CHAPTER SEVEN

Solar Energy
Electromagnetic energy (solar radiation) transmitted by the sun (approxi-
mately one billionth of which reaches the earth) is the basis of all terrestrial
life. “It amounts to about 420 trillion kilowatt-hours, and is several thousand
times greater than all the energy used by all people. Solar energy is harnessed
by capturing the sun’s heat (through solar heaters) or light (through
photovoltaic cells). It is estimated that one square kilometer (about
0.4 square miles) of land area receives some 4000 kilowatts (4 megawatts) of
solar energy every day, enough for the requirements of a medium-sized
town” (Business Dictionary 2012).
Solar technologies are broadly characterized as either passive solar or active
solar depending on the way they capture, convert and distribute solar energy.
Active solar techniques include the use of photovoltaic panels and solar
thermal collectors to harness the energy. Passive solar techniques include
orienting a building to the sun, selecting materials with favorable thermal mass
or light dispersing properties, and designing spaces that naturally circulate air.
Solar-powered electrical generation relies on heat engines and photo-
voltaics. Solar energy’s uses are limited only by human ingenuity. A partial
list of solar applications includes space heating and cooling through solar
architecture, potable water via distillation and disinfection, daylighting, solar
hot water, solar cooking, and high temperature process heat for industrial
purposes. To harvest the solar energy, the most common method is to use
solar panels (TheFreeDictionary.com 2012).
Solar power is the conversion of sunlight into electricity. Sunlight can be
converted directly into electricity using photovoltaics (PV), or indirectly
with concentrated solar power (CSP), which normally focuses the sun’s
energy to boil water, which is then used to provide power. Other tech-
nologies also exist, such as Stirling engine dishes, which use a Stirling cycle
engine to power a generator.

7.1. PHOTOVOLTAIC
Photovoltaics were initially used to power small- and medium-sized
applications, from the calculator powered by a single solar cell to off-grid
homes powered by a photovoltaic array.

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92 Distributed Renewable Energies for Off-Grid Communities

Photovoltaics convert light into electric current using the photoelectric

effect.
A photovoltaic system (or PV system) is a system that uses one or more
solar panels to convert sunlight into electricity. It consists of multiple
components, including the photovoltaic modules, mechanical and electrical
connections and mountings and means of regulating or modifying the
electrical output.
A solar cell, or photovoltaic cell (PV), is a device that converts light into
electric current using the photoelectric effect. The first solar cell was con-
structed by Charles Fritts (Perlin 1999) in the 1880s. In 1931 a German
engineer, Dr. Bruno Lange (Popular Science 1931), developed a photo cell
using silver selenide in place of copper oxide. Although the prototype
selenium cells converted less than 1% of incident light into electricity, both
Ernst Werner von Siemens and James Clerk Maxwell recognized the
importance of this discovery. Following the work of Russell Ohl in the
1940s, researchers Gerald Pearson, Calvin Fuller and Daryl Chapin created
the silicon solar cell in 1954 (Perlin 1999).These early solar cells cost 286
USD/watt and reached efficiencies of 4.5–6% ( Perlin 1999).
Different materials display different efficiencies and have different costs.
Materials for efficient solar cells must have characteristics matched to the
spectrum of available light. Some cells are designed to efficiently convert
wavelengths of solar light that reach the Earth’s surface. However, some
solar cells are optimized for light absorption beyond Earth’s atmosphere as
well. Light-absorbing materials can often be used in multiple physical config-
urations to take advantage of different light absorption and charge separation
mechanisms.
Materials presently used for photovoltaic solar cells include mono-
crystalline silicon, polycrystalline silicon, amorphous silicon, cadmium
telluride, and copper indium selenide/sulfide (Jacobson 2009).
Photovoltaic modules and arrays produce direct-current (DC)
electricity. They can be connected in both series and parallel electrical
arrangements to produce any required voltage and current combination
(NASA 2002).
Many currently available solar cells are made from bulk materials that are
cut into wafers between 180 to 240 micrometers thick and are then pro-
cessed like other semiconductors.
Other materials are made as thin-films layers, organic dyes, and organic
polymers that are deposited on supporting substrates. A third group are made
from nanocrystals and used as quantum dots (electron-confined
Solar Energy 93

(a)

Figure 7.1a A solar cell made from a monocrystalline silicon wafer and polycrystalline
photovoltaic cells Laminated to backing material in a module. (Department of Energy
http://www.eere.energy.gov/solar/pv_systems.html, Retrieved Aug. 17, 2005).

(b)

Figure 7.1b Multiple modules can be wired together to form an array; in general, the
larger the area of a module or array, the more electricity produced. (Georg Slickers,
2006). http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creative_Commons.
94 Distributed Renewable Energies for Off-Grid Communities

nanoparticles). Silicon remains the only material that is well-researched in

both bulk and thin-film forms.
As mentioned, solar cells produce direct current (DC) power, which
fluctuates with the intensity of the irradiated light. This usually requires
conversion to certain desired voltages or alternating current (AC), which
requires the use of inverters. Multiple solar cells are connected inside the
modules. Modules are wired together to form arrays, then tied to an
inverter, which produces power with the desired voltage and frequency/
phase (when it’s AC).
Trackers and sensors to optimize performance are often seen as optional,
but tracking systems can increase viable output by up to 100% (RISE 2010).
PV arrays that approach or exceed one megawatt often use solar trackers.
Accounting for clouds, and the fact that most of the world is not on the
equator, and that the sun sets in the evening, the correct measure of solar
power is insolationdthe average number of kilowatt-hours per square meter
per day. For the weather and latitudes of the United States and Europe,
typical insolation ranges from 4kWh/m2/day in northern climes to
6.5kWh/m2/day in the sunniest regions (Whitlock 2000).

Figure 7.2 The graph shows the market share of the different photovoltaic technologies
from 1999 Until 2011. The light and dark blue are multi- and mono crystalline silicon,
respectively; together they represented 87% of the market in 2010. (Cleanenergy 2011).
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:PV_Technology.png. (See color plate 10.)
Solar Energy 95

For large systems, the energy gained by using tracking systems outweighs
the added complexity (trackers can increase efficiency by 30% or more)
(Utility Scale Solar Power Plants (PDF), 2011).

7.1.2. Applications
Most commercially available solar panels are capable of producing electricity
for at least 20 years (Zweibel, K., 2010). The typical warranty given by panel
manufacturers is over 90% of rated output for the first 10 years, and over
80% for the second 10 years. Panels are expected to function for a period of
30 to 35 years (Shenzhen JCN New Energy Technology CO).
Many residential systems are connected to the grid wherever available,
especially in the developed countries with large markets. In these grid-
connected PV systems, use of energy storages is optional (IEA-PVPS 2011).
In certain applications such as satellites, lighthouses, or in developing
countries, batteries or additional power generators are often added as back-
ups, which form stand-alone power systems.
Between 1970 and 1983 photovoltaic installations grew rapidly, but
falling oil prices in the early 1980s moderated the growth of PV from 1984
to 1996. Since 1997, PV development has accelerated due to supply issues
with oil and natural gas, global warming concerns, and the improving
economic position of PV relative to other energy technologies (Solar:
photovoltaic 2009). Photovoltaic production growth has averaged 40% per
year since 2000 and installed capacity reached 39.8 GW at the end of 2010,
with 17.4 GW of that total in Germany (BP Statistical World Energy
Review 2011). As of October 2011, the largest photovoltaic (PV) power
plants in the world are the Sarnia Photovoltaic Power Plant (Canada, 97
MW), Montalto di Castro Photovoltaic Power Station (Italy, 84.2 MW) and
Finsterwalde Solar Park (Germany, 80.7 MW) (PV Resources.com 2011).
The view (Figure 7.6a) of the International Space Station (ISS) was taken
while it was docked with the Space Shuttle Atlantis and shows parts of all but
one of the current components. From the top are the Progress supply
vehicle, the Zvezda service module, and the Zarya functional cargo block
(FGB) (NASA Science/Science News 2011).

7.2. CONCENTRATING SOLAR THERMAL POWER (CSP)

Concentrated solar power (CSP) systems use lenses or mirrors and
tracking systems to focus a large area of sunlight into a small beam.
96 Distributed Renewable Energies for Off-Grid Communities

Figure 7.3 Photovoltaic (PV) power plant. (Dennis Schroeder, NREL/PIX 19176).

Figure 7.4 Waldpolenz Solar Park, Germany. First Solar 40-MW CDTe PV Array installed
by JUWI Group in Waldpolenz, Germany. (JUWI Solar GmbH, Energie-Allee 1, 55286
Wo€rrstadt, Germany, 2008). http://www.juwi.com/solar_energy/large_scale_plants.
html.

Commercial concentrated solar power plants were first developed in the

1980s. The 354 MW SEGS CSP installation is the largest solar power plant
in the world, located in the Mojave Desert of California. Other large CSP
plants include the Solnova solar power station (150 MW) and the Andasol
solar power station (150 MW), both in Spain ( Solar Millennium AG 2011).
The 200 MW Golmud Solar Park in China is the world’s largest photo-
voltaic plant (Wang, Ucilia 2011). Many power plants today use fossil fuels
as a heat source to boil water. The steam from the boiling water spins a large
Solar Energy 97

Figure 7.5 The 71.8MW Lieberose Photovoltaic Park in Germany. (JUWI Group 2008).
http://www.juwi.com/solar_energy/references/lieberose_solar_park.html.

(a)

Figure 7.6a Solar panels on the International Space Station absorb light from both
sides. These Bifacial cells are more efficient and operate at lower temperature than
singlesided equivalents. (NASA Science/Science News 2011). (See color plate 11.)

(b)

Figure 7.6b A self-deploying photovoltaic array on the moon. Artist’s concept by Les
Bossinas, NASA Lewis Research Center. (NASA Science/Science News 2011). (See color
plate 12.)
98 Distributed Renewable Energies for Off-Grid Communities

Figure 7.7 A camel transports cooling box for medicine, powered by solar energy in the
Sahara. (Solar Power Panels, 2009). http://solarpowerpanels.ws/solar-power/camels-carry-
solar-powered-refrigerators-for-mobile-health-clinics.

turbine, which drives a generator to produce electricity. However, a new

generation of power plants with concentrating solar power systems uses the
sun as a heat source. The three main types of concentrating solar power
systems are: linear concentrator, dish/engine, and power tower systems.
Linear concentrator systems collect the sun’s energy using long rectan-
gular, curved (U-shaped) mirrors. The mirrors are tilted toward the sun,
focusing sunlight on tubes (or receivers) that run the length of the mirrors.
The reflected sunlight heats a fluid flowing through the tubes. The hot fluid
then is used to boil water in a conventional steam-turbine generator to
produce electricity. There are two major types of linear concentrator
systems: parabolic trough systems, where receiver tubes are positioned along
the focal line of each parabolic mirror; and linear Fresnel reflector systems,
where one receiver tube is positioned above several mirrors to allow the
mirrors greater mobility in tracking the sun.
A dish/engine system uses a mirrored dish similar to a very large satellite
dish. The dish-shaped surface directs and concentrates sunlight onto
a thermal receiver, which absorbs and collects the heat and transfers it to the
engine generator. The most common type of heat engine used today in
dish/engine systems is the Stirling engine. This system uses the fluid heated
by the receiver to move pistons and create mechanical power. The
mechanical power is then used to run a generator or alternator to produce
electricity.
A power tower system uses a large field of flat, sun-tracking mirrors
known as heliostats to focus and concentrate sunlight onto a receiver on the
Solar Energy 99

Solar Field
Solar Steam Turbine
Superheater

Condenser

2-Tank Salt Storage

Steam
Generator

Solar
Preheater Low Pressure
Deaerator Preheater

Solar
Reheater

Expansion
Vessel

Figure 7.8 Parabolic trough system schematic. (U.S. DOE 2001). (See color plate 13.)

top of a tower. A heat-transfer fluid heated in the receiver is used to generate

steam, which, in turn, is used in a conventional turbine generator to produce
electricity. Some power towers use water/steam as the heat-transfer fluid.
Other advanced designs are experimenting with molten nitrate salt because
of its superior heat-transfer and energy-storage capabilities. The energy-
storage capability, or thermal storage, allows the system to continue to
dispatch electricity during cloudy weather or at night.

Figure 7.9 64 MW Nevada Solar 1 solar plant. (U.S. DOE 2001). (See color plate 14.)
100 Distributed Renewable Energies for Off-Grid Communities

Figure 7.10 SEGS trough plants. (U.S. DOE 2001). (See color plate 15.)

Figure 7.11 Nevada Solar 1 CSP collector. (U.S. DOE 2001). (See color plate 16.)

7.3. SOLAR THERMAL COLLECTORS

Solar thermal collectors transform solar radiation into heat and transfer
that heat to a medium (water, solar fluid, or air). Solar water heating (SWH)
or solar hot water (SHW) systems have been well established for many years,
and are widely used throughout the world. In a “close-coupled” SWH
system the storage tank is horizontally mounted directly above the solar
collectors on the roof. No pumping is required as the hot water naturally
Solar Energy 101

Figure 7.12 Linear Fresnel Collector (Ausra). (U.S. DOE 2001).

Figure 7.13 A commercial unit under development by Abengoa called PS10, an 11 MW

plant in Seville, Spain. (Photo: Abengoa Solar).

rises into the tank through passive heat exchange. In a “pump-circulated”

system the storage tank is ground or floor mounted below the level of the
collectors; a circulating pump moves the water or heat transfer fluid between
102 Distributed Renewable Energies for Off-Grid Communities

Figure 7.14 Prototype 150 kW dish/Stirling power plant at Sandia National Labora-
tory. (U.S. DOE 2001).

HX-2: Hot Molten Salt to

Solar Central Receiver create superheated steam Steam Turbine
1050F HX-3: Hot receiver
fluid to heat salt Generator
Extraction
Hot Receiver Fluid

Stream
Superheated
1000F Stream to
Feed Heaters
Thermal Storage Fluid

HX-3 1025F 1025F HX-2 Condenser

Hot Molten Salt
(25% energy)

PCM Melt
Salt at Melt Temp
(75% energy)
HX-1
HX-4
Tsalt meltF
Tcr, F
Freezing Salt Slurry

HX-4: Hot receiver fluid HX-1: Salt melt to

Cold Receiver Fluid
to melt solid in tank vaporize feed water
to saturated steam

Figure 7.15 Heat transfer and latent heat Storage in inorganic molten salts for
concentrating solar power plants. (Stekli 2010).

the tank and the collectors. There are multiple types of solar thermal
collectors:
• Evacuated tube collectors are the most efficient but most costly type
of hot water solar collectors. These collectors have glass or metal tubes
with a vacuum, allowing them to operate well in colder climates.
• Batch solar water heaters, also called integral collector-storage
systems, have storage tanks or tubes inside an insulated box, the south
side of which is glazed to capture the sun’s energy.
• Flat plate collector, a box covered by glass or plastic with a metal
absorber plate on the bottom. The glazing, or coating, on the absorber
plate helps to better absorb and retain heat.
Solar Energy 103

• Unglazed flat-plate collectors, typically made from rubber, are

primarily used for heating pools.
• Air collectors are used primarily for space heating in the home. Flat-
plate solar collectorsddurable, weatherproof boxes that contain a dark
absorber plate located under a transparent coverdare still the most
common type of collector used for water heating in many countries
despite being inferior to evacuated tube collectors in many ways.
Evacuated heat pipe tubes are designed such that convection and heat loss
are eliminated, whereas flat-plate solar panels contain an air gap between
absorber and cover plate that allows heat loss to occur. Further, thermal
heat pipe systems are capable of limiting the maximum working temper-
ature, whereas flat-plate systems have no internal method of limiting heat
build-up, which can cause system failure. Finally, evacuated heat pipe
systems are lightweight, easy to install and require minimal maintenance.
Flat-plate systems, on the other hand, are difficult to install and maintain,
and must be completely replaced should one part of the system stop
working.
Figures 7.16 and 7.17 show two types of solar collectors that are
commonly being installed in South Australia.
An evacuated tube solar collector is composed of hollow glass
tubes. All the air is removed from the tubes to create a vacuum that acts as
an excellent insulator. An absorber coating inside the tube absorbs the
solar radiation. This energy is transferred to the fluid moving through the
collector and then to the hot water storage tank. In cooler climates a heat
exchanger is used to separate the potable water from the non-toxic anti-
freeze in the collector.

Figure 7.16 Evacuated tube. (Hot Water Now).

104 Distributed Renewable Energies for Off-Grid Communities

Figure 7.17 Flat-plate collectors. (Solar Tribune 2012).

Batch solar water heaters, also called integral collector-storage (ICS)

systems, are made up of a water tank or tubes inside an insulated, glazed box.
Cold water flows through the solar collector. The water is heated and then
continues on to the backup water heating storage tank. Some water can be
stored in the collector until it is needed. ICS systems are a type of direct solar
water heating system, which circulates water to be heated, rather than using
a heat transfer fluid to capture the solar radiation.

(A) (B)

Figure 7.18 Direct systems: (A) Passive CHS system with tank above collector. (B) Active
system with pump and controller driven by a photovoltaic panel. (Jwhferguson, self-
published work 2010, accessed from URL http://www.solarcontact.com/solar-water/
heater). (See color plate 17.)
 (C) (D)

Solar Energy
Figure 7.19 Indirect active systems: (C) Indirect system with heat exchanger in tank. (D) Drainback system with drainback reservoir. In these

105
schematics the controller and pump are driven by mains electricity. Euro-Flachstecker_2.jpg: SomnusDe 2010, Wolff Mechanical Inc,
accessed from URL http://azairconditioning.com/residential/solar-heaters/. (See color plate 18.)
106 Distributed Renewable Energies for Off-Grid Communities

A flat-plate solar collector is an insulated box covered by glass or

plastic with a metal absorber plate on the bottom. The weatherproofed
collectors are usually glazed with a coating to better absorb and retain heat.
Heat transfer fluid flows through metal tubes lying below the absorber plate.
The fluid then flows through a heat exchanger before entering the storage
tank. Unglazed flat-plate collectors (without insulation or absorber
coatings) do not operate in cool or windy climates but are excellent for
heating water in a pool (Solar Tribune 2012).
Solar hot air collectors are mounted on south-facing vertical walls or
roofs. Solar radiation reaching the collector heats the absorber plate. Air
passing through the collector picks up heat from the absorber plate.
Freezing, overheating and leaks are less troublesome for solar air
collectors than for liquid collectors. But since liquid is a better heat
conductor, solar collectors using water or a heat transfer fluid are more suited
to hot water heating for the home. A solar hot air collector is most often used
for space heating. There are two types of air collectors: glazed and unglazed
(Energy4You 2012).
SWH systems are designed to deliver hot water for most of the year. In
colder climates a gas or electric booster may be needed as a backup to deliver
sufficient hot water.

Figure 7.20 Bolivia Inti-Sud Soleil solar cooker construction workshop. http://
solarcooking.wikia.com/wiki/solar_cookers_world_net.
Solar Energy 107

7.4. SOLAR COOKERS AND SOLAR OVENS

A solar cooker, or solar oven is a device to generate heat from the
energy of solar radiation. The radiation is concentrated in the focus of
a concave mirror. The solar cookers are suitable for
• Boiling water for heating food
• Cooking, roasting, baking, grilling or frying
• Juice production
• Small food stalls in the open air
• Commercial use in dyeing
• Soap production
• Processing of natural fibers for weaving
Box types are constructed from metal or mirror reflectors and a glass plate.
Aligned with the sun, the light is reflected by the reflector through the glass
into the interior of the furnace. At about 150  C, water will boil to cook
food. The parabolic types consist of mirrors focusing sunlight on a mostly
matte black container in the focus area. The container absorbs solar radia-
tion, so that its contents are heated.
Because they use no fuel and cost nothing to operate, many non-profit
organizations are promoting their use worldwide to help reduce fuel costs
for low-income people, reduce air pollution and slow deforestation and
desertification, caused by use of firewood for cooking.
Many types of cookers exist. Simple solar cookers use the following basic
principles:
• Concentrating sunlight: A reflective mirror of polished glass, metal or
metallized film is used to concentrate light and heat from the sun into
a small cooking area, making the energy more concentrated and
increasing its heating power.
• Converting light to heat: A black or low reflectivity surface on a food
container or the inside of a solar cooker will improve the effectiveness of
turning light into heat. Light absorption converts the sun’s visible light
into heat, substantially improving the effectiveness of the cooker.
• Trapping heat: It is important to reduce convection by isolating the air
inside the cooker from the air outside the cooker. A plastic bag or tightly
sealed glass cover will trap the hot air inside. This makes it possible to
reach similar temperatures on cold and windy days as on hot days.
• Greenhouse effect: Glass transmits visible light but blocks infrared
thermal radiation from escaping. This amplifies the heat trapping effect
(Solar Cooker Designs 2011).
108 Distributed Renewable Energies for Off-Grid Communities

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Solar Energy 109

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