THE PARTS OF SPEECH

1. Noun - a word used to name a person, place, thing, state or quality.

Kinds of Nouns:
a. Proper nouns are specific. Their first letters are capitalized.
Danica, Atty. Dioneda, Christmas, Commonwealth Ave.
b. Common nouns are general
house, girl, street, teacher, country
c. Collective nouns name groups
team, crowd, organization
d. Mass nouns cannot be counted
hair, sugar, water, sand, stars
e. Concrete nouns exist in the physical world
flower, moon, chair, bag, bottle
f. Abstract nouns refer to ideas and feelings
love, independence, honesty, faith

2. Pronoun - a word used to replace a noun.

Kinds of Pronouns:
a. Relative pronouns
who, whose, whoever whom, that, which, whichever
b. Demonstrative pronouns
Examples:
This → singular This is my book. (near / reached)
These → plural These are my books. (near / reached)
That → singular That is my book. (distant)
Those → plural Those are my books. (distant)
c. Indefinite pronouns
Singular → any, anybody, nobody, anyone, each, everyone, one,
someone, somebody, every, either, neither
Plural → all, some, few, both, several, many
d. Interrogative pronouns
who, which, what, whom, whose, whoever, whoever

NOMINATIVE OBJECTIVE POSSESSIVE

CASE CASE CASE

SINGULAR
I me my, mine
1st person
you you your, yours
2nd person
he, she, it him, her, it his, her, hers
3rd person
PLURAL
we us our, ours
1st person
you you your, yours
2nd person
they them their, theirs
3rd person

a. The person talking (first person)

I, Me, Us, We, My, Our, Mine, Ours, Myself, Ourselves
b. The person spoken to (second person)
You, Your, Yours, Yourself, Yourselves
c. The person, object, or concept being talked about (third person)
He, She, It, Its, They, Him, Her, Them, Their, His, Hers, Theirs, Himself, Herself, Itself,
Themselves

3. Verb - any of a class of words expressing an action performed or state suffered, or experienced by a
subject.

Kinds of Verbs:
a. Regular verbs form their past tense by the addition of ‘d’ or ‘ed ’ to the base form.
Base Form Past Form Past Participle
achieve achieved achieved
agree agreed agreed
call called called
dance danced danced
enjoy enjoyed enjoyed
pray prayed prayed
talk talked talked
walk walked walked
b. Irregular verbs form their past tense and past participle in several ways.
 Base Form Past Form Past Participle
be was / were been
begin began begun
buy bought bought
burst burst burst
cast cast cast
cut cut cut
do did done
fly flew flown
freeze froze frozen
give gave given
go went gone
hit hit hit
hurt hurt hurt
let let let
put put put
quit quit quit
rise rose risen
set set set
show showed shown
spread spread spread
thrust thrust thrust
write wrote written

Pattern of Tenses:
Base Form Past Form Past Participle
begin began begun
drink drank drunk
ring rang rung
swim swam swum
sing sang sung
shrink shrank shrunk
spring sprang sprung

To avoid confusion, just remember that some irregular verbs do follow an alphabetical arrangement
/ order. In the above examples, the letter 'a' should be prior than the letter 'u'.

c. Linking verbs are used to link or join the subject with a word in the predicate which relates
to the subject. The be form of the verb (am, is, are, was, were) is the most commonly
used linking verb. Others are as follows; become seem, look, smell, appear, feel, taste, sound,
remain

4. Adjective – is a part of speech used to qualify, define, or limit a substantive. It answers the
questions What kind? Which one? How many? How much?.
Example:
I met a weary and disheartened old man hobbling down the narrow, winding street.

Kinds of Adjectives:
A. Descriptive Adjective
– gives color and vividness to the person(s), place(s), or thing(s) we talk or write about. It
tells what kind, what color, what size, what shape, etc.
B. Limiting Adjective
– indicates the number or quantity. It tells how many, how much, which one, whose, etc.
Descriptive Limiting
high mountain three checks
new car brilliant speaker

Other Descriptive Adjectives:

A. Proper Adjective – is an adjective derived from proper nouns.
Examples:
Norwegian sardines Indian summer
Canadian bacon United States flag
B. Predicate Adjective – is that which completes the meaning of the verb, and modifies the subject.
It follows the linking verb, and usually describes the subject noun,
or pronoun.
Examples:
The cookies are delicious.
Corn is plentiful in Illinois.

Nouns used as Adjectives: Possessive Adjectives

 Examples:
John’s car was wrecked in the crash.
I am wearing my sister’s coat.

5. Adverb – is a part of speech which modifies or limits a verb, an adjective, or another adverb. It is
generally placed immediately before or after the word it modifies. It tells how, when, where, and to
what degree the action is performed.
Example:
He was very old and lived quietly.
Differences between Adjective and Adverb:
Note: It is important to determine the usage.

Examples:
We arrived at the airport early. (Adverb – early modifies the word arrived)
We had to make an early start. (Adjective – early modifies the word start)
That was a hard task. (Adjective – hard modifies the word task)
Our janitor works hard. (Adverb – hard modifies the word works)

Adverbs of Degree:
Adverbs of degree tell how large, how small, how long, how much, to what extent, etc. They
answer the questions 'How much?', 'To what extent?', 'In what degree?'. Adverbs of degree usually
modify the adjectives, or the other adverbs.
Examples:
This apple is very sour. (very modifies the adjective sour)
The price is too high. (too modifies the adjective high)
John swims much faster than Ned. (much modifies the adverb faster)
Don’t talk so loud. (so modifies the adverb loud)

6. Preposition – a word expressing the relationship between a noun, pronoun, and other elements of a
sentence.
Prepositions that are frequently confused by learners:
1. Temporal in meanings of in, on, at
It happened in 1990. (for months, seasons, years, periods of day, including morning and
evening)
It happened on Feb. 14. (for dates and days of the week)
It happened at 8:30. (for times of the day, including noon, night, sunrise, or dawn)

2. Temporal use of in/within (note the contrast)

I'll call you back in 30 minutes. (30 minutes from now)
I'll call you back within 30 minutes. (between now and 30 minutes from now)

3. Since/for to express spans of time

I have lived here since 1980. (refers to beginning span)
I have lived here for 17 years. (refers to duration of time)

There are many cases where more than one preposition is acceptable in a given context. One must be
aware of these cases:
1. Time / degree approximation; happened (around/about) 9:00;
costs (around/about) P 150
2. Telling time; quarter (to/of ; after/past) twelve
3. In time period: It happened (in/during) 1986
4. Temporal termination; a work from 8am (to/until) 5pm
5. Spatial proximity; a house (by/near) the lake
6. Location among something linear; the towns (on/along) the Abacan River
7. Location lower than something; (below/beneath/under) the stairs
8. Location higher than something; (above/over) the table

Prepositions denote various relationships:

1. Place or position
at over up in
to under down on
from beneath across above
by on top of around below
2. Direction
beside behind though among
near on the back of between inside
3. Time
at in during at the beginning of after
by on since at the end
before for until in the middle of
4. Manner
 by on in with like
5. Agent or instrument
by with
6. Accompaniment
with
7. Purpose
for
8. Association
of
9. Measure
of by
10. Similarity
like

Prepositions of Time: At, On, and In

a. We use at to designate specific times.
Example: The train is due at 12:15 p.m.

b. We use on to designate days and dates.

Examples: My brother is coming on Monday.
We’re having a party on the Fourth of July.

c. We use in for non-specific times during a day, a month, a season, or a year.

Examples: She likes to jag in the morning.
It’s too cold in winter to run outside.
He started the job in 1971.
He’s going to quit in August.

Prepositions of Place: At, On, and In

a. We use at for specific addresses.
Example: John lives at 55 Boretz Road in Durham.
b. We use on to designate names of streets, avenues, etc.
Example: Her house is on Boretz Road.
c. We use in for the names of land-areas (towns, counties, states, countries, and continents).
Examples: She lives in Durham.
Durham is in Windham County.
Windham County is in Connecticut.

Preposition Use – in / at / on - Prepositions of place

Use ‘In’ with spaces: Use ‘At’ in groups of people:

∙ In a room / in a building ∙ At the back of the class
∙ In a garden / in a park ∙ At the front of the class
Use ‘In’ with bodies of water: Use ‘On’ with surfaces:
∙ In the water ∙ On the ceiling / On the wall / On the floor
∙ In the sea ∙ On the table
∙ In a river Use ‘on’ with small islands:
Use ‘In’ with lines: ∙ I stayed on Maui.
∙ In a row / in a line Use ‘on’ with directions:
∙ In a queue ∙ On the left
Use ‘At’ with places: ∙ On the right
∙ At the bus-stop ∙ Straight on
∙ At the door
∙ At the cinema
∙ At the end of the street
Use ‘At’ with places on a page:
∙ At the top of the page
∙ At the bottom of the page

“In” and “On”

1. Nouns denoting enclosed spaces, such as a field or a window, take both ‘on’ and ‘in’. The
prepositions have their normal meanings with these nouns: ‘on’ is used when the space is
considered as a surface. ‘In’ is used when the space is presented as an area:
2. Notice that ‘in’ implies that the field is enclosed whereas ‘on’ implies only that the following noun
denotes a surface and not necessarily an enclosed area:
3. ‘In’ and ‘on’ are also used with means of transportation: ‘In’ is used with a car. ‘On’ with public or
commercial means of transportation:
Examples: In the car, On the bus, On the plane, On the train, On the ship, Etc.

Some speakers of English make a further distinction for public modes of transportation using ‘in’ when the
carrier is stationary and ‘on’ when it is in motion.
 Examples: My wife stayed in / on the bus while I got out at the rest stop.
The passengers sat in / on the plane awaiting takeoff.

Other uses the prepositions on, in, and at in different contexts.

1. Days, Months, Years, Etc.
Prepositions Nouns Examples
In Months She arrived in February.
Years I was born in 1978.
Lengths of time I’ll be home in three days.

On Days of the week The party is on Thursday.

Weekend He left on the weekend.

At Times of day I’ll call you at 7:30.

2. Communication
Preposition Nouns Examples
On the telephone I spoke to him
on the telephone yesterday.
the radio I heard the news on the radio.

Prepositions of Time; for and since:

a. We use for when we measure time (seconds, minutes, hours, days, months, years).
Examples: He held his breath for seven minutes.
She has lived there for seven years.
The British and Irish have been quarreling for seven centuries.

b. We use since with a specific date or time.

Examples: He has worked here since 1970.
She has been sitting in the waiting room since two thirty.

7. Conjunction – a word used to connect sentences, clauses, phrases or words, e.g. a coordinating
word or a subordinating word.
Examples of Coordination:
The rain increased, so the officials cancelled the game.
Martha wanted to go shopping, but Fred refused to drive her to the mall.

Examples of Subordination:
Because I forgot the time, I missed the final exam.
I checked my money before I invited Tom for lunch.

8. Interjection – is a word that expresses the feeling or emotion, and functions independently in a
sentence.
Examples: Ah! Oh! Uh! Alas! Hey! Ouch! Well! Wow!

THE RULES ON SUBJECT - VERB AGREEMENTS

1. A verb with 's' is singular. A verb without 's ' is plural.
Examples:
He plays basketball. They play basketball.
John is / was playing the guitar. John and Mathew are / were playing the guitars.

2. Make the linking / be verb agree with the real subject.

Linking verbs such as;
am → singular, present tense
is → singular, present tense was → singular, past tense
are → plural, present tense were → plural, past tense

Examples: Marina's concern is / was her classmates.

Henry's mother and father are / were his sole support.

3. The expression 'The number' takes a singular verb. The expression 'A number' takes a plural
verb.
Examples:
The number of students coming is decreasing.
A number of players practicing are increasing.

4. Subjects joined by 'and' take a plural verb.

Example:
Christine and Cora are my friends.
5. Compound subjects joined by 'and', referring to one entity, should take a singular verb.
Examples:
 The secretary and treasurer is here. My uncle and sponsor lives next door.

6. Compound subjects joined by 'and', referring to separate entities, should take a plural verb.
Examples:
The secretary and the treasurer are here.
My uncle and the sponsor live next door.

7. Compound subjects joined by correlatives, such as; either-or, neither-nor, not only-but also
should take a verb that agrees with the nearer subject.
Examples:
Either the children or the mother is going.
Not only the captain but also the cadets are marching.
Neither the mother nor the children are going.

8. Compound positive and negative subjects take verbs that agree strictly with the positive subjects
only.
Examples:
The hotel, not the houses, was burned down.
The riders, not the horse, were injured.

9. Nouns ending in ‘s’ but singular in meaning should take singular verbs.
Nouns such as: News Physics Mumps Economics
Politics Mathematics Measles
Examples:
Measles is a communicable disease. Physics is an interesting subject.

10. Nouns that are plural in form should take a plural verb.
Nouns such as: Slippers Eyeglasses Trousers
Earrings Pants Scissors
Sunglasses Refreshments Pliers
Examples:
Refreshments are served during the seminar.
His trousers are newly bought
Exemptions:.
My left slipper was lost.
That pair of earrings is very expensive.

11. A fraction should take a singular verb. However, it also depends on the 'of phrase'.
Examples:
½ of the mango is rotten. ½ of the mangoes are rotten.

12. Unit of measurement, distance, weight, time, or amount of money should take a singular verb.
Examples:
Ten years was an eternity for him.
Ninety thousand pesos is too expensive for that ring.

13. There and here are never used as subjects. When a sentence begins with there and here, you
must look thoroughly to find the real subject.
Examples:
There are many devices in a man's heart.
Here are the plants you want for the garden.

14. Subjects followed by intervening expressions such as; in addition to, in company
with, together with, as well as, etc., should take verbs that agree with the real subject.
Examples:
The teacher, together with the pupils, is dancing.
The adviser, accompanied by her students, is attending the symposium.
The mother, with all her children, is here.

15. The subject should be singular when the subject is a title, a name of a book, a clause, a quotation,
or a group of words expressing a single idea.
Examples:
Green Coconuts is Manansala's latest painting.
Del Pan Brothers is a marketing firm.

16. Indefinite words such as each, every, neither, everyone, someone, nobody, no one,
anyone are always singular in meaning. Hence, they demand singular verbs.
Examples:
Every student was asked to give his opinion about the exhibit.
Neither movie is good for you.
 17. Words such as 'many' and 'few' are used only with plural nouns. Words such as 'much' and
'little' are used only with singular nouns.
Examples:
Many applicants were hired. Much money is needed for the project.

18. 'Each other' is used when we refer to two persons or things. 'One another' is used when we
refer to more than two.
Examples:
He and his sister always advice each other.
His classmates help one another in their project.

19. The phrases such as 'is one of the….', and 'among the….' must be followed by a plural noun.
Examples:
Mike is one of the players.
Among the nominees, Leah is the most promising.

20. Collective nouns take singular verbs if all members act as a single body.
Nouns such as: Audience, Class, Team, Band, Committee, Senate, Jury, Herd, Crowd, Flock
Examples:
The committee was in full agreement with my idea.
The family is unanimous on the issue.

21. Collective nouns take plural verbs if the members act as individuals.
Examples:
The basketball team were disorganized.
The family are debating on the issue.

22. Mass nouns can only be pluralized by quantifiers.

Mass nouns such as; sugar, rice, sand, hair, water, information, evidence
Examples:
Two sacks of rice / sugar / sand….. Strands of hair…..
Pieces of evidence / information / advice….. Grains of rice…..

23. The relative pronoun should take a verb that agrees in number with its near antecedent. An
antecedent is a noun or pronoun to which a following relative pronoun refers.
Examples:
Lorna is one of the students who read a lot.
Marlon is one of the players who have joined the soccer team.
Myrna is one of the children who live with foster parents.

The Emphatic Verbs

The Emphatic Verbs must be followed by a simple form of the verb.
Do → (simple form) - present tense, plural + The SIMPLE FORM of the Verb
Does → present tense, singular + The SIMPLE FORM of the Verb
Did → past tense, singular / plural + The SIMPLE FORM of the Verb

Examples:
John did not write the poem. Jake does have a good opinion.
What did you do? Cathy and Tes do play basketball.

The Auxiliary Verbs

has → is used in singular, present tense of the verb.
have → (simple form) is used in plural, present tense of the verb.
had → is used in singular / plural, past tense of the verb.

Auxiliary Verbs must be followed by a past participle form of the verbs.

Examples: She has seen the movie.
They have decided to stop the project.
Estella and Brian had eaten the cake yesterday.

The Infinitive Verbs

Its fixed pattern must be; to + the simple form of the verb
Examples: to play, to write, to sing, to walk, etc.

Examples in a sentence:
Jake wants to play basketball.
The Professor taught us how to write a term paper.

The Tag Question

If the first sentence is positive, the tag question should be negative.
 If the first sentence is negative, the tag question should be positive.

Examples:
She is beautiful, isn't she? Robert didn’t write the poem, did he?
Jack and Jill are coming, aren't they? It was raining, wasn’t it?
Sam hasn’t signed the contract, has he?
The students have seen the movie, haven’t they?

THE AGREEMENTS OF PRONOUNS AND ANTECEDENTS

Rule 1: Personal pronouns (he, she, it, they, his, her, its, their) agree in gender and number with the
nouns they refer.
Example: Mr. Cruz teaches his pupils the Filipino values.

Rule 2: Two or more singular antecedents joined by 'or' or 'nor' require a singular pronoun.
Examples: Either Robbie or William will read his theme tomorrow.
Neither the teacher nor the student will present his case.

Rule 3: When two or more antecedent are joined by 'and', the pronoun must be plural.
Example: Rogelio and Romeo bought their cameras.

Rule 4: For collective nouns, the pronouns may be singular or plural according to whether the nouns are
taken as a unit or as individuals composing the whole. If the collective noun is taken as a unit, the
pronoun is singular. If the individuals are thought separately, the pronoun must be plural.
Examples: The class gave its contribution to the Rizal Centennial Funds.
The class are objecting to the proposition.

Rule 5: Who, Whose, and Whom → would refer to person(s).

Which → would refer to animal(s), or thing(s).
What → would refer to things only, and means that which.
Example: She is one of the students who transferred to Ateneo de Manila this semester.

Rule 6: When each, every, either, neither, someone, somebody, any one, anybody, everyone,
everybody, no one are used as antecedents, the pronouns referring to them are singular.
When the antecedent is either masculine or feminine, the pronoun must be masculine.
Examples: Everybody was asked to give his opinion about the exhibit.
Somebody forgot his manners at home.

Rule 7: When one antecedent is singular, the other is plural, make your pronoun agree with the nearer
antecedent.
Example: Neither the boy nor his classmates thought of their lessons.
Either Miss Reyes or the Santoses will bring their radios.

The Fourteen Tenses in the Modern English

SIMPLE / PROGRESSIVE / PERFECT
TENSE PERFECT
BASIC CONTINUOUS PROGRESSIVE

PRESENT I call. I have called. I am calling. I have been calling.

PAST I called. I had called. I was calling. I had been calling.

I shall / will I shall / will have
FUTURE I shall/will call. I shall / will be calling.
have called. been calling.

The only difference between the simple tenses and perfect tenses is that the perfect tenses include the
idea of completion. In grammar, the word perfect refers to an action or state of being that is completed at
the time of speaking or writing.

SHIFTS
A sentence should be consistent; grammatical elements such as person, number, tense, and voice should
remain the same throughout the sentence unless grammar or the meaning of the sentence requires a
shift.

Shift in Person
Person in grammar refers to the distinction among the following:
a. The person talking (first person)
I, Me, Us, We, My, Our, Mine, Ours, Myself, Ourselves
b. The person spoken to (second person)
You, Your, Yours, Yourself, Yourselves
c. The person, object, or concept being talked about (third person)
He, She, It, Its, They, Him, Her, Them, Their, His, Hers, Theirs, Himself, Herself, Itself,
Themselves
 Inconsistent: If a person works hard, you can accomplish a great deal.
Consistent: If you work hard, you can accomplish a great deal.
Consistent: If a person works hard, he can accomplish a great deal.

Shift in Number
Inconsistency in number occurs most often between a pronoun and its antecedent.
Inconsistent: If a student does not understand a problem, they should consult the teacher.
Consistent: If a student does not understand a problem, he should consult the teacher.

Shift in Tense
Unnecessary shifts from past to present, or from present to past in the sentence narrating a series of
events are practically confusing.
Inconsistent: Immediately after the guard shot the robber, Major Reyes threw himself upon the
robber. But the robber pulls a knife and plunges it into the Major's arm.
Consistent: Immediately after the guard shot the robber, Major Reyes threw himself upon the
robber. But the robber pulled a knife and plunged it into the Major's arm.

If you are relating a narrative, you should generally keep the main narrative line either in the simple past
or in the simple present. Factual history usually is related in the past and fiction in the present.
Example:
Othello finally discovers that Desdemona has been faithful.
(Desdemona's faithfulness begins before Othelo's discovery, expressed in the simple present, and
continues to the time of his discovery; hence, it is expressed in the present perfect.)

Shift in Voice
The verb is in the active voice when the subject is the doer of the action.
Example: Linda passed the biscuits. Ned washed the car.

The verb is in the passive voice when the subject is the receiver of the action.
Example: The biscuits were passed by Linda. The car was washed by Ned.

Remember that unless there is a good reason to use the passive voice, the active voice is preferable. The
active voice is more vigorous, direct and forceful.

CLAUSES
A clause is a group of words containing a subject and a predicate, and use as a part of a sentence.

Types of Clauses:
1. Independent Clause (Main Clause) – is a clause that can stand alone because its meaning is
complete.
Examples: Although it was raining, I left the house early.
They came late because the car stalled.
The machine that we saw belongs to Mr. Ruiz.

2. Dependent Clause (Subordinate Clause) – is a clause that cannot stand by itself because of its
incomplete meaning.
Uses of Dependent Clauses:
a. Adjective Clause – modifies a noun or a pronoun by telling what kind or which one.
Examples: The man, who saw the incident, refused to testify.
He took the advice that completely changed his life.
The TV show which presented the life of the hostage touched the viewers.

b. Adverb Clause – modifies an adjective, a verb, and another adverb.

Examples: She stopped as if she were fainting.
The Congress adjourned when the bill was passed.
I left early because I was tired.

c. Noun Clause – functions as any of the following:

2.1 Subject of a Verb
Whoever works overtime will receive an additional pay.
2.2 Direct Object of a Verb
I heard that you were leaving for Spain.
2.3 Indirect Object of a Verb
He will furnish whoever needs it a copy of the lecture series.
2.4 Predicate Nominative
Our problem is what project to undertake.

2.5 Objective Complement

Our parents made us what we are now.
2.6 Object of the Preposition
 Let's vote for whoever can serve best.

Other examples of noun clauses:

He asked me if I knew the manager.
I think that I passed the examination.
This is not what I meant.
You may choose whichever you please.

KINDS OF SENTENCES ACCORDING TO FORM OR STRUCTURE

1. Simple Sentence
a. May have one subject and one verb
My car stalled three times last week.
b. May have more than one subject
Malou and Boots went home together.
c. May have more than one verb
The children smiled and waved at us.
d. May have several subjects or verbs
Manny, Tom, and Jack lubricated my car, replaced the oil filter, and cleaned the spark plugs.

2. Compound Sentence
– is made up of two or more simple sentences. The two complete statements in a compound
sentence are usually connected by a comma plus a coordinator (for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so).
A compound sentence is used when we want to give equal weight to two closely related ideas.
Examples: The rain increased, so the officials cancelled the game.
Martha wanted to go shopping, but Fred refused to drive her to the mall.

3. Complex Sentence
– is made up of a simple sentence, and a statement that begins with a subordinator, such as the
following:
after if, even if when, whenever
although, though in order that where, wherever
as since whether
because that, so that which, whichever
before unless while
even though until who
how what, whatever whose
Examples: Because I forgot the time, I missed the final exam.
I checked my money before I invited Tom for lunch.

4. Compound-Complex Sentence
– is made up of two or more simple sentences, and one or more subordinating (dependent) clause.
Examples:
When the power line snapped, Jack was listening to the stereo, and Linda was reading in
bed.
After I returned to school following a long illness, the math teacher gave me a make-
up work, but the history teacher made me drop her course.

The Two Kinds of Run-On Sentences

1. Fused Sentence – in which two or more sentences joined with no punctuation.
Example: Our foreign policy is not well-defined it confuses many countries.

2. Comma Splice – which have two or more sentences separated only by commas rather than by
commas and conjunctions.
Example: Our foreign policy is not well-defined, it confuses many countries.

Methods to correct a run-on sentence:

Method 1: By Separation
a. Full separation – using a period
Example: Our foreign policy is not well defined. It confuses many countries.
b. Partial separation – using a semicolon
Example: Our foreign policy is not well defined; it confuses many countries.

Method 2: By Coordination
a. Using the coordinators/coordinating conjunctions (for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so)
Example: Our foreign policy is not well defined, for it confuses many countries.

Method 3: By Subordination
a. Using adjective clause markers (who, that, which, whose, whom)
Example: Our foreign policy which is not well defined confuses many countries.
b. Using adverb clause markers (if, because, when, where, until, unless, although, though, since,
after, before, while….)
 Examples: Our foreign policy is not well defined because it confuses many countries.
Since our foreign policy is not well-defined, it confuses many countries.

Parallelism (the balance of the sentence structure)

In grammar, parallelism is the uniformity of two or more similar words, phrases, or clauses.
Examples:
Not parallel: Mary likes hiking, swimming, and to ride a bicycle.
Parallel: Mary likes hiking, swimming, and riding a bicycle.

Not parallel: The production manager was asked to write his report quickly, accurately, and in
detailed.
Parallel: The production manager was asked to write his report quickly, accurately, and
thoroughly.

Not parallel: The coach told the players that they should get a lot of sleep, that they should
not eat too much, and to do some warm-up exercises before the game.
Parallel: The coach told the players that they should get a lot of sleep, that they should
not eat too much, and that they should do some warm-up exercises before the
game.

ERRORS IN USING THE MODIFIERS

A. Misplaced Modifier (an error in sentence structure)
A modifier is misplaced if it appears to modify the wrong part of the sentence, or if we cannot be
certain what part of the sentence the writer intended to modify.

Confusing: He was unhappy that he failed to break the record by a narrow margin.
Clear: He was unhappy that he failed by narrow margin to break the record.

Confusing: The mayor was able to cut the ribbon and then the band played when someone found the
scissors.
Clear: When someone found the scissors, the mayor was able to cut the ribbon and the band
played.

B. Dangling Modifier (an error in sentence structure)

A dangling modifier does not sensibly modify anything in its sentence.

Dangling: Being crowded in the car, the trip was uncomfortable.

Revised: Being crowded in the car, we were uncomfortable.

Dangling: While still in the hospital, the stitches were removed from Raymond's wound.
Revised: While still in the hospital, Raymond had the stitches removed from his wound.
While Raymond was still in the hospital, the stitches were removed from his wound.

HOW TO USE THE ARTICLES

What Articles Do
Articles help us understand nouns. They tell us whether a noun is specific (fully identified - named as the
only one of its kind), or non-specific (just one of the many such nouns). We use ‘the’ to show that a
noun is specific. We use ‘a’ or ‘an’ to show that a noun is non-specific.

Using Articles with Singular Countable Nouns

A singular countable noun is a noun that stands for a person, place, thing, or idea that can be counted as
a singular unit or item. Examples: one book, one bird, one apple, one orange.
Adding an article makes it either a book (could be any book), the book (one specific book in particular),
an apple (could be any apple) or the apple (one specific apple in particular).
Once we determine that a noun is singular and countable, we have to decide if it is specific or non-
specific.
Example: She reads an article about fishing. (non-specific)
She reads a magazine about fishing. (non-specific)
She reads the article about summertime fly-fishing on the Snake River. (specific)

Using an Article with Plural Countable Noun

A plural countable noun refers to more than one person, place thing, or idea. After we decide that a noun
is plural and countable, we must determine if the noun is specific or non-specific. Only specific plural
countable nouns have articles, and they always use the article ‘the’. Non-specific plural countable nouns
never have articles; we will never use the article ‘a’ with plural countable nouns.
Example: Apples grow in Washington. (non-specific)
The apples that grow in Washington are always excellent. (specific)
Books for science classes are the most expensive. (non-specific)
The books for my chemistry class are more expensive than my bike. (specific)

Using an Article with Non-Countable Nouns

A non-countable noun cannot be identified as a single unit. ‘A’ and ‘an’ are never used with non-countable
nouns. If the noun is general, representing an abstract concept, it will not have article. If the noun is
specific, particular case of an abstract concept, it will use the article ‘the’.
Example: Compassion is an important characteristic in a doctor. (general, abstract)
The compassion she possesses helps her patients recover. (specific abstract)
Victory is sweetest when you are expected to lose. (general, abstract)
The victory came at the cost of our team is reputation. (specific, abstract)

Other Hints in Using the Articles

Look for adjectives in front of singular nouns. They make nouns specific, therefore requiring articles.
Example: He drank a large soda.
I couldn’t make the stubborn horse drink.

Look for nouns separated by ‘of’. This identifies the first noun specifically in terms of the second.
Example: She folded a piece of paper.
Under the pile of blankets, I stayed warm.

The Conditionals
Conditionals are structures in English that establish what will happen if a certain event takes place or if a
certain action is performed. This means that if a certain condition is true, a certain result occurs.
There are four types of commonly used conditionals in the English language that are differentiated on the
basis of the degree of possibility implied by each of them. They are the first conditional, the second
conditional, the third conditional, and the zero conditional.

First Conditional
This conditional is used to talk about future events that might happen. It uses the present tense to discuss
the possible future events.
Examples:
If it rains, we will have to cancel the picnic.
If you come with me, I will make it worthwhile for you.
If I go abroad, I will get something back for you.
If you wait till 1pm, you can go back with him.
If you visit Paris, you must see the Eiffel Tower.
 
Second Conditional
This conditional is used to talk about unreal possibility or impossible events. They establish the course of
action that would follow where something to happen is either hypothetical or surreal.
Examples:
If I had a million dollars, I would buy a penthouse on Park Avenue.
I could stop working if I won the lottery.
If I were well-versed in the subject, I would help you with your assignment.
If I were you, I would ask her to marry me.
What would you do if it were to rain later?
 
Third Conditional
This conditional talks about the past. This condition, too, is therefore impossible because it has either
already occurred or might have occurred but won’t anymore.
Examples:
If I had studied a little more in college, life would have been easier.
If we had gotten to the airport on time, we would have caught our flight.
I could have asked him about the matter if he had shown up.

Sometimes the ‘if’ clause is merely implied, as in:

I would have done it. (...if you had asked me to)
I wouldn’t have allowed it. (...if it had been tried with me)
 
Zero Conditional
The zero conditional discusses an absolute certainty; the result of the condition is always true. The most
common types of zero conditionals are scientific facts.
For example:   If you cool water to zero degrees, it turns into ice.
Zero conditionals, therefore, do not deal with the future or the past; they simply deal with facts. The ‘if’ in
these conditionals can be replaced with ‘when’. 
For example: When you cool water to zero degrees, it turns into ice.