‫ أ‬٠ِ‫ب ػ‬ٜ‫ٌٖٔ ػشػ‬٣ ٌُٖٝ ،‫خ‬٣‫ض‬٤ِ‫غذ ًِٔبد اٗغ‬٤ُ
phonotactics: constraints on the permissible combination of sounds in a
language.
.‫ اُِـخ‬٢‫ب ك‬ٜ‫ػ ث‬ٞٔ‫اد أُغ‬ٞ‫ػخ األط‬ٞٔ‫ ٓغ‬٠ِ‫ػخ ػ‬ٝ‫د أُلش‬ٞ٤‫ اُو‬:‫اخ‬ٛ‫ْ ذراتع األص‬ٛٔ‫لا‬
syllable: a unit of sound consisting of a vowel and optional consonants before or
after the vowel.
.ٙ‫ ثؼذ‬ٝ‫خ هجَ ؽشف اُؼِخ أ‬٣‫بس‬٤‫اد اُؼِخ االخز‬ٞ‫اط‬ٝ ‫د ػِخ‬ٞ‫ٕ ٖٓ ط‬ٌٞ‫د رز‬ٞ‫ؽذح ط‬ٝ :ً‫ِمطع ٌفظ‬
onset: the part of the syllable before the vowel.
.‫ هجَ ؽشف اُؼِخ‬٢‫ عضء ٖٓ ٓوطغ ُلظ‬:‫تذاٌح‬
rhyme: the part of the syllable containing the vowel plus any following
consonant(s), also called “rime”.
،‫خ‬٤ِ‫ ر‬٢‫اد) اُز‬ٞ‫د (االط‬ٞ‫ ط‬١‫ أ‬٠ُ‫د اُؼِخ ثبإلػبكخ ا‬ٞ‫ ط‬٠ِ‫ ػ‬١ٞ‫ؾز‬٣ ٢‫ عضء ٖٓ ٓوطغ ُلظ‬:‫اٌمافٍح‬
." ‫ؼًب " حافة‬٣‫ أ‬٠ٔ‫رغ‬ٝ
coda: the part of a syllable after the vowel.
.‫د اُؼِخ‬ٞ‫ ثؼذ ط‬٢‫ عضء ٖٓ ٓوطغ ُلظ‬:ًِ‫اٌجضء اٌخرا‬
open syllable: a syllable that ends with a vowel (or nucleus) and has no coda.
.‫دا‬ًٞ ٠ِ‫ ػ‬١ٞ‫ؾز‬٣ ‫ال‬ٝ )‫اح‬ٞٗ ٝ‫ ثؾشف ٓزؾشى (أ‬٢ٜ‫٘ز‬٣ ٢‫ ٓوطغ ُلظ‬:‫ح‬ٛ‫ِمطع ٌفظً ِفر‬
closed syllable: a syllable that ends with a consonant or coda.
.‫دا‬ًٞ ٝ‫ ثؾشف صبثذ أ‬٢ٜ‫٘ز‬٣ ٢‫ ٓوطغ ُلظ‬:‫ِمطع ِغٍك‬

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 The basic structure of the kind of syllable found in English words like
green (CCVC), eggs (VCC), and (VCC), ham (CVC), I (V), do (CV), not
(CVC), like (CVC), them (CVC), Sam (CVC), I (V), am (VC).
consonant cluster: two or more consonants in sequence.
.َ‫ اُزغِغ‬٢‫ف اُغبً٘خ ك‬ٝ‫ أًضش ٖٓ اُؾش‬ٝ‫ اص٘بٕ أ‬:‫اٌىرٍح اٌغاوٕح‬
Coarticulation effect: the process of making one sound virtually at the same
time as the next sound.
.٢ُ‫د اُزب‬ٞ‫هذ اُظ‬ُٞ‫ ٗلظ ا‬٢‫جب ً ك‬٣‫اؽذ روش‬ٝ ‫د‬ٞ‫ عؼَ ط‬ٚ٤ِٔ‫ ػ‬:ًٍ‫اٌرأثٍش اٌّفص‬
a) Assimilation: the process whereby a feature of one sound becomes part of
another during speech production.
b) Nasalization: pronunciation of a sound with air flowing through the nose,
typically before a nasal consonant.
c) Elision: the process of leaving out a sound segment in the pronunciation of
a word.
d) Normal speech
.ّ‫د آخش أص٘بء اٗزبط اٌُال‬ٞ‫د عض ًءا ٖٓ ط‬ٞ‫ضح اُظ‬٤ٓ ‫ب‬ٜ‫ رظجؼ ث‬٢‫خ اُز‬٤ِٔ‫ اُؼ‬:‫) االعرٍعاب‬A
.٢‫ ػبدح هجَ اُؾشف اُغبًٖ األٗل‬،‫اء ٖٓ خالٍ األٗق‬ُٜٞ‫د ٓغ رذكن ا‬ٞ‫ ٗطن ط‬:‫) اٌغٕح‬B
.‫ ٗطن أٌُِخ‬٢‫ ك‬٢‫ر‬ٞ‫خ رشى ٓوطغ ط‬٤ِٔ‫ ػ‬:‫) اٌذزف‬C
‫) اٌىالَ اٌعادي‬D

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Study Questions
1. In French, the words /bo/ for beau (handsome) and /bõ/ fürbon (good)
seem to have different vowels. Are these two vowels allophones or
phonemes in French?
These vowels are phonemes because the difference in their pronunciation, /o/
versus /õ/, is the basis of a difference in meaning for the two words. If they were
simply allophones, they would result in differences in pronunciation only, not a
difference in the meaning of the words.
2. What is an aspirated sound and which of the following words would
normally be pronounced with one? kill, pool, skill, spool, stop, top.
‫ادذج؟‬ٚ ‫ا تىٍّح‬ٙ‫أي اٌىٍّاخ اٌراٌٍح عادج ِا ٌرُ ٔطم‬ٚ ‫ق تًّء إٌّفظ‬ٛ‫خ إٌّط‬ٛ‫ اٌص‬ٛ٘ ‫ِا‬
An aspirated sound is one pronounced with a stronger puff of air. Words
containing aspirated consonants in initial position are kill, pool and top.
‫اد اُؼِخ‬ٞ‫ اط‬٠ِ‫ ػ‬١ٞ‫ رؾز‬٢‫ أٌُِبد اُز‬.‫اء‬ُٜٞ‫ِلع ثذكؼخ اًجش ٖٓ ا‬٣ ١‫ اُز‬ٞٛ ‫ظ ثَٔء اُ٘لظ‬ٞ‫د أُِل‬ٞ‫ط‬
.poolٝ top ، kill ٢ٛ ٠ُٝ‫اد اال‬ٞ‫ األط‬٢‫ٌزا ك‬ٛ ‫رِلع‬
3. Which of the following words would be treated as minimal pairs?
ban, fat, pit bell, tape heat, meal, more pat tap, pen chain, vote, bet, far bun,
goat, heel, sane tale, vet.
ban-bun, fat-pat, fat-far, pit-pat, bell-bet, bet-vet, tap-tape, tape-tale, heat-heel,
meal-heel, chain-sane, vet-vote, vote-goat.
4. What is meant by the phontactics of a language?
‫اخ فً اٌٍغح؟‬ٛ‫ْ ذراتع األص‬ٛٔ‫د تما‬ٛ‫ِا اٌّمص‬
The phonotactics of a language are the permitted arrangements of sounds that
obey constraints on the sequence and ordering of phonemes in that language.
َ‫د أُزؼِوخ ثزغِغ‬ٞ٤‫غ اُو‬٤‫ رط‬٢‫اد اُز‬ٞ‫ب ٖٓ األط‬ٜ‫ػ ث‬ٞٔ‫جبد أُغ‬٤‫ اُزشر‬ٞٛ ‫ ُـخ‬٢‫اد ك‬ٞ‫ٕ رزبثغ األط‬ٞٗ‫هب‬
.‫بد ثزِي اُِـخ‬٤‫ر‬ٞ‫ت اُظ‬٤‫رشر‬ٝ

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5. What is the difference between an open and a closed syllable?
‫ِغٍك؟‬ٚ ‫ح‬ٛ‫ اٌفشق تٍٓ ِمطع ٌفظً اٌّفر‬ٛ٘ ‫ِا‬
An open syllable ends with a vowel (as nucleus) whereas a closed syllable ends
with a consonant (as coda).
‫ؼ‬٤‫د طؾ‬ٞ‫ أُوطغ أُـِن ثظ‬٢ٜ‫٘ز‬٣ ٖ٤‫ ؽ‬٢‫) ك‬as nucleus( ‫د ػِخ‬ٞ‫ػ ثظ‬ٞ‫ أُلز‬٢‫ر‬ٞ‫ أُوطغ اُظ‬٢ٜ‫٘ز‬٣
.(as coda)
6. Which segments in the pronunciation of the following words are most
likely to be affected by elision?
:‫ظح فً اٌىٍّاخ اٌراٌٍح‬ٛ‫اخ اٌغٍش ٍِف‬ٛ‫ ذذذٌذ األص‬ٛ٘ ‫ب‬ٍٛ‫* اٌّط‬
a) government b) postman c) pumpkin d) sandwich e) victory
(a) /n/ (b) /t/ (c) /p/ (d) /d/ (e) /ə/ [vɪktəri] - [vɪktri]

“Good people are like candles;

They burn themselves up to give
others light. ”

Done by God's will

This pamphlet prepared by
Sadiq Abu Al-Taboq

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