ETHICS – MIDTERMS REVIEWER Moral Standards – fair and just; rules about the

kind of actions people believe are morally right

PART 1 – INTRODUCTION TO ETHICS and wrong, as well as the values; affect other
people
ETHICS
Example: Killing innocent people is absolutely
- Philosophical study of the concepts of wrong
MORAL RIGHT and WRONG; MORAL
GOOD and BAD Non-moral standards – unrelated to moral or
- May be associated with religions, ethical considerations; not linked to morality
cultures, professions, or any group (lack ethical sense); not necessary to impose to
partly characterized by its moral others; does not affect other people
outlook
Example: standards of etiquette and standards
ETHICS VS MORALITY of aesthetics

Ethics CULTURAL CONUNDRUM

- referred to the philosophical study of - Issue with regards to the difference of

morality cultures therefore having different
- philosophical theories of morality moral standards and beliefs
- moral codes or value systems 1. Distinguish difference between
moral and non-moral standards---
Morality aided by the principles and theories
- systematic set of beliefs help common in ethics to identify the
by a group about how people should fundamental ethical values that
live may guide our actions
2. Once we know that a particular
*used almost interchangeably; name of value is non-moral---you can avoid
philosophical study remains ethics* the risk of cultural reductionism
(taking complex cultural issues as
WHY DOES ETHICS MATTER?
simple and homogenous ones) and
1. Part of how groups define themselves; imposing one’s cultural standards to
part of the identity of their individual others
members 3. If non-moral, we don’t have the
2. Other-regarding values in most ethical right to force others to act
systems both reflect and foster close accordingly
human relationships and mutual 4. But if moral, we may have the right
respect and trust to force others to act accordingly
3. Rational for a self-interested person to 5. Find the common moral ground
be moral; self-interest is best served in
MORAL STANDARDS AND THEIR
the long run by reciprocating moral
CHARACTERISTICS
behavior of others
Moral Standards
MORAL STANDARDS VS NON-MORAL
STANDARDS - Norms that individuals or groups have
about the kinds of actions believed to
*moral beliefs are influence by our own culture
be morally right or wrong
and context
- Values placed on what is believed to be
morally good or morally bad
 - Promote “the good”---welfare and well- have patience, be loyal, have respect for
being of humans as well as animals and yourself and others, be tolerant of differences,
the environment seek justice, have humility, and be generous
- Prescribe humans what to do in terms
of rights and obligations The Ten Commandments
- Sum of combined norms and values - Considered the basis for societies
Norms + Values = MORAL STANDARDS founded on Judeo-Christian principles
Norms – general rules about our
actions/behaviors Do not have any gods before me
Values – enduring beliefs or statements Do not make for yourself a graven image
about what is good and desirable or not
Do not take the name of the Lord your God in
Characteristics of Moral Standards vain
1. Deals with matters we think can Remember the Sabbath day to keep it holy
seriously injure or benefit humans,
animals, and the environments Honor your father and mother
2. Not established or changed by the
Do not kill
decisions of authoritative individuals or
bodies Do not commit adultery
3. Overriding, they take precedence over
other standards and considerations, Do not steal
especially of self-interest Do not bear false witness against your neighbor
4. Base on impartial considerations --- fair
and just Do not covet your neighbor's wife or
5. Associated with special emotions and possessions
vocabulary
MORAL DILEMMA
Non-moral Standards
- Situation in which a difficult choice has
- Standards by which we judge what is to be made b/w two courses of action,
good or bad and right or wrong in a either of which entails transgressing a
non-moral way moral principle
Example: - Known as ethical dilemma or ethical
• Standards of etiquette – judge paradox which refers to decision-
manners as good or bad making problem b/w two possible
• Standards which we call law – judge moral imperatives
something as legal or illegal
A moral dilemma is a situation where:
• Standards of aesthetics – judge art
as good or rubbish 1. A person is presented with two or more
- Matters of taste or preference actions, all of which he does not have
the ability to perform
MORALS IN SOCIETY
2. There are moral reasons to choose each
Some examples of morals in society are: Always of the actions
tell the truth, do not destroy property, have 3. One cannot perform all of the actions
courage, keep your promises, do not cheat, and has to choose which action or
treat others as you want to be treated, do not actions, when there are three or more
judge, be dependable, be forgiving, have choices to perform
integrity, take responsibility for your actions,
Types of moral dilemmas FREEDOM AND RESPONSIBILITY
a. Epistemic and Ontological dilemmas - Persons can be held morally responsible
Epistemic dilemmas – moral agent does for an action IF they had the freedom to
not know which option is morally right choose and act otherwise
or wrong - Philosophers consider freedom to be a
Ontological dilemmas – involve necessary condition for moral
situations wherein two or more moral responsibility
requirements conflict each other w/o
overriding each other PART 2 – THE MORAL AGENT
b. Self-imposed and World-imposed CULTURE
dilemmas
Self-imposed dilemma – caused by the - Refers to “that complex whole which
moral agent’s wrongdoings includes knowledge, beliefs, art, morals,
World-imposed dilemma – certain law, customs, and any other capabilities
events in the world place the agent in a and habits acquired by man as a
situation of moral conflict member of society” ~Edward Tylor
c. Obligation and Prohibition dilemmas - An organized body of conventional
Obligation dilemmas – situations in understanding manifested in arts and
which more than one feasible action is artifacts, which, persisting through
obligatory tradition, characterizes a human group
Prohibition dilemmas – involve cases in ~Robert Redfield
which all feasible actions are forbidden Types of Culture
d. Single agent and Multi-person
dilemmas a. Material Culture – concrete and
Single agent dilemma – agent ought all tangible things that man creates and
things considered, to do A, ought all uses
things considered, to do B, and cannot b. Non-material culture – consists of
do both A and B words people use, habits they follow,
Multi-person dilemma – requires more ideas, customs and behavior that any
than choosing what is right; entails the society professes and to which they
persons involved reach a general strive to conform
consensus
Characteristics of Culture
Three levels of moral dilemma
1. Culture is shared and transmitted
1. Personal dilemmas – experienced and 2. Culture is social
resolved on a personal level 3. Culture is ideational
2. Organizational dilemmas – ethical cases 4. Culture gratifies human needs
encountered and resolved by social 5. Culture is adaptive
organizations 6. Culture tends toward integration
3. Structural dilemmas – cases involving 7. Culture is cumulative
network of institutions and
Elements of Culture
organizations; larger in scope and
extent compared to organizational 1. Norms – guides or models of behavior
dilemmas which tells us what is appropriate or
inappropriate, what is right or wrong
a. Folkways
b. Mores
 c. Laws Factors that affect our moral behavior
2. Values – represent the standards we
1. Family – basic unit of society; includes
use to evaluate the desirability of things
a. Achievement and success one’s biological or adoptive family;
b. Activity and work provides our basic needs to survive and
c. Moral orientation develop as a significant member of the
d. Humanitarian society
e. Efficiency and practicality 2. School – may include formal or non-
3. Language – refers to a system of formal educational system that
symbols---have specific and arbitrary provides a child with his learning needs
meaning in a given society 3. Church – institution that determines
4. Fashion, fads, and craze – short-lived what is specifically considered as right
social norms where people are or wrong; composed of believers of the
expected to comply with same faith
4. Mass media – agencies that are
Functions of Culture purposive of entertaining, informing
and education through various channels
• Culture as category – classification of like the radio, television, printed
phenomena materials, etc.
• Culture as a tool in prediction
CULTURAL RELATIVISM
More specific functions:
- Theory about the nature of morality
• Culture serves as a trademark or special - Challenges our ordinary belief in the
feature that distinguishes one society objectivity and universality of moral
from another truth
• Culture brings together, contains, and - There is no such thing as universal truth
interprets the values of a society in a in ethics; there are only the various
more or less systematic manner cultural codes, and nothing more
• Culture provides one of the most
important bases for social solidarity *Form of Argument - the strategy used by
• Culture provides a blueprint of, as well cultural relativists is to argue from facts about
as the materials for social structure the differences b/w cultural outlooks to a
• The culture of any society is largely conclusion about the status of morality
responsible for producing a social 6 claims of Moral Relativists
personality
• The culture of a society provides 1. Different societies have different moral
behavioral patterns codes
• Culture provides individuals with the 2. There is no objective standard that can
meaning and direction of their be used to judge one societal code
existence better than another
3. The moral code of our own society has
MORAL BEHAVIOR no special status; it is merely one
- Actions that produce good outcomes among many
for the individuals as members of a 4. There is no “universal truth” in ethics;
community or society that is, there are no moral truths that
- Acts intended to produce kind and/or hold for all peoples at all times
fair outcomes ~Schulman 5. The moral code of society determines
what is right within that society; that is
 if the moral code of a society says that a dignity and respect; deal with them as
certain action is right, then that action fellow human beings
is right, at least within that society 2. Family orientation – genuine and deep
6. It is mere arrogance for us to try to love for family
judge the conduct of other people. We 3. Joy and humor – cheerful and fun-loving
should adopt an attitude of tolerance approach to life and its ups and down,
toward the practices of other cultures pleasant disposition, a sense of humor
and propensity for happiness
Advantages of Cultural Relativism 4. Flexibility, adaptability and creativity
• System which promotes cooperation 5. Hard work and industry – capacity for
• Creates a society where equality is work given to raise one’s standards
possible living of a decent life for one’s family
• People can pursue a genuine interest 6. Faith and religiosity – faith in God
• Respect is encouraged in a system of 7. Ability to survive – ability to get by on
cultural relativism so very little; survival instinct
• Preserves human cultures Weakness
• Creates a society w/o judgement
• Moral relativism can be excluded from 1. Extreme personalism – give personal
cultural relativism interpretation to actions
• We can create personal moral codes 2. Extreme family centeredness – strong
based on societal standards with ease family protection in good or bad
• Stops cultural conditioning condition
3. Lack of discipline – relaxed attitude but
Disadvantages of Cultural Relativism poor time management
4. Passivity and lack of initiative – strong
• Creates a system that is fueled by reliance to others fate
personal bias 5. Colonial mentality – patriotism vs active
• Would create chaos awareness
• An idea that is based on the perfection 6. Kanya-kanya syndrome – self-serving
of humanity attitude that generates feeling of envy
• Could promote a lack of diversity and competitiveness towards others
• Draws people away from one another 7. Lack of self-analysis and reflection
• Could limit moral progress
• Could limit humanity’s progress FILIPINO MORAL IDEAL
• Can turn perceptions into truths - SUCCESS is measured in terms of moral
THE FILIPINO CULTURE respectability
- Expect for everybody to act the way a
- Summation of indigenous forces and rational being is ought to behave
foreign influence that had come to bear
upon the people in varying degrees MORAL CHARACTER
during the last centuries - Formed by one’s actions
Strengths and Weaknesses of the Filipino - Habits, actions, and emotional
People responses of the person of good
character all are united and directed
Strengths toward the moral and the good
- Actions of the body are actions of the
1. Pakikipagkapwa-tao – opening yourself
self
to others and feel one with others with
 - Human beings are self-possessing, self- - Moral code is shaped by the standards
governing, and self-determining of adults and the consequences of
following or breaking their rules
*In order to be of good character, one must Stage 1: Obedience and Punishment
know the good, act in morally good ways, and Orientation – good in order to avoid
be disposed and inclined toward the good being punished
through the development of virtues. Stage 2: Individualism and Exchange –
*Character and action---intertwined children recognize that there is not just
one right view that is handed down by
Moral Character Damon (1988) – 6 ways that the authorities; different viewpoints
social scientists have defined morality:
Level 2: Conventional morality
1. Evaluative orientation that distinguishes
good and bad and prescribes good - Most adolescents and adults
2. Sense of obligation toward standards of - Begin to internalize the moral standards
social collective of valued adult role models
3. Concern for the right of others - Authority is internalized but not
4. Sense of responsibility for acting out of questioned
concern for others - Reasoning is based on the norms of the
5. Commitment to honesty in group where the person belongs
interpersonal relationships Stage 3: Good Interpersonal
6. State of mind that causes negative Relationships – answers relate to the
emotional reactions to immoral acts approval of others
Stage 4: Maintaining the Social Order –
MORAL DEVELOPMENT aware of wider rules of society;
- Focuses on the emergence, change and judgements concern obeying the rules--
understanding of morality from infancy -uphold the law and to avoid guilt
through adulthood Level 3: Post-conventional morality
MORALITY - Based on self-chosen principles
- Principle for how individuals ought to - Moral reasoning is based on individual
treat one another, with respect to rights and justice
justice, other’s welfare and rights Stage 5: Social Contract and Individual
Rights – individual is aware that while
VIRTUES rules/laws might exist for the food of
the greatest number, there are times
- Attitudes, dispositions, or character
they will work against the interest of an
traits that enable us to be and act in
individual
ways that develop this potential
Stage 6: Universal Principles –
- Enable us to pursue the ideals we have
developed their own set of moral
adopted
guidelines which may or may not fit the
KOHLBERG’S STAGES OF MORAL law
DEVELOPMENT
Level 1: Pre-conventional morality
- 9-year old and younger, some over nine
- No personal code of morality
 Purpose of emotions
1. Motivate us to take action
2. Help us to survive, thrive and avoid
danger
3. Help us make decisions
4. Allows other people to understand us
5. Allows us to understand others
6. Supports growth
7. Moves us toward health and more life
MORAL REASONING
- Contains the rules and standards for
what people should do
- Ability to discern right from wrong
- To reason ethically about issues
- Depends on the use of cognitive skills, a
perception of reality, evaluation of
experiences, making fine
PART 3 – THE ACTS discriminations and generalizations, and
reason abstractly
EMOTION
7-step guide to ethical decision-making
- More than just a feeling
- involve bodily reactions, involve 1. State the problem
behaviors, expressive movements 2. Check the facts
3. Identify relevant factors (internal and
FEELING external)
4. Develop a list of options
- way that someone experiences an
5. Test the options
emotion
• Harm test
- experience internally, in your own mind
• Publicity test
where people can understand based on
• Defensibility test
your behavior
- more immediate because it is rooted in • Reversibility test
the BODY • Colleague test
• Professional test
Example of feeling/emotion • Organization test
6. Make a choice based on steps 1-5
• Anger
7. Review steps 1-6. How can you reduce
• Happiness
the likelihood that you will need to
• Fear make a similar decision again?
• Confidence
• Sadness 7-steps of moral reasoning process
• Envy
1. Gathering of facts
• Love
2. Determine the ethical issues
• Despair 3. What principles have a bearing on the
• Hope case
4. List the alternatives
 5. Compare the alternatives with the
principles
6. Weigh the consequences
7. Make a decision
MORAL COURAGE
- Ability to stand up for and practice that
which one considers ethical, moral
behavior when faced with a dilemma,
even if it means going against
countervailing pressure to do otherwise
- Courage to take action for moral
reasons despite the risk of adverse
consequences
WILL
- Refers to the capacity of the mind to
choose at the moment of decision-
making
DEVELOPING THE WILL AND MORAL COURAGE
• Develop and practice self-discipline
• Do mental strength training
• Draw inspiration from people of great
courage
• Repeatedly do acts that exhibit moral
courage and will
• Avoid deeds that shows lack of moral
courage and will