MODULE 2

COMPILED AND PREPARED BY:

MARLYN ROSE M. SACDALAN

UNIT TITLE: CELL THE BASIS OF LIFE

TITLE OF THE LESSON: ORGANIC AND INORGANIC COMPOUNDS

DURATION: 3 hours

INTRODUCTION
Organic compound, any of a large class of chemical compounds in which one
or more atoms of carbon are covalently linked to atoms of other elements, most
commonly hydrogen, oxygen, or nitrogen. Among the numerous types of organic
compounds, four major categories are found in all living things: carbohydrates, lipids,
proteins, and nucleic acids. The few carbon-containing compounds not classified
as organic include carbides, carbonates, and cyanides.
An inorganic compound is a substance that does not contain both carbon and
hydrogen. A great many inorganic compounds do contain hydrogen atoms, such as
water (H2O) and the hydrochloric acid (HCl) produced by your stomach. In contrast,
only a handful of inorganic compounds contain carbon atoms. Carbon dioxide (CO2)
is one of the few examples.
Organic compounds are derived from activities of living organisms
while inorganic compounds are formed due to natural processes or are made in lab.
However, Wohler found exceptions to this. Because of the covalency of
carbon, organic compounds are unable to make salts while inorganic
compounds make salts.

OBJECTIVES
After studying this lesson, you should be able to
1. Define organic and inorganic compounds
2. Enumerate the organic and inorganic compounds
3. Give the importance of these compounds in the body

CONTENTS
1. Organic compounds
a. Carbohydrates
b. Proteins
c. Fats
d. Nucleic Acids
e. Vitamins
2. Inorganic Compounds
a. Water
b. Minerals
 Republic of the Philippines
Bulacan State University
City of Malolos, Bulacan

COLLEGE OF SCIENCE

NAME: SCORE:

COURSE, YR. & SEC. GROUP:

INSTRUCTOR: MARLYN ROSE M. SACDALAN DATE:

Lesson Organic and Inorganic

7 Compounds

_________________________________________________________

PRE-TEST
Answer the following in 2 to 5 sentences only.

1. What are the two (2) major compounds in the body and be able to differentiate them.

2. Identify the major organic and inorganic compounds.

3. In your own words, what do you think is the importance of these compounds in our

body?
 LESSON 7
ORGANIC AND INORGANIC COMPOUNDS

Organic Compounds
The organic materials are used as a source of energy within the cells. They are also
important in building new tissues and synthesizing physiologically important
chemicals such as hormones and enzymes.

A. Carbohydrates
● These are substances containing carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen is present
in the same ratio as water. Thus this general formula is Cn(H2O)n.
● Simple carbohydrates are known as sugars/
● The primary sources of energy for cellular activities within the cell. They are
broken down by combination with oxygen, and the released energy can be
used to perform cellular work.
● These can also be converted to other types of molecules from part of the
cell for other physiological functions. Ex. Glycogen and fat.
● They are usually classified according to the number of sugar units in their
molecules. These are the following:
o Monosaccharides
▪ The simplest sugar is containing only one sugar molecule.
▪ The number of carbon atoms usually varies from 3-7.
� Examples:
1. Triose (3C atoms) glycerose C3H6O3
2. Tetrose (4C atoms) threose C4H8O4
3. Pentose (5C atoms) ribose C5H10O
4. Hexose (6C atoms) glucose, fructose, galactose,
mannose C6H12O6
5. Heptoses (7C atoms) mannoheptose C7H14O7
▪ The most important of these are the hexoses (glucose,
fructose, and galactose).
▪ Among these three, glucose is said to be the most
physiologically significant as it is the primary sugar
transported by the blood cells. Thus it is always referred to as
blood sugar. The other two monosaccharides, fructose, and
galactose are converted to glucose before they are used by
the cel
o Disaccharides
▪ Consists of two molecules of monosaccharides
▪ The most common of these are:
� Sucrose (glucose and fructose)
- It is known as the common table sugar, an extract
of beet or sugar cane.
- It formed an increasingly larger portion of a man’s
diet.
- Large consumption may lead to diabetes and
heart disease
� Lactose (glucose and galactose)
- It is the kind of sugar found in milk.
- Normally, it is broken in the digestive tract into
monosaccharides, which are absorbed in the
blood
- Some individuals cannot break down lactose in
their digestive tract, so that it leaves the individual
 exceeding undernourished. This can also cause
severe diarrhea.
� Maltose (glucose and glucose)
- It is found in fruit juices and sprouting grains.
o Polysaccharides
▪ Consists of a large number of monosaccharide units
▪ Examples are: Glycogen - the form in which glucose is stored
in the animal body; Starch – the state in which glucose is
stored in the plant body. Cellulose - a tough fibrous material
that holds together the plant structure.

B. Proteins
● Substances were containing the elements carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and
nitrogen. Some also contain sulfur and phosphorus.
● They are the building blocks from which the cells are formed, and they
regulate the chemical activity inside the cell.
● They also act as catalysts (enzymes) for several cellular reactions and are
responsible for muscle contraction.
● They are also essential in repairing damaged or worn-out cells and tissues.
● They act as antibodies which fight diseases and infections.
● They are composed of a chain of smaller subunits called amino acids.
● They are compounds that contain the amino group (-NH2).
● There are two groups of amino acids, namely:
o Non-essential Amino Acids- these are synthesized in the body.
Examples – alanine, serine, glycine, aspartic acid, glutamic acid,
proline, hydroxyproline, citrulline, cysteine, tyrosine, norleucine, and
hydroxyglutamic acid.
o Essential Amino Acids- these must be supplied in the diet. Examples –
histidine, isoleucine, leucine, lysine, methionine, arginine, phenylalanine,
threonine, valine, tryptophan
● Most animal proteins are complete proteins that consist of all the essential
amino acids, while plant proteins are generally incomplete.
● The amino acids of proteins are held together by peptide bonds (-CO-NH-).
● About 3.5 % of the total protein present in the body may be destroyed and
resynthesized. Protein from the diet is, therefore, very essential to replace
the continuous breakdown of body proteins.
● There are different types of protein based on their function in the
organisms.

Type of Protein Function Examples

1. Structural Provides ● Insects and spiders use silk fibers (fibroin,
Protein mechanical shape protein in silk) to make their cocoons and
and support webs
● Collagen and elastin provide a fibrous
framework in animal connective tissues
such as tendon and ligaments
● Keratin is the protein of hair, horn,
feathers, and other skin appendages
● Dentine is a protein that strengthens teeth
2. Storage Storage of amino ● Ovalbumin is the protein of egg white
Protein acid which is used as an amino acid source for
developing embryo
● Casein, the protein of milk, is the major
source of amino acids for baby mammals.
 ● Plants store proteins in seeds
3. Transport Carry or transport ● Hemoglobin, the iron containing protein of
Protein substances vertebrae blood, transport oxygen from
the lungs to other parts of the body
● Serum albumin carries fatty acid in the
blood
● Other proteins transport molecules across
cell membranes
4. Receptor Response of cell ● Receptors built into a membrane of a
Protein to chemical nerve cell detect chemical signals
stimuli released by other nerve cell
5. Hormonal Coordination of ● Insulin and glucagons, hormones
Proteins an organism’s secreted by the pancreas help regulate
activities the concentration of sugar in the blood of
vertebrates
● Prolactin, stimulates milk production and
secretion
● GH (growth hormone), stimulates growth
and metabolic functions
6. Contractile Movement ● Actin and myosin are responsible for the
Protein movement of muscles
7. Defensive Protection against ● Antibodies combat bacteria and viruses,
Protein diseases ex. Immunoglobulins destroy bacteria
8. Enzymatic Selective Digestive enzymes hydrolyze the polymers in
Protein acceleration of food, ex. ptyalin that acts on carbohydrates
chemical and trypsin that acts on protein.
reactions

C. Nucleic Acids ( the non-protein portion of nucleoproteins)

● These are macromolecules found in animal and plant cells
● They participate in the storage, transmission, and translation of genetic
information.
● Properties include the following:
1. Insoluble in alcohol; soluble in cold water; readily dissolves in hot
water, and dilute alkalis forming alkali salts.
2. They are precipitated by HCI and by excess Acetic Acid.
3. They have a high molecular weight ranging from 1,286 to 3,000,000
4. They are two types: a. Ribonucleic Acid b. Deoxyribonucleic acid
5. The element composition of nucleic acids are:
a. Carbon
b. Hydrogen
c. Oxygen
d. Nitrogen (15-16%)
e. Phosphorus (9-10%)
6. Upon hydrolysis, which enzymes or after heating with dilute acids and
alkalis, nucleic acids yield a group of compounds known as
nucleotides. On further hydrolysis, nucleotides split into phosphoric acid
and nucleosides, which in turn are composed of sugar (ribose or
deoxyribose) and a nitrogenous base (purine or pyrimidine).
a. Purines: adenine (A) and guanine (G)
b. Pyrimidines: cytosine (C), thymine (T), and uracil (U)
DNA Strands
● Nucleic acids are molecules produced by living cells and are essential to all
living organisms. These acids govern the body’s development and specific
characteristics by providing genetic information and triggering proteins'
 production. This computer-generated model shows two strands of
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and the double- helical structure typical of this
class of nucleic acids.

Table Showing the differences between Ribonucleic Acid and

Deoxyribonucleic Acid

Points of Difference Ribonucleic Acid Deoxyribonucleic Acid

1. Sugar Ribose Deoxyribose
2. Location in the Cell Predominates in the Found in the Nucleus
Cytoplasm
3. Main Function Translation of information Storage of Genetic
into protein structures Information
4. Pyrimidine base Cytosine and Uracil Cytosine and Thymine

Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA)

● This is the chromosomal material containing the generic information of living
cells.
● The base sequences of DNA constitutes a template or mold. (A-T-G-C).
● This template or mold determines the complementary partner. For the given
example above, the complementary partner is (T-A-C-G).
● Therefore, DNA is a double helix (spiral structure; twisted ladder).
● The number of adenine bases equals the number of thymine; the number of
guanine equals the number of cytosine bases.
● The sides of the ladder are made up of alternating sugar and phosphate
molecules. The ladder's rungs (steps) are made up of nitrogen bases held
together by hydrogen bonds.
● In addition to hydrogen bonds, evidence show that hydrophobic forces between
purine and pyrimidine nuclei contribute to the maintenance of the rigid, two-
stranded structure.
● Denaturation of DNA can be caused by several factors such as:
a. Acids
b. Alkali
c. Heat
d. Low ionic strength
e. Urea
f. Formamide

Ribonucleic Acid (RNA)

● Consists of long strings of single-stranded ribonucleotide
● They are much shorter than DNA but more abundant.
● RNA is hydrolyzed by weak alkali with the formation of an intermediate
phosphate triester.
● There are three types of RNA
1. Messenger RNA (mRNA)
● Functions as a template or information RNA.
● This is used by ribosomes for translation of genetic i nformation into the
amino acid sequence of the protein.
2. Transfer RNA (tRNA)/ soluble RNA
● Makeup around 10 to 20% of cellular RNA.
● Consists of a single strand of ribonucleotides that are highly folded in
conformation.
● It is a small molecule containing 70-90 ribonucleotides with a molecular
weight of 23,000 to 30,000.
 ● It serves to bind and carry the activated amino acids to the ribosomes
and serves as an adapter for translating genetic codewords of mRNA
into an amino acid sequence (anticodon). Anticodon is complementary
to the codon, the trivalent nucleotide sequence of mRNA, which codes
for one specific amino acid.
3. Ribosomal RNA (rRNA)
● The significant component of ribosomes.
● Makeup around 65% of their weight.
● This is strongly associated with protein and is stable.
● It plays an essential role in the structure and biosynthetic function of
ribosomes.
4. Lipids
● These are groups of carbon-containing compounds characterized by
the fact that they do not dissolve readily in water.
● The essential elements in lipids are carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen like
carbohydrates; however, lipids contain a much smaller proportion of
oxygen atoms than carbohydrates.
● Lipids are heterogeneous compounds.
● The three most important groups are:
A. Fats
● The most common lipids in the body
● These are trimesters of fatty acids and glycerol.
● They can be classified as either:
a. Saturated
● Those that do not contain double bonds between
carbons.
● Characteristics of animal fats.
● Excess of these may lead to cholesterol deposits leading
to cardiovascular disease.
b. Unsaturated
● Those that contain double bonds between some of the
carbon atoms.
● Characteristics of vegetable fats.
● These are less hazardous as far as health is concerned.

B. Phospholipids
● Structurally similar to fats, except a group containing
phosphorus or nitrogen is attached to one of the carbons of
glycerol.
● They are an essential part of the membrane surrounding the
cell.

C. Steroids
● Composed of interconnected carbon rings.
● These compounds are absorbed intact or in slightly modified
form.
● Examples are Testosterone¬ - male reproductive hormone.
Estrogen – female reproductive organ.

5. Vitamins
● These are the organic substances present in small amounts in natural
foodstuffs which are essential for growth and normal metabolism
● Vitamins needed by the body come mostly from the diet.
● Generally, a minimal amount is enough to supply the needs of the
body.
● Deficiency may lead to disease. The same is true with excess,
particularly fat-soluble vitamins.
● Vitamins are classified into:
A. Fat-soluble Vitamins
● Readily soluble in fats and oils.
A. Vitamin A
● Formed in the liver from carotenoid pigments, which are
found in leafy green vegetables, yellow fruits, and
vegetables.
● It is concerned with the growth of bone, teeth, and
epithelial tissues and the synthesis of rhodopsin, the light-
sensitive pigment of the retina's rod cells.
B. Vitamin D
● Has anti-ricketic properties
● Includes irradiated ergosterol (D2) and calciferol (D3).
● The sources of this vitamin are cod liver oil. It is also
formed in the skin in response to ultraviolet light, which we
get from the sun.
● This vitamin is required for average growth, absorption of
calcium, phosphorus from the intestine, and calcium and
phosphorus utilization to develop bones and teeth.
● It is linked in the phosphate enzyme system, perhaps with
parathyroid glands.
● A deficiency in children results in rickets characterized by
soft and fragile bones. Children with rickets are bow-
legged. In infants, the fontanels do not close.
C. Vitamin D
● Vitamin D is found in leafy green vegetables, vegetable
oils, unmilled cereals, corn, nuts, and eggs.
● It is important for the normal growth and development,
utilization of sex hormones, cholesterol, and Vitamin D.
● Its deficiency is found to be responsible for cystic fibrosis
and premature aging.
D. Vitamin K
● Found in liver, spinach, cauliflower, and cabbage.
● It is synthesized to a small degree by bacteria in the large
intestine.
● It is necessary for prothrombin synthesis in the liver.
● A deficiency is sometimes seen in newborn infants
because the large intestine's bacterial flora has not yet
developed. Those infants have difficulty forming blood
clots so that there is a tendency for hemorrhage.

B. Water-Soluble Vitamins
● This classification was based on the vitamins’ solubility in water
and their nitrogen content (B complex).
A. Thiamine (B2)
● This is necessary for the conversion of glucose and
pyruvic acid during the breakdown of carbohydrates.
● Deficiency leads to the disorder of the nervous system
and heart failure. This condition is called beriberi,
characterized by anorexia, loss of weight, debility,
peripheral neuritis, and edema.
 ● The heart is usually enlarged, and there is a high level
of pyruvic acid and lactic acid in the blood.
B. Riboflavin(B2)
● Important in the metabolism of all types of foodstuffs.
● Deficiency in man is characterized by glossitis,
cheilosis, and seborrheic dermatitis.
C. Niacin/ Nicotinic Acid (B3)
● Present in meat, poultry, fish, yeast, peanut butter,
potatoes, and legumes.
● Niacin is a functional component of co-enzymes,
essential in developing the enzymes involved in
releasing energy from foodstuffs.
● Pellagra is the disease caused by lacked niacin. It is
characterized by fatigue, headache, anorexia,
backache, loss of weight, sore tongue, mouth, throat,
anemia, vomiting, diarrhea, dermatitis, mental
confusion, delusions of persecutions, and dementia.
● Sometimes, the symptoms are briefly characterized as
the 3 d’s of pellagra. ( dementia, dermatitis, and
diarrhea).
D. Pyridoxine (B6)
● Present in whole grains, liver, spinach, bananas, fish,
meats, nuts, potatoes.
● Pyridoxine is needed to use nutrients, the formation of
red blood cells, and a healthy nervous system.
● Deficiency leads to skin disorders, anemia, and
convulsions.
E. Cyanocobalamine (B12)
● The sources are liver, kidney, milk, and cheese.
● It is crucial for the synthesis of DNA
● (deoxyribonucleic acid).
● It is also necessary for rapidly dividing tissues such as
the hematopoietic tissue that manufactures red blood
cells.
● Only a small amount is required in the diet, and its
absence is rarely felt.
● However, some people cannot manufacture intrinsic
factors, and the resulting inability to manufacture
vitamin B12 leads to pernicious anemia. It can be
corrected by giving injections of Vitamin B12
F. Ascorbic Acid (Vitamin C)
● Differs from the water-soluble B vitamins in that it lacks
nitrogen.
● It is found in citrus fruits and certain vegetables such as
camote tops, spinach. Green peppers, cabbage,
ampalaya, potatoes, and sweet potatoes.
● It is necessary for maintaining intercellular proteins and
for the production of hemoglobin.
● It is also essential in the production of dentine,
cartilage, and bone.
● It facilitates the absorption of iron.
● Deficiency leads to an increase in infection
susceptibility, poor wound healing, and retardation of
growth. Scurvy may occur characterized by bleeding of
 gums, pain and tenderness, and swelling of thighs and
legs.
● Because of its role in building the tissues and
strengthening it, some people feel that Vitamin C helps
protect us against cold.

Inorganic Compounds/components
● Include mineral elements and water,
● Mineral elements exist in the form of salts or combined with protein,
carbohydrates, and lipids. Salts are found throughout the body- in the cell, in
extra-cellular fluids, and the blood and lymph. The ions of these salts have
essential roles in the proper maintenance and control of bodily functions.

Table of Elements that make up the Human Body

Name of Elements Symbol Percentag Function/s
e
Oxygen O 65 Required for cellular respiration;
present in most organic compounds;
component of water
Carbon C 18 Forms backbone of organic
molecules; can form four bonds with
other atoms
Hydrogen H 10 Present in most organic compounds;
component of water
Nitrogen N 3 Components of all proteins and
nucleic acids
Calcium Ca 1.5 Structural components of bones and
teeth; important in muscle contraction,
conduction of nerve impulses, and
blood clotting
Phosphorus P 1 Component of nucleic acids; structural
component of bones; important in
energy transfer
Potassium K 0.4 Principal positive ion (cation) within
cells; important in nerve functions;
affects muscle contraction
Sulfur S 0.3 A component of most proteins
Sodium Na 0.2 Principal positive ion in interstitial
(tissue) fluid balance; essential for
conduction of nerve impulse
Magnesium Mg 0.1 Needed in the blood and body tissues;
a component of many important
enzyme systems
Chlorine Cl 0.1 Principal negative ion (anion) of
interstitial fluid; important in fluid
balance
Iron Fe Trace Component of hemoglobin, myoglobin
and certain enzymes
Iodine I Trace Components of thyroid hormones
From Biology by Ville, Solomon, Martin, Martin, Berg and Davis

Water
● The essential constituent of tissues and constitute about 2/3 of body weight
(85-92% 0f the cell).
● Water is the vehicle in the body for all physiological activities that are
necessary for life to take place.
● Life on land is possible only because terrestrial plants and animals, including
man, can incorporate large amounts of water within their bodies. For a typical
person, 60-70% of the weight is water.
● The solvent power of water is great. A great number of substances dissolve in
it because it has a very high ionizing power.
● Water has high specific heat. This means that it can hold more heat with less
temperature change than most substances; hence, the heat produced by cell
metabolism makes comparatively little change in the temperature of all cells.
● The heat-conducting power of water is high. This means that the heat
produced in the cell can pass to body fluids even if the temperature of the cell
is barely above that of the fluid around the cell, which likewise can hold this
heat with comparatively little rise in temperature and pass it on with little
change in temperature to the blood and finally to the skin.
● The latent heat of vaporization of water is high. Because of this, a maximum
of heat is taken from the skin for the evaporation of perspiration.
● Water has high surface tension, and so many immiscible liquids it comes in
contact must expose the minimum surface. But because of its excellent
solvent capacity, its surface tension can be lowered by a great variety of
substances. This permits the area of contact of the immiscible liquids to be.
 Republic of the Philippines
Bulacan State University
City of Malolos, Bulacan

COLLEGE OF SCIENCE

NAME: SCORE:

COURSE, YR. & SEC. GROUP:

INSTRUCTOR: MARLYN ROSE M. SACDALAN DATE:

Lesson Organic and Inorganic

7 Compounds

_________________________________________________________

POST-TEST
1. Which of the following is the most abundant element in living things?
A. Carbon D. Nitrogen
B. Hydrogen E. Phosphorus
C. Oxygen

2. Which of the following are organic compounds? Choose 3.

A. CO2 D. H2O
B. Glucose E. Calcium carbonate
C. Amino acid F. Starch

3. Nitrogen is a component of _____________________.

A. Proteins C. Lipids
B. Carbohydrates D. Polysaccharides

4. Which of the following describe organic compounds? Choose 2.

A. Found in living things C. Does not contain carbon
B. Contains carbon D. Not found in living things

5. Hemoglobin in blood is what type of organic compound?

A. Protein
B. Carbohydrate
C. Lipid
 D. Nucleic acid

6. Which of the following contain phosphorus? Choose 2.

A. Carbohydrates C. Lipids
B. Proteins D. Nucleic acids

7. Which of the following describe water molecules? Choose 2.

A. It is a polar molecule. C. It is a nonpolar molecule
B. It is formed through covalent bond. D. It is formed through ionic bond.

.
8. What do you call the bond between water molecules?
A. Peptide bond C. Hydrogen bond
B. Glycosidic bond D. Ester bond

9. Which of the following are results of the hydrogen bonds between water
molecules? Choose 3.
A. Cohesion and adhesion D. Low boiling point
B. High heat capacity E. Solubility
C. High boiling point

10. Water has a high specific heat which means that it takes a lot of energy to heat it
up. What is the significance of this to living things? Choose 3.
A. Certain living things are able to maintain a stable body temperature.
B. Sweating in humans produces cooling effect.
C. Because blood partly contains water, blood is a good transport medium for
heat.
D. Water is a good solvent.
E. Plant roots can easily absorb water and transport to other plant parts.

11. What is the significance of hydrogen bonding between water molecules to living
things?
A. Plant roots can easily absorb and transport water to other plant parts.
B. Some insects are able to crawl on the surface of bodies of water.
C. Certain living things are able to maintain a stable body temperature.
D. Water is a good solvent.

12. What is the significance of the polarity of water molecules?

A. Water is a good solvent.
B. Light is able to penetrate water for photosynthesis of aquatic plants.
C. Ice is less dense than water, and provides habitat for organisms above and
below ice.
D. Transparency of water provides more efficient movement for prey and
predators.

13. Which of the following are TRUE about the hydrogen and oxygen atoms in a
water molecule? Choose 2.
A. Oxygen is more slightly negative, while hydrogen is slightly more positive.
B. Oxygen is more slightly positive, while hydrogen is slightly more negative.
C. Oxygen pulls electrons more strongly than hydrogen atoms.
D. Oxygen pulls electrons less strongly than hydrogen atoms.

14. Which of the following are 2 characteristics of covalent compounds?

A. Transfer of electrons
 B. Sharing of electrons
C. Bond between a metal and a nonmetal
D. Bond between 2 nonmetals

15. Small molecular units that are linked to form complex organic compounds are
called _______________________.
A. Monomers C. Polymers
B. Dimers D. Isomers

16. Which of the following describe condensation reaction? Choose 3.

A. Water is formed and removed. D. Polymer is broken.
B. Water is added and split. E. Bond is formed.
C. Polymer is formed. F. Bond is broken.

17. Which of the following describe hydrolysis reaction? Choose 3.

A. Water is formed and removed. D. Polymer is broken.
B. Water is added and split. E. Bond is formed.
C. Polymer is formed. F. Bond is broken.

18. Which of the following are disaccharides (2 sugar units)? Choose 2.

A. Glucose F. Sucrose
B. Fructose G. Starch
C. Galactose H. Glycogen
D. Lactose I. Glycerol
E. Maltose

19. Which of the following are polysaccharides? Choose 3.

A. Starch D. Maltose
B. Glycogen E. Fructose
C. Cellulose F. Galactose

20. Which of the following are monosaccharides? Choose 3.

A. Fructose D. Maltose
B. Glucose E. Sucrose
C. Galactose F. Lactose

22. Which of the following shows correct condensation reaction?

A. Glucose + glucose = sucrose D. Glucose + galactose = maltose
B. Glucose + fructose = sucrose E. Glucose + maltose = galactose
C. Glucose + sucrose = fructose

23. Which of the following carbohydrates are not found in plants?

A. Sucrose D. Cellulose
B. Glucose E. Fructose
C. Lactose

24. Which of the following shows a correct pair?

A. Glucose = pentose sugar C. Glycerol = triose sugar
B. Ribose = hexose sugar D. Maltose = heptose sugar

25. What is the difference between starch and glycogen?

 A. Starch is a stored product of plants, while glycogen is the stored food in
animals.
B. Starch is the stored product in animals, while glycogen is the stored food in
plants.
C. Starch is a polysaccharide, while glycogen is a monosaccharide.
D. Starch is a monosaccharide, while glycogen is a polysaccharide.

UNIT TITLE: THE ANATOMY OF CELLS

TITLE OF THE LESSON: THE CELLA (Small room)

DURATION: 8 hours

INTRODUCTION
The CELLS, is taken from a Latin word, cella which means the ‘small room’ is
the simplest structural, functional, and biological unit of all living forms. The human
body contains more than 100 trillion cells, with 200 different types of cells, and with
an average diameter of 7.5 microns that works together to form a functional unit.
These cells differ in structures, functions, activities, sizes, and shapes to perform its
particular role in the human body, and can be described as jelly-like, granular,
grayish to colorless, transparent, translucent, microscopic, sticky, slippery, viscous,
heavier and denser than water.

OBJECTIVES:
At the end of the lesson, the students should be able to:
1. Define what cells are.
2. Enumerate the parts and give the functions/activities of each part.
3. Differentiate animal from plant cells.
4. Illustrate the animal and plant cells.
5. Give the difference of prokaryotic from eukaryotic
6. Enumerate the different processes involve in the passive and active transport
7. Illustrate and differentiate mitosis from meiosis

CONTENTS:
1. Minds Behind the Discovery of Cells
2. Structures Common to Animal Cells
a. Cytoplasmic Organelles
i. Membranous
ii. Non-membranous
3. Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells
4. Physiology of Cells
a. Passive transport
b. Active transport
5. Cell Divisions
a. Mitosis
b. Meiosis
 Republic of the Philippines
Bulacan State University
City of Malolos, Bulacan

COLLEGE OF SCIENCE

NAME: SCORE:

COURSE, YR. & SEC. GROUP:

INSTRUCTOR: MARLYN ROSE M. SACDALAN DATE:

Lesson
Brains Behind the Discovery of
8 Cells
_________________________________________________________

PRE-TEST
Matching Type: Match contribution in column A with the name of scientists in column
B. Write the letters on the space provided before each number.
A B

____ 1. Observe that cells arise from pre-existing A. Leeuwenhoek

cells

____ 2. He devised his own microscope B. Hooke

____ 3. The first to viewed a living cell in a C. Brown

microscope

____ 4. All animals arise from animal cells D. Schleidan

____ 5. He established the Cell Theory E. Schwann

____ 6. He was known to introduce minute organisms F. Virchow

in the science world

____ 7. Compared of what he saw in a honeycomb G. Dujardin

____ 8. He discovered the nucleus

____ 9. All plants are made from plant cells

____10. Coined the term cells

LESSON 8
BRAINS BEHIND THE DISCOVERY OF CELLS

Major Contributors to the Discovery of a Cell

Scientists Contributions
● A Dutch inventor
● First to device his own light microscope
Antoni Van ● Revealed a wide variety of organisms not
Leeuwenhoek visible to the naked eyes
● His contributions is the beginning to
understand the chemical reactions
involved in the living material.

● A British scientist
● Observed tiny slices of cork through a
microscope
● Described it as a mass of tiny cavities
Robert Hooke similar to honeycomb
● Compared it to small rooms in the
monastery and coined the term CELLS.

● Scottish botanist
● He discovered the nucleus of a cell
● He is perhaps best known for the
discovery of the random movement of
Robert Brown microscopic particles in a surrounding
solution called Brownian Movement
● He developed alternative plant
classifications.

● French biologist and cytologist born in

Tours
● Noted for his studies in the classification
of protozoans and invertebrates.
Felix Dujardin ● He viewed living cells with a microscope

● A German botanist and a co-founder of

cell theory
● He proposed that all plants are made up
of cells.
 Matthias Jacob ● Recognized the importance of cell
Schleidan nucleus and sensed its connection with
cell division
● First German botanist to accept Charles
Darwin’s theory of evolution

● A German physiologist
● All animals are composed of animal
cells and that within an individual
organisms all the cells are identical.
Theodore ● Founded modern histology be defining
Schwann the cell as the basic unit of animal
structure.

● Viennese pathologist
● Published his observation that new cells
arise only from pre-existing cells (Omnis
cellula e cellula)
Rudolf Virchow ● Works with the other scientist to
established the Cell Theory
● Used the theory to lay the groundwork
for cellular pathology or the disease at
the cellular level.

Cell Theory
1. All living things are made up of cells
2. The cell is the basics structure and function of all living things. That is, the cell
carries all the processes that are characteristics of all living things.
3. Cells arise from one another cell through the process of cell division.

Contributors to the Discovery of Cells

1595 Jansen credited with 1st compound microscope

1840 Albrecht von Rolliker realized that sperm cells and egg cells are also
cells.

1856 N. Pringsheim observed how a sperm cell penetrated an egg cell.

1857 Kolliker described mitochondria.

1879 Flemming described chromosome behavior during mitosis.

1898 Golgi described the golgi apparatus.

SOURCCES:
https://www.britannica.com
https://bitesizebio.com/166/history-of-cell-biology/
 Republic of the Philippines
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Lesson
Brains Behind the Discovery of
8 Cells
_________________________________________________________

POST-TEST
Fill out the table below by supplying the correct contributions of the following
scientists.
Write your answers on the box provided.

1 Cells in cork

2 Virchow

3 Invented the microscope

4 Flemming

5 Observation of egg and sperm cell

6 Golgi

7 First to accept Darwin’s Theory

8 Kolliker

9 Alternative plant classification

10 Roelliker
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Lesson

9 Common Structure of a Cell

_________________________________________________________

PRE-TEST
Illustrate and label the animal cell.
 LESSON 9
COMMON STRUCTURE OF A CELL

Common parts of a typical cell

1. Cell membrane/plasma membrane/plasmalemma
● For support and protection the outermost covering of animal cell, semi-
permeable, thin and flexible
● It is composed of protein and phospholipids
● Functions
o Maintains the shape of the cell
o Contains the cell contents
o Prevents the contents of one cell from mixing with those of other cells
o Controls the entrance and exit of materials in the cell

Cell membrane
https://www.pinterest.ph/pin/533535887098157889/

2. Nucleus
● Rounded, darkly stained structure separated from the cytoplasm by a double-
walled nuclear membrane.
● Functions:
o Control center of the cell which directs cell division since it contains the
heredity information in the form of genes
o Control protein synthesis and other metabolic activities of the cell
● Parts:
o Nuclear membrane
▪ Outer nuclear membrane
� Nuclear membrane that is continuous with a system of the
endoplasmic reticulum. 
 � It is perforated with pores, which facilitates the passage of
large organic molecules between the nucleus and the rest
of the cell.
▪ Inner nuclear membrane
� Nuclear membrane that is continuous and composed of
membrane system with DNA as the principal nucleic acid,
some RNA, and protein. 
� It is impermeable to the exit of DNA but permeable to m-
RNA.
o Nucleoplasm/nuclear sap/karyoplasm – gel-like, no organelles, rich in
nucleic acid. Inside the nucleoplasm are the following:
● Nucleoplasm is a darkly stained spherical body which produced
mRNA.
● Chromatin is clumped of a dense granular, threadlike network
which is transformed into chromosomes during mitosis. It also
contains the genes which carry the genetic information
necessary for replication and protein synthesis.

https://pixels.com/featured/3-animal-cell-diagram-science-source.html

3. Cytoplasm
● The living substance of the cell
● The protoplasm that surrounds the nucleus of the cell which contains the
organelles and inclusion bodies.
● Physiological properties of the cell

4. Physiology of cell membrane

Cell division This is the ability of the cell to grow to a limited extent
 and produce new cells

Contractility The ability of the cell to be stimulated so as to shorten

and return to its original length when stimulus is
removed

Conductivity The ability to transmit a wave of excitation throughout

the substance of the cell

Irritability This is the property that enables the cell to respond to

stimulus

Secretion Cells that can synthesize useful substances from those

that they absorb and can give of these substances as
secretory products.

Absorption and Living cells can take food and other substances and
Assimilation utilize it

Excretion The ability of the cell to eliminate waste materials

Respiration This is taking in of oxygen and using this for oxidation of

food substances with resulting liberation of energy

Cytoplasmic Organelles
Illustrations Descriptions
MEMBRANOUS ORGANELLES
Mitochondria/Chondrisomes ● Spherical, rod-shaped, cigar or sausage-
shaped hollow structure
● Composed of double membrane, where the
outer membrane is smoothly and tightly
stretched while the inner membrane is
invaginated with folds forming shelves called
‘cristae’ (this folds contain enzymes which are
used in the conservation of food energy by the
cell to do cellular work
● Functions: Serve as the power of the cell
(production of energy in the form of ATP;
support the mechanical and chemical work
performed by the cell.

Golgi apparatus/dictyosomes ● Series of smooth membrane that is continuous

with eth endoplasmic reticulum.
● Enzymes are concentrated along the surface
of the membranes.
● Consists of several flatten tubular membranes
known as “cisternae” which are stacked upon
each other. Vacuoles are found at the dilated
terminal are either end of the cisternae.
● Function: for packaging of food materials

Endoplasmic reticulum ● Series of parallel arrays of membrane creating

Rough ER canals like membranous tubules and vesicles
that runs throughout the cytoplasm of the cell.
 ● The canal carry substances from the cell
membrane or throughout the cytoplasm.
● Function: Transport substances throughout
the cell.
● Types of ER:
(1) Rough or granular ER – canals are studded
with ribosomes. The proteins produced in the
Smooth ER ribosome are secreted from the cell through
the canals. Function RER is active in the
secretion of protein such as pancreatic
exocrine cells and liver cells.
(2) Smooth or granular ER – does not contain
ribosome. Function: site of the synthesis of
steroid hormones such as that of the adrenal
glands; involved with lipid or fat synthesis as in
striated muscles and concerned with rapid
transport of metabolites needed for muscular
contraction
Lysosome ● Large spherical body which is membrane
bound and dense appearing structures that
contain enzymes which are collectively
referred to as acid hydrolases, that is capable
of breaking down intracellular molecules and
digesting like bacteria that enter the cells.
● Function: phagocytosis and cellular digestion
or breaking down complex particles and
cellular products

Peroxisome ● Similar to lysosome in the way that they are

membrane bound sacs containing enzymes.
● The enzymes in this organelle involves in
either the production of hydrogen peroxide or
destruction of hydrogen peroxide to water.
● Function: involved in purine catabolism, the
breaking down of nucleic acid and conversion
of fats to glucose.

Vacuoles ● Spherical, empty sacs for storage of food

(food vacuole in animals), water vacuole (as in
for plants), and contractile vacuole
(nitrogenous waste, in amoeba).
● Vacuoles have a simple structure: they are
surrounded by a thin membrane and filled with
fluid and any molecules they take in. They
look similar to vesicles, another organelle,
because both are membrane-bound sacs, but
vacuoles are significantly larger
than vesicles and are formed when
multiple vesicles fuse together.
NON-MEMBRANOUS ORGANELLES
Ribosomes ● Tiny spherical structure scattered throughout
the cytoplasm.
● Types of ribosomes: (1) attached ribosomes –
 found attached to the endoplasmic reticulum;
(2) free-living ribosome - found scattered
throughout the cell’s cytoplasm
● Function: site of protein synthesis within the
cell. It is in the ribosomes that amino acids are
linked together to form protein.

Centrosome ● Organelle that is only present in an animal

cells, which mean ‘cell center’.
● The region of centrosome is near the nucleus.
within it are pair of small rod-like structures
called centrioles. Around the centrioles
(distinct minute cylindrical structure) are single
microtubules called aster.
● Functions: Centrioles are active in the process
of animal cell division since they serve as
poles which are sources of spindle fibers and
determine the plane of cell reproduction;
Asters is the one that initiates the formation of
spindle fibers during cell division.

Microtubules ● Hollow microscopic tubules which are made

up of protein molecules.
● Function: form the cytoskeleton of the cell
which serve as supportive structure and
maintains the shape of the cell; form spindle
fiber (chain of microtubules) which control the
movement of the chromosome; form the
centrosome of animal cell.

Microfilaments ● Solid microscopic tubules with a property of

contractility.
● These are the structural units of cilia and
flagella, the locomotory structures of the cell.
● Cilia – microscopic hair-like projection as in
paramecium
● Flagellum – a long whip-liked structure of the
cell as in euglena and bacteria
● Function: control of the movement of the cell.

Illustration of an Animal Cell

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 COLLEGE OF SCIENCE

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Common Structure of a Cell

Lesson

9
POST-TEST. Write your answers here.
Complete the table below by supplying the functions of the following organelles.

Organelles Functions

Lysosome

Microtubules

Golgi bodies

Ribosomes

Mitochondria

Vacuoles

Microfilaments

Peroxisomes

ER

Centrosome
 LESSON 10
PROKARYOTIC AND EUKARYOTIC CELLS

Differences between Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cell

Prokaryotic Eukaryotic
● Means “before nucleus” ● Means “true nucleus”

● No membrane-bounded nucleus ● Nucleus is bounded by a membrane

● Circular strands of DNA ● DNA in several linear chromosomes

● Few cell organelles ● Many specialized organelles

● Unicellular ● Multicellular, except for unicellular

protist like Euglena
● Small ribosomes ● Large ribosomes

● Microtubules are usually absent ● Microtubules are present

● Cell wall contains murein ● Cell wall, when present as in plants

does not contain murein

● May contain chlorophyll but not ● Chlorophyll, when present as in plant

within the chloroplast cells, is within the chloroplast

● Cell reproduction: undergo direct cell ● Cell reproduction: undergo indirect

division (amitosis) cell division (mitosis)

● Intercellular links: pili for DNA ● Does not contain pili

exchange

● Flagella: lack 9 + 2 tubular structure ● Flagella, when present, have 9 + 2

tubular structure

Anatomy of a Bacterial Cell

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Lesson
Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic
10 Cells
_________________________________________________________

POST-TEST
Answer the following questions in 3 to 5 sentences only.

1. Give at least 3 point differences of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells. Write your
answers in bulleted form.

2. Explain the difference of a prokaryotic flagellum from eukaryotic flagellum.

3. Explain briefly the difference of cell reproduction in prokaryotic and eukaryotic

cell.
 LESSON 11
PHYSIOLOGY OF THE CELLS

Physiology of Cells
● Cells are regarded as highly organized unit engaged in ceaseless chemical
activities. These activities are dependent on the continuous reception of the
substances from the so-called internal environment and the elimination of
substances to the tissue fluid.
● Walter C. Canon, an American physiologist, coined the term homeostasis, which
is defined as the overall process of maintaining optimum internal environmental
conditions.
● Intercellular materials are the materials located or occurring between cells and
also known as interstitial fluid. Described as a viscous solution containing
inorganic chemicals, proteins, carbohydrate, and lipids. The primary difference
from intercellular material is the kind of protein and amounts of various
chemicals present.

Physical Processes that Govern the Movement of Materials Across Cell

Membrane
1. Passive Transport – those that do not require a source of energy.
a. Diffusion
● Diffusion is the movement of the solute to spread thru the solution until
the composition is homogenous.
● The movement of the region of higher concentration to that of the lower
concentration.
● The net movement of molecules from the area where they are higher
concentration to an area where they are more scarce.
● Factors affecting the rate of diffusion
o Size of molecules and ions – the smaller the size, the faster the
rate of diffusion
o The concentration of gradient – the greater the difference in a
concentration gradient, the faster the rate of diffusion
o Temperature – the higher the temperature, the faster the
movement of the molecules.

b. Osmosis
● The passage of solvent through a semi-permeable membrane.
● Osmosis is the given name to the diffusion of water through a semi-
permeable membrane, such membrane is permeable only to the
solvent, not to the solute.
● The pressure applied to the solution to prevent solvent flow through the
membrane is called osmotic pressure.
● Osmotic pressure is vital to living cells because of the enclosing semi-
permeable membrane of the cells through which they communicate
with their environment.
● Osmotic Characteristics of Solutions
o Isotonic – have the same osmotic characteristics to the blood
serum. This will not affect the size and shape of RBC.
o Hypertonic – have a higher osmotic characteristic than that of the
blood serum. In this type of solution, the RBC will shrink. This
process is called crenation in animals and plasmolysis in plants.
Shrinking of plant cell result to wilting
o Hypotonic – have lower osmotic characteristic than that of the
blood serum. In this solution, the RBC will swell and may burst.
The process is called hemolysis in animals and plasmoptysis in
 plants. In plants, swelling of the cell does not result to bursting
since plant cell is covered with cell wall. Instead, the plant
becomes turgid and crisp.

c. Dialysis
● Dialysis is a common biological chemical method of separating and
purifying by selective passage of ions and minute molecules through a
semi-permeable membrane that will not allow proteins to pass through.
● Rate of dialysis depends of the following factors:
o The area of dialyzer
o The size of the pores
o Temperature
o Electric charges
o The relative concentration of solution on the two sides of the
membrane

d. Filtration
● The passage of solution across a semi-permeable membrane as a
result of mechanical force (gravity).

2. Active Transport – those that require a source of energy, involves the movement
of substances regardless of concentration gradient. (ex. Sodium and potassium
pump)
1. Endocytosis
● An active process wherein the cell encloses the substance in
membrane-bounded vesicles pinched off from the cell membrane.
● Term for a phenomena involving the surrounding and ingestion of
various substances by the plasma membrane.
● Types of Endocytosis
o Phagocytosis
▪ A process wherein the material is in a form or large particles
or chunks of matter.
▪ It is also known as “cell eating” process.
▪ The vacuoles formed within the cell are called “phagosomes”
and are attached to lysosome. The hydrolytic enzymes of
lysosome digest the particular matter.
▪ For instance, in amoeba, arm-liked processes called
“pseudopodia” flow around the material, enclosing it within a
vesicle which then becomes detached from the plasma
membrane and migrates into the interior of the cell.
o Pinocytosis
▪ Is a process of engulfing liquid materials or small particles, it
is also known as the “cell drinking” process.
▪ The steps in pinocytosis is that the material first becomes
attached to the cell membrane, on a selective binding site.
Then the loaded membrane either flows inward to form a
deep narrow channels. At the end of which vesicles are
simple detached directly from the membrane at the cell
surface.

2. Exocytosis
● An energy requiring process by which secretory granules discharged
their contents by fusing with the cell membrane.
● It is a reverse of endocytosis, materials contained in a membranous
vesicles are carried to the side of the cell where the vesicular
 membrane fuses with the cell membrane and the bursts, releasing the
materials to the exterior.
● This is the way by which hormones and waste materials are released
from the cell.

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Lesson

11 Physiology of the Cells

_________________________________________________________

POST-TEST
Answer the following in 2 to 3 sentences only.

1. What is the difference of the following:

a. Passive from active transport
b. Diffusion from osmosis
c. Hypotonic from hypertonic
d. Phagocytosis from pinocytosis

2. Who is Walter C. Canon, and what processed did he described?

Republic of the Philippines

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 COLLEGE OF SCIENCE

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Lesson

12 Cell Divisions
_________________________________________________________

PRE-TEST
Draw and label the mitotic cell division, and identify its stages and parts.

LESSON 12
CELL DIVISIONS
Introduction
● All living forms on earth have their own life cycles: a series of progressive stages
of an individual that goes through from the time it is born until the time it
reproduces.
● The cell cycle can be thought of as the life cycle of a cell. A series of growth and
development steps a cell undergoes between its “birth”—formation by the
division of a mother cell—and reproduction—division to make two new daughter
cells.

Stages of the Cell Cycle

● A cell must complete several important tasks: it must grow, copy its genetic
material (DNA), and physically split into two daughter cells.
● The cells do the tasks in a systematic, predictable series of stages that make up
the cycle.
● It is a cell cycle because, at the end of each go-round, the daughter cells will
start the same process over again from the beginning.
● In eukaryotic cells or cells with a nucleus, cell cycle stages are divided into two
major phases: interphase and the mitotic (M) phase. The interphase, the cell
grows and copies the DNA; during the mitotic (M) phase, the cell separates its
DNA into two sets and divides its cytoplasm, forming two new cells.

Interphase
● Let’s enter the cell cycle just as a cell form by the division of its mother cell. What
must this newborn cell do next if it wants to go on and divide itself?
● Preparation for division happens in three steps:
o G1 starts subscript, 1, end subscript phase. During G1 start subscript, 1, end
subscript phase, known the primary gap phase, the cell grows larger,
organelles becomes two in number and makes the molecular building blocks
it will need in later steps. 
o S phase. In the S phase, the cell produces a complete and the same copy of
deoxyribonucleic acid in its nucleus. It also copies a microtubule-organizing
structure called the centrosome. The centrosomes help separate DNA during
the M phase.
o G2 starts subscript, 2, end subscript phase. During the second gap phase or
G2 start subscript, 2, end subscript phase, the cells develops more, produce
proteins and organelles, and begin to reorganize its contents in preparation
for mitosis. G2 starts subscript, 2; end subscript phase ends when mitosis
begins.
● The G11 start subscript, 1, end subscript, S, and G2 start subscript, 2, end
subscript phases together are known as interphase. The prefix inter- means
between, reflecting that interphase occurs between one mitotic (M) phase and
the next.
Image of the cell cycle. Interphase is composed of G1 phase (cell growth), followed by S phase (DNA
synthesis), followed by G2 phase (cell growth). At the end of interphase comes the mitotic phase,
which is made up of mitosis and cytokinesis and leads to the formation of two daughter cells. Mitosis
precedes cytokinesis, though the two processes typically overlap somewhat.
Image credit: "The cell cycle: Figure 1" by OpenStax College, Biology (CC BY 3.0).

M phase
● During the mitotic (M) phase, the cell divides its copied DNA and cytoplasm to
make two new cells. M phase involves two distinct division-related processes:
mitosis and cytokinesis.
● In mitotic division, the nuclear DNA of the cell condenses into visible
chromosomes. It is pulled apart by the mitotic spindle, a specialized structure
made out of microtubules.
● Mitosis occurs in four stages: prophase (sometimes divided into early prophase
and prometaphase), metaphase, anaphase, and telophase.
● In the process of cytokinesis, the cytoplasm of the cell is split into two, making
two new cells. Cytokinesis usually begins just as mitosis is ending, with a little
overlap. Importantly, cytokinesis takes place differently in animal and plant cells.
Cytokinesis in animal and plant cells
● In an animal cell, a contractile ring of cytoskeletal fibers forms in the middle of
the cell and contracts inward, producing an indentation called the cleavage
furrow. Eventually, the contractile ring pinches the mother cell in two, creating
two daughter cells.
● In a plant cell, vesicles derived from the Golgi apparatus move to the middle of
the cell, where they fuse to form a cell plate structure. The cell plate expands
outwards and connects with the cell’s sidewalls, creating a new cell wall that
partitions the mother cell to make two daughter cells.

What is mitosis?
● Mitosis is a cell division wherein one cell (the mother) undergoes division to have
genetically identical daughters. In a cell cycle, mitosis is the division process
where the nucleus’s DNA is dividing into two equal sets of chromosomes.
● The majority of the cell divisions that are happening in the body involves mitosis.
During development and growth, mitosis increases in the body of an organism
within cells, and throughout an organism’s life, it changes old cells with new
ones. For eukaryotes (a single-celled organism) such as the yeast, mitotic cell
divisions are a form of reproduction, that adds individuals to the population of
that certain organisms.
● In these cases, the “aim” of mitotic division is to make sure that the daughter cell
gets a complete sets of chromosomes with too few or too many chromosomes
that is typically doesn't function well: this may not endure, or cause tumor or
cancer. When these cells undergo mitosis, they don’t just divide their DNA at
random and piles it into the two daughter cells. But, they divides their duplicated
chromosomes in an organized series of stages.

Phases of mitosis
● Mitotic cell divisions have four basic phases: prophase, metaphase, anaphase,
and telophase. In some books it has five stages, the breaking of prophase into
an early prophase and a late prophase. These phases occur in strict consecutive
order, and the division of cytoplasm - the process of dividing the cell contents to
make two new cells - starts in anaphase or telophase.

Stages of mitosis: prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase. Cytokinesis typically

overlaps with anaphase and/or telophase.

● You can remember the order of the phases with the famous mnemonic:
[Please] Pee on the MAT. But don’t get too hung up on names – what’s most
important to understand is what’s happening at each stage, and why it’s
important for the division of the chromosomes.
Late G2 phase
● The cell has two centrosomes, each with two centrioles, and the DNA has been
copied. At this stage, the DNA is surrounded by an intact nuclear membrane,
and the nucleolus is present in the nucleus.
● This cell is in interphase (late G22start subscript, 2, end subscript phase) and
has already copied its DNA, so the chromosomes in the nucleus each consist of
two connected copies, called sister chromatids. You can’t see the chromosomes
very clearly at this point, because they are still in their long, stringy,
decondensed form.
● This animal cell has also made a copy of its centrosome, an organelle that will
play a key role in orchestrating mitosis, so there are two centrosomes. (Plant
cells generally don’t have centrosomes with centrioles, but have a different type
of microtubule organizing center that plays a similar role.)
Early prophase.
● The mitotic spindle starts to form, the chromosomes start to condense, and the
nucleolus disappears.
● In early prophase, the cell starts to break down some structures and build others
up, setting the stage for division of the chromosomes.
● The chromosomes start to condense (making them easier to pull apart later on).
● The mitotic spindle begins to form. The spindle is a structure made of
microtubules, strong fibers that are part of the cell’s “skeleton.” Its job is to
organize the chromosomes and move them around during mitosis. The spindle
grows between the centrosomes as they move apart.
● The nucleolus (or nucleoli, plural), a part of the nucleus where ribosomes are
made, disappears. This is a sign that the nucleus is getting ready to break down.

Late prophase (prometaphase).

● The nuclear envelope breaks down and the chromosomes are fully condensed.
● In late prophase (sometimes also called prometaphase), the mitotic spindle
begins to capture and organize the chromosomes.
● The chromosomes become even more condensed, so they are very compact.
● The nuclear envelope breaks down, releasing the chromosomes.
● The mitotic spindle grows more, and some of the microtubules start to “capture”
chromosomes.
Metaphase
● Chromosomes line up at the metaphase plate, under tension from the mitotic
spindle. The two sister chromatids of each chromosome are captured by
microtubules from opposite spindle poles.
● In metaphase, the spindle has captured all the chromosomes and lined them up
at the middle of the cell, ready to divide.
● All the chromosomes align at the metaphase plate (not a physical structure, just
a term for the plane where the chromosomes line up).
● At this stage, the two kinetochores of each chromosome should be attached to
microtubules from opposite spindle poles.
● Before proceeding to anaphase, the cell will check to make sure that all the
chromosomes are at the metaphase plate with their kinetochores correctly
attached to microtubules. This is called the spindle checkpoint and helps ensure
that the sister chromatids will split evenly between the two daughter cells when
they separate in the next step. If a chromosome is not properly aligned or
attached, the cell will halt division until the problem is fixed.

Anaphase
● The sister chromatids separate from one another and are pulled towards
opposite poles of the cell. The microtubules that are not attached to
chromosomes push the two poles of the spindle apart, while the kinetochore
microtubules pull the chromosomes towards the poles.
● In anaphase, the sister chromatids separate from each other and are pulled
towards opposite ends of the cell.
● The protein “glue” that holds the sister chromatids together is broken down,
allowing them to separate. Each is now its own chromosome. The chromosomes
of each pair are pulled towards opposite ends of the cell.
● Microtubules not attached to chromosomes elongate and push apart, separating
the poles and making the cell longer.
● All of these processes are driven by motor proteins, molecular machines that can
“walk” along microtubule tracks and carry a cargo. In mitosis, motor proteins
carry chromosomes or other microtubules as they walk.
Telophase
● The spindle disappears, a nuclear membrane re-forms around each set of
chromosomes, and a nucleolus reappears in each new nucleus. The
chromosomes also start to decondense.
● In telophase, the cell is nearly done dividing, and it starts to re-establish its
normal structures as cytokinesis (division of the cell contents) takes place.
● The mitotic spindle is broken down into its building blocks.
● Two new nuclei form, one for each set of chromosomes. Nuclear membranes
and nucleoli reappear.
● The chromosomes begin to decondense and return to their “stringy” form.
Cytokinesis in animal and plant cells.
● Cytokinesis in an animal cell: an actin ring around the middle of the cell pinches
inward, creating an indentation called the cleavage furrow.
● Cytokinesis in a plant cell: the cell plate forms down the middle of the cell,
creating a new wall that partitions it in two.
● Cytokinesis, the division of the cytoplasm to form two new cells, overlaps with
the final stages of mitosis. It may start in either anaphase or telophase,
depending on the cell, and finishes shortly after telophase.
● In animal cells, cytokinesis is contractile, pinching the cell in two like a coin purse
with a drawstring. The “drawstring” is a band of filaments made of a protein
called actin, and the pinch crease is known as the cleavage furrow. Plant cells
can’t be divided like this because they have a cell wall and are too stiff. Instead,
a structure called the cell plate forms down the middle of the cell, splitting it into
two daughter cells separated by a new wall.

● When division is complete, it produces two daughter cells. Each daughter cell
has a complete set of chromosomes, identical to that of its sister (and that of the
mother cell). The daughter cells enter the cell cycle in G1.
● When cytokinesis finishes, we end up with two new cells, each with a complete
set of chromosomes identical to those of the mother cell. The daughter cells can
now begin their own cellular works.
https://www.khanacademy.org/science/biology/cellular-molecular-biology/mitosis/a/phases-of-mitosis

Meiosis
● Meiosis, on the other hand, is used for just one purpose in the human body: the
production of gametes—sex cells, or sperm and eggs. Its goal is to make
daughter cells with exactly half as many chromosomes as the starting cell.
● To put that another way, meiosis in humans is a division process that takes us
from a diploid cell—one with two sets of chromosomes—to haploid cells—ones
with a single set of chromosomes. In humans, the haploid cells made in meiosis
are sperm and eggs. When a sperm and an egg join in fertilization, the two
haploid sets of chromosomes form a complete diploid set: a new genome.

Phases of meiosis
● In many ways, meiosis is a lot like mitosis. The cell goes through similar stages
and uses similar strategies to organize and separate chromosomes. In meiosis,
however, the cell has a more complex task. It still needs to separate sister
chromatids (the two halves of a duplicated chromosome), as in mitosis. But it
must also separate homologous chromosomes, the similar but nonidentical
chromosome pairs an organism receives from its two parents. 
● These goals are accomplished in meiosis using a two-step division process.
Homologue pairs separate during a first round of cell division, called meiosis I.
Sister chromatids separate during a second round, called meiosis II.
● Since cell division occurs twice during meiosis, one starting cell can produce four
gametes (eggs or sperm). In each round of division, cells go through four stages:
prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase.

Meiosis I
● Before entering meiosis I, a cell must first go through interphase. As in mitosis,
the cell grows during G11start subscript, 1, end subscript phase, copies all of its
chromosomes during S phase, and prepares for division during G22start
subscript, 2, end subscript phase.
● During prophase I, differences from mitosis begin to appear. As in mitosis, the
chromosomes begin to condense, but in meiosis I, they also pair up. Each
chromosome carefully aligns with its homologue partner so that the two match
up at corresponding positions along their full length.
● For instance, in the image below, the letters A, B, and C represent genes found
at particular spots on the chromosome, with capital and lowercase letters for
different forms, or alleles, of each gene. The DNA is broken at the same spot on
each homologue—here, between genes B and C—and reconnected in a criss-
cross pattern so that the homologues exchange part of their DNA.

● Image credit: based on "The process of meiosis: Figure 2" by OpenStax College, Biology, CC BY 3.0

Image of crossing over

● Two homologous chromosomes carry different versions of three genes. One has
the A, B, and C versions, while the other has the a, b, and c versions. A
crossover event in which two chromatids—one from each homologue—
exchange fragments swaps the C and c genes. Now, each homologue has two
dissimilar chromatids.
● One has A, B, C on one chromatid and A, B, c on the other chromatid.
● The other homologue has a, b, c on one chromatid and a, b, C on the other
chromatid.
● This process, in which homologous chromosomes trade parts, is called crossing
over. It's helped along by a protein structure called the synaptonemal
complex that holds the homologues together. The chromosomes would actually
be positioned one on top of the other—as in the image below—throughout
crossing over; they're only shown side-by-side in the image above so that it's
easier to see the exchange of genetic material.

Image of two homologous chromosomes, positioned one on top of the other and held
together by the synaptonemal complex.
Image credit: based on "The process of meiosis: Figure 1" by OpenStax College, Biology, CC BY 3.0
 The phases of meiosis I.
● Prophase I: The starting cell is diploid, 2n = 4. Homologous chromosomes pair up
and exchange fragments in the process of crossing over.
● Metaphase I: Homologue pairs line up at the metaphase plate.
● Anaphase I: Homologues separate to opposite ends of the cell. Sister chromatids
stay together.
● Telophase I: Newly forming cells are haploid, n = 2. Each chromosome still has
two sister chromatids, but the chromatids of each chromosome are no longer
identical to each other.
● When the homologous pairs line up at the metaphase plate, the orientation of
each pair is random. For instance, in the diagram above, the pink version of the
big chromosome and the purple version of the little chromosome happen to be
positioned towards the same pole and go into the same cell. But the orientation
could have equally well been flipped, so that both purple chromosomes went into
the cell together. This allows for the formation of gametes with different sets of
homologues. 
● In anaphase I, the homologues are pulled apart and move apart to opposite ends
of the cell. The sister chromatids of each chromosome, however, remain attached
to one another and don't come apart.
● Finally, in telophase I, the chromosomes arrive at opposite poles of the cell. In
some organisms, the nuclear membrane re-forms and the chromosomes
decondense, although in others, this step is skipped—since cells will soon go
through another round of division, meiosis II2,32,3start superscript, 2, comma, 3,
end superscript. Cytokinesis usually occurs at the same time as telophase I,
forming two haploid daughter cells. 

Meiosis II
● Cells move from meiosis I to meiosis II without copying their DNA. Meiosis II is a
shorter and simpler process than meiosis I, and you may find it helpful to think of
meiosis II as “mitosis for haploid cells."
● The cells that enter meiosis II are the ones made in meiosis I. These cells are
haploid—have just one chromosome from each homologue pair—but their
chromosomes still consist of two sister chromatids. In meiosis II, the sister
chromatids separate, making haploid cells with non-duplicated chromosomes.
Phases of meiosis II
● Prophase II: Starting cells are the haploid cells made in meiosis I. Chromosomes
condense.
● Metaphase II: Chromosomes line up at the metaphase plate.
● Anaphase II: Sister chromatids separate to opposite ends of the cell.
● Telophase II: Newly forming gametes are haploid, and each chromosome now
has just one chromatid.
● During prophase II, chromosomes condense and the nuclear envelope breaks
down, if needed. The centrosomes move apart, the spindle forms between them,
and the spindle microtubules begin to capture chromosomes. The two sister
chromatids of each chromosome are captured by microtubules from opposite
spindle poles.

● In metaphase II, the chromosomes line up individually along the metaphase

plate.

● In anaphase II, the sister chromatids separate and are pulled towards opposite
poles of the cell.

● In telophase II, nuclear membranes form around each set of chromosomes, and
the chromosomes decondense. Cytokinesis splits the chromosome sets into new
cells, forming the final products of meiosis: four haploid cells in which each
 chromosome has just one chromatid. In humans, the products of meiosis are
sperm or egg cells. 

● How meiosis "mixes and matches" genes

● The gametes produced in meiosis are all haploid, but they're not genetically
identical. For example, take a look the meiosis II diagram above, which shows
the products of meiosis for a cell with  2n=42n=42, n, equals, 4 chromosomes.
Each gamete has a unique "sample" of the genetic material present in the
starting cell. 

● As it turns out, there are many more potential gamete types than just the four
shown in the diagram, even for a cell with only four chromosomes. The two main
reasons we can get many genetically different gametes are:

● Crossing over. The points where homologues cross over and exchange genetic
material are chosen more or less at random, and they will be different in each
cell that goes through meiosis. If meiosis happens many times, as in humans,
crossovers will happen at many different points.

● Random orientation of homologue pairs. The random orientation of homologue

pairs in metaphase I allows for the production of gametes with many different
assortments of homologous chromosomes.
https://www.khanacademy.org/science/biology/cellular-molecular-biology/meiosis/a/phases-of-meiosis

Republic of the Philippines

Bulacan State University
City of Malolos, Bulacan
 COLLEGE OF SCIENCE

NAME: SCORE:

COURSE, YR. & SEC. GROUP:

INSTRUCTOR: MARLYN ROSE M. SACDALAN DATE:

Lesson

12 Cell Divisions
_________________________________________________________

POST-TEST
Draw and label the meiotic cell division, and identify its stages and parts.

UNIT TITLE: TISSUES

TITLE OF THE LESSON: ANIMAL TISSUES

DURATION: 3 hours
INTRODUCTION
Animals are composed of specific tissues, which are groups of cells similar in
structure that perform a common function. Groups of two or more tissue types form
organs, and two or more organs form organ systems. For example, nervous tissue is
composed of cells called neurons that receive and conduct electrical signals.
Nervous tissue, along with other tissue types, forms the brain, spinal cord and
nerves (organs), which collectively make up the nervous system (organ system).

OBJECTIVES:
At the end of the lesson, the students should be able to:
1. Describe epithelial tissues
2. Discuss the different types of connective tissues in animals
3. Describe three types of muscle tissues
4. Describe nervous tissue

CONTENTS:
1. Epithelial Tissues
2. Connective Tissues
3. Muscle Tissues
4. Nervous Tissues

LESSON 13
ANIMAL TISSUES

Animal Tissue
❖ Multicellular (large) organisms function more efficiently if cells become
specialized for specific functions.
❖ A tissue is composed of cells that function together in a
 specialized activity.

There are four types of tissues found in an animal.

1. Epithelial tissue
2. Connective tissue
3. Muscle tissue
4. Nervous tissue

1. Epithelial tissue
Forming tight covering and
protecting layers below

2. Connective tissue
Holding other tissues
together and are surrounded by
lots of nonliving material.

3. Muscle tissue
Shortening and lengthening to
move other tissues.

4. Nervous tissue
Allowing rapid flow of ions
in and out to conduct
signals

A. EPITHELIAL TISSUES
❖ Epithelial tissues line body surfaces and cavities, as well as form glands.
❖ The cells of the tissue are closely connected to each other via cellular
junctions and because epithelium is found on the edges of organs, it has two
distinct surfaces.
❖ The apical surface is exposed to the body cavity or exterior, while the basal
surface is adjacent to the underlying tissue.
 ❖ Epithelia contain no blood vessels (they are non-vascular) and are dependent
upon the underlying connective tissue for nutrients.

There are different types of epithelial tissue which are named according to the
number of layers they form and the shape of the individual cells that make up those
layers.

According to shape:

1. Squamous – thin flat cells

Figure SEQ Figure \*

2. Cuboidal – cells are roughly square

3. Columnar - elongated cells

Figure 2 cuboidal

Figure 3 columnar

Epithelial
Location in
tissue Structure Function
body
type
Thin and flat cells that are
Simple: elliptically shaped and lie
Simple
capillaries, on basement membrane. Responsible for diffusion.
squamous
alveoli (in Simple squamous Thin structure allows for
and
lungs); epithelium is one-cell thick. movement of substances
stratified
stratified: Stratified squamous across the cells.
squamous
skin epithelium consists of many
layers.
Kidney
tubules or
Serve a protective function
glands Cube-like in structure; may
against bacteria and the
(regions of occasionally have
wearing away of certain
Cuboidal the body structures
organs by lining various
responsible called microvilli on surface
structures. Also prevent water
for to aid absorption.
loss.
excretion).

Elongated cells, nuclei

Main function is protective.
Digestive located at the base of the
Prevents against bacterial
tract, cell. Cells connected by
Columnar infection. Can also secrete
reproductive tight junctions and receive
mucus to protect surface from
organs their nutrients from the
damage.
basement membrane.
A sub-type of columnar epithelium called ciliated columnar epithelium is found in
some places in the body. Ciliated columnar epithelium contain little finger-like
projections called cilia. These cilia beat in a wave-like motion to move particles,
mucus or other substances around the body. Ciliated epithelium is found in the
trachea and bronchi of the respiratory system and in the fallopian tubes of the
female reproductive tract.

According to number of layers:

1. Simple epithelium refers to a single layer of cells. 

2. Stratified epithelium refers to two or more layers of cells.

Note: Pseudostratified epithelium refers to epithelium consisting of one layer but

looking as though it consists of more than one layer.

❖ Two types of epithelial tissues

1. Covering and lining epithelium ( outer layer of the skin and some organs)
2. Glandular epithelium ( constitute the secreting portion of glands)
❖ Glands are made up of single or a mass of epithelial cells.
Two types of glands
1. Exocrine - Secrete their products
in to ducts
Ex . Salivary glands and
mammary glands
2. Endocrine - Secrete their
products into blood
stream
Ex. Pancreas

General functions of epithelial tissue

● Provides a barrier between the external environment and the organ it covers.
● Specialized to function in secretion and absorption.
● Protects organisms from microorganisms, injury, and fluid loss.
● Excretes waste products such as sweat from the skin.

B. CONNECTIVE TISSUES
Connective tissue is a biological tissue that is important in supporting, connecting or
separating different types of tissues and organs in the body. All connective tissue is
made up of cells, fibres (such as collagen) and extracellular matrix. The type of
intercellular matrix differs in different connective tissues. There are different types of
connective tissues with different functions. Note: All connective tissues are
characterized by cells separated from each other and found in some type of
intercellular matrix.

The organic portion or protein fibers found in connective tissues are either collagen,
elastic, or reticular fibers. Collagen fibers provide strength to the tissue, preventing it
from being torn or separated from the surrounding tissues. Elastic fibers are made of
the protein elastin; this fiber can stretch to one and one half of its length and return to
its original size and shape. Elastic fibers provide flexibility to the tissues. Reticular
fibers are the third type of protein fiber found in connective tissues. This fiber
consists of thin strands of collagen that form a network of fibers to support the tissue
and other organs to which it is connected. 

Electron micrographs of blood cells

Scanning electron Scanning electron

microscope image of microscope image of a
circulating blood white blood cell (right), a
showing several red and platelet (centre) and a red
white blood cells. blood cell (left).

Connective
Structure Function Location Diagram/Photo
tissue type
holds the surrounds
organs in blood vessels
jelly matrix; has
place, and nerves
Areolar network of Loose connective
cushions and found in the
(loose elastic fibres tissue.
protects mesentry
connective) which attach
organs (acts which
together
as a packing surrounds the
material) intestine
 in tendons,
acts as a
ligaments and
shock
many tough
White consists of non- absorber,
membrane
fibrous elastic fibres transfers or
sheaths that
absorbs White fibrous
surround
forces tissue.
organs

gives
structure,
shape and
rubbery matrix, joints, nose,
strength;
Cartilage can be flexible sternum,
reduces
or rigid trachea
friction;
Cartilage
provides
support
made up of provides
collagen fibres; strength and
mineralised support;
bones found all
Bone tissue with calcium creates red
over the body
and blood cells
Osteoclast, a type
phosphates to and white
of bone tissue.
make it solid blood cells
The following table lists some of the different types of connective tissue.

Blood

Blood is regarded as a specialized form of connective tissue because it originates in

the bones and has some fibres. Blood is composed of red blood cells, white blood
cells and platelets. These components are suspended in a yellow fluid known as
plasma.

Red blood cells: called erythrocytes are made in the red bone marrow. They do not
have a nucleus and are biconcave in shape. Their biconcave shape makes them
flexible so that they can squeeze through narrow capillaries. It also gives them a
bigger surface to volume ratio, so that they absorb and release gases faster. Red
blood cells have a short life span of approximately 120 days. Red blood cells contain
the protein known as hemoglobin. Hemoglobin contains the pigment known as heme
that has an iron (Fe) at its center that combines with oxygen.
Hemoglobin releases oxygen as required and takes up carbon dioxide. Red blood
cells transport oxygen from the lungs to the tissues and returns carbon dioxide from
the tissues to the lungs.

White blood cells: Are commonly known as leukocytes and are produced in the
yellow bone marrow and lymph nodes. The cells have one or more nuclei. White
blood cells are slightly larger than red blood cells and are more irregular in shape.
Their main function is to protect the body from diseases. There are several types of
white blood cells.

Platelets: Also known as thrombocytes are produced in the bone marrow and are
fragments of bone marrow cells. They have no nuclei. Platelets assist in the clotting
of blood and prevent excessive bleeding.
Plasma: Plasma is the pale-yellow component of blood that allows the rest of the
components of blood to float in suspension. It makes up about 55% of total blood
volume. It contains dissolved proteins, hormones, urea and carbon dioxide. Its main
functions are to transport nutrients, cells and metabolic waste products and maintain
blood volume.

C. MUSCLE TISSUES
There are three types of muscle tissue:
1. skeletal
2. smooth
3. cardiac

Skeletal and cardiac muscle are striated. Striated muscle cells are striped, with
regular patterns of proteins responsible for contraction. Striated muscle contracts
and relaxes in short bursts, whereas smooth muscle contracts for longer.
1. Skeletal muscle is a voluntary muscle. It is striated in appearance. Skeletal
muscle tissue has regularly arranged bundles. It is anchored by tendons and is used
to effect skeletal muscle movement, such as locomotion, and maintain posture. The
muscles have a reflex action but can also respond to conscious control.
2. Smooth muscle is an involuntary, non-striated muscle with tapered ends. It is
found within the walls of blood vessels such as arteries and veins. Smooth muscle is
also found in the digestive system, urinary tract and in the trachea. It is responsible
for involuntary rhythmic contractions of peristalsis, required for moving food down the
alimentary canal, and for the dilation and construction of blood vessels to control
blood pressure.
3. Cardiac muscle is the major tissue making up the heart. It is an involuntary
muscle that is striated in appearance. However, unlike skeletal muscle, cardiac
muscle connects at branching, irregular angles. The connected branches help with
coordinated contractions of the heart.
D. NERVOUS TISSUES
Cells making up the central nervous system and peripheral nervous system are
classified as nervous tissue. In the central nervous system, nervous tissue forms the
brain and spinal cord. In the peripheral nervous system the nervous tissue forms the
cranial nerves and spinal nerves, which include the sensory and motor neurons.

The function of nerve tissue is to transmit nerve impulses around the body. Nerves
consist of a cell body (soma), dendrites, which receive impulses, and axons which
send impulses. The axons of neurons are surrounded by a myelin sheath. The
myelin sheath consists of layers of myelin, a white fatty substance. The myelin
sheath's main function is to insulate nerve fibres and it also increases the speed of
the impulses transmitted by the nerve cell. There are three types of nerve cells:
sensory neurons, interneurons and motor neurons.

Sensory neuron Motor neuron Interneuron

Sensory neurons are Motor neurons carry These neurons are very
responsible for sending impulses from the CNS short compared to the
information about the
environment (called to muscles or glands. In
stimuli) to the central most cases the motor sensory and motor
nervous system. They neuron causes muscle neurons. The connectors
are activated by touch, contraction (movement), or interneurons connect
light, temperature, but motor neurons can a sensory neuron with a
pressure, hearing etc. also cause secretion of motor neuron. The
Sensory nerve cells (or substances by glands. impulse travels from the
sensory neurons) carry The motor neuron cell body at the head
impulses (electrical causes a response via end along the short axon
signals) from a receptor chemicals known as to the dendrites.
to the central nervous neurotransmitters.
system (CNS).

Republic of the Philippines

Bulacan State University
City of Malolos, Bulacan

COLLEGE OF SCIENCE

NAME: SCORE:

COURSE, YR. & SEC. GROUP:

INSTRUCTOR: MARLYN ROSE M. SACDALAN DATE:

Lesson

13 Animal Tissues
_________________________________________________________
POST-TEST
In a table form, identify the 4 animal tissues then give the description on the
first column, its’ shape on the second column, the function on the third and an
example on the fourth column.