1

PORT PLANNING
Constantine D. Memos
National Technical University of Athens
Zografos, Greece

1.1 Introduction / 7 pacity or upgrading port operations. The issue

1.2 Port planning at the national level / 7 of port development is examined at three dif-
1.2.1 National port policy / 7 ferent levels: national, local, and port terminal.
1.2.2 Definition of port functions / 8 Complete study of the above can be a com-
1.3 Port planning at the individual port plicated procedure since it presupposes a
level / 10 contribution by many specialists of various
1.3.1 Port development planning / 10 disciplines. The analysis laid out in the follow-
1.3.2 Principles of port design / 11 ing pages derives from the discipline of a civil
1.3.3 Cargo volume forecasts / 14 engineer specialized in port planning who has
1.3.4 Port productivity / 15 undertaken the task of conceiving and design-
1.3.5 The master plan / 17 ing the pertinent elements, in most cases as part
1.3.6 General layout of port works / 17 of an interdisciplinary team charged with the
1.4 Port planning at the terminal level / 30 overall port development planning. In design-
1.4.1 Port development / 30 ing at the port or terminal level, aspects per-
1.4.2 General cargo terminal / 31 taining to the maritime aspects of ports are also
1.4.3 Container terminal / 37
dealt with. Such issues include the general lay-
1.4.4 Marinas / 46
out of breakwaters and quays and the design of
1.4.5 Fishing ports / 57
entrances and maneuvering areas.
References and recommended reading / 63

1.2 PORT PLANNING AT THE

1.1 INTRODUCTION NATIONAL LEVEL

Port development can refer either to the crea- 1.2.1 National Port Policy
tion of a new port or to the expansion of an Until recently, ports in many countries have
existing one, usually aimed at increasing its ca- usually been developed as part of local port
7
8 PORT PLANNING

development programs. Such programs nor- centralized coordination of port development

mally do not take into consideration the cor- efforts is required at a national level. A sig-
responding plans of other ports within the nificant service that such coordination would
country, a factor that would have resulted in produce refers to determination of the most
better coordination for increased national ben- suitable ports for attracting transit or transship-
efit. Indeed, in many cases, instead of attempt- ment movement on a national level. This ac-
ing to achieve mutual complementing of aims, quires particular significance nowadays, where
undue competition tends to develop between such cargo movement is conducted mainly in
ports within the same country. In government- containers, and the corresponding port instal-
owned ports this situation can result in un- lations are very costly.
economical investment of national capital in In more general terms, the existence of a
competing projects, and moreover, in loss of national port policy could broadly define the
opportunities to attract a portion of interna- role of each port in a country, so that in the
tional maritime traffic. context of the national economy, the available
The competitive tendencies relate to the for- funding can be employed as productively as
eign trade of the country, foreign goods in possible. Depending on a country’s develop-
transit, and goods being transshipped: the ment and its tendency for privatization, the al-
international flows that evidence potential for location of roles to each port may be conducted
development as opposed to internal transports, in such a manner as to permit a large percent-
which have more-or-less preset movement pat- age of these ports to be released from national
terns. These trade flows can be defined as fol- coordination and to undertake their own devel-
lows: opment.

• Foreign trade flows relate to the exports 1.2.2 Definitions of Port Functions
and imports of a country, and conse-
quently, have their origin or destination in Today, the port has acquired its standing within
that country. the intermodal transport system by constituting
a nodal point between two transport modes. In
• Goods in transit are those goods in inter-
seaports, one mode concerns maritime trans-
national flow whose land transport leg uses
port; in river ports, this mode concerns river
the territory of the country and one of its
transport. The nodal linkage between two dif-
ports.
ferent modes of transport should be functional,
• Goods being transshipped, where both or- permitting efficient and secure movement of
igin and destination are located outside the passengers, cargo, and vehicles. A civil port is a
country but both of whose transport modes passenger, cargo, or combined port depend-ing
are marine. Consequently, in this flow only on the traffic that it serves. In a combined part,
the specific ports of the country are used, both passengers and cargo provide a sig-nificant
not overland transport. percentage of the traffic. Of course, specialized
ports exist, such as marinas (for harboring
The latter two flows in general make up the pleasure craft), fishing ports, and na-val military
target of the competition between ports in a bases.
country. There are two basic methods of loading and
Given that major ports constitute integral el- unloading cargo to vessels. They are lift on–lift
ements of the transport network of a country, it off (Lo-Lo), which refers to the loading and
is evident that some sort of framework for unloading method, employing either the ves-
 1.2 PORT PLANNING AT THE NATIONAL LEVEL 9

sel’s gear or quay-side cranes, and roll on–roll with suitable piping or grab cranes is used
off (Ro-Ro), which refers to the loading and at these terminals.
unloading method conducted by horizontally
moving equipment. Vessels allowing this type The main quantity that may be affected by a
of loading and unloading are equipped with a suitably implemented national port policy lies in
loading ramp that permits the movement of international cargo flow. Consequently, the
cargo handling equipment and other vehicles initial and basic step in formulating a country’s
(trucks, forklifts, straddle carriers, tractors, etc.) port system includes the determination of those
between quay and vessel. ports that will undertake to serve the flows of
At cargo ports, the type and packaging of foreign trade, transshipment, or transit. These
cargo products determine the manner of load- flows operate more-or-less independently of one
ing and unloading as well as of other opera- another, and thus for simplification of the
tions. Thus, the following basic categories of analysis, may be studied individually.
port terminals can be identified, each having The basic criteria to be considered in devel-
varying equipment and operational features: oping a proposition as to the roles of a coun-
try’s ports may be classified into the following
• General cargo terminals. These are ter- four groups:
minals equipped with conventional cranes,
which handle cargo in all types of pack- 1. The national and regional development
aging compatible with cranes. The pack- policies of the country
aging could be parcels, sacks, pallets, or 2. The transportation infrastructure of the
containers. The latter should not, however, hinterland and its prospects
constitute a major percentage of the traffic, 3. Existing port capacity and potential for
because otherwise a specialized container development
terminal would be required to improve
4. Cargo forecasts for each port
throughput performance.
• Container terminals. In this case, contain- After each of the three independent inter-
ers are handled using special loading / un- national flows has been examined, the findings
loading, transfer, and stacking equipment. should be pooled, to define the core of the
They are typified by extensive yard areas country’s port system. Thus, the role of each
for container stowage. port that participates in international cargo flow
• Multipurpose terminals. These terminals will be specified and the basic cargo through-
combine a variety of functions in a single puts can be determined. Considering these
terminal, where containers, but also con- throughput values, and factoring in the national
ventional general cargo or other packaged flows, master plans can be drawn up for indi-
products, can be handled. vidual ports.
• Ro-Ro terminals. Here cargo is transferred Apart from international cargo flow, other
within a roll on–roll off system, with load- aspects of the overall port development study
ing and unloading of cargo by horizontally are usually examined. Although these are not of
moving lorries, forklifts, tractors, and so primary significance in the formulation of the
on. core of a national port system, they do have a
• Bulk cargo terminals. At these terminals, role in evaluation of the main subsystems and in
liquid or dry bulk cargo without packaging developing the final proposal. Such aspects
is handled. Usually, pumping machinery include:
10 PORT PLANNING

• Special bulk cargoes, such as coal, cement, 1.3.1.2 Long-Term Planning. In the event
petroleum products, grains that a national ports plan does not exist, the
• Industrial ports consultant should proceed with drafting a mas-
• Shipbuilding and ship repair ter plan, after studying the following compo-
nents of long-term planning:
• Free zones
• Coastal shipping 1. The role of the port—in particular:
• Passenger movement a. The servicing of its inland area as
regards foreign trade
b. The support that the port may offer to
1.3 PORT PLANNING AT THE the region’s commercial and industrial
INDIVIDUAL PORT LEVEL development
c. The attraction of transiting and trans-
1.3.1 Port Development Planning shipment traffic
1.3.1.1 Port Development and Master 2. The responsibility of the port for the con-
Planning. The master plan of a port allocates struction of both port and land works.
the land within the port to the various uses Frequently, more than one agency be-
required, describes the projects needed to im- comes involved: for example, when a port
plement the plan, and gives an indicative area is serviced by a railroad.
implementation scheme by development phase. 3. The land use in the area and the potential
These phases are related directly to the pro- for expansion of the port. It is important
jected port traffic which has to be monitored that there be general agreement between
closely. When in due course a decision is interested parties over the proposed ex-
reached to proceed with implementation of a pansions and land use so that the result-
development scheme, this should be integrated ing master plan meets with wide
smoothly with, or derive from, the master plan acceptance.
for the port. Therefore, it is important that a 4. The policy for financing the port devel-
master plan exist, and drafting one should be opment, which may be formulated on the
among the primary concerns of port manage- basis of its own resources and / or through
ment. Of course, a variety of continuously a state grant.
varying factors have a bearing on such a plan,
ranging from statistical data on port traffic to In general, in modern port development the
international treaties. For this reason, the plan basic requirement is for large expanses of land
should be revised regularly, at least every five to ensure productive operation of the individual
years. Moreover, if during the design of a par- terminals. Therefore, a careful examination of
ticular development phase the need arises for a point 3 assumes particular importance.
review of the plan, this should be conducted
concurrently, if possible, to ensure compatibil- 1.3.1.3 Medium-Term Planning. As stated,
ity with the other functions and operations of each port development scheme should be in-
the port. However, the lack of a master plan at a corporated in the master plan and should pro-
particular port should not delay the making of ceed to implementation following the results of
decisions for small-scale immediate im- an appropriate feasibility study. The latter study
provement, although it is recommended that at should refer individually to each inde-pendent
the first opportunity an effort should be made to section of the overall development proposal, such
draft a master plan for the port. as a container terminal or a bulk
 1.3 PORT PLANNING AT THE INDIVIDUAL PORT LEVEL 11

cargo terminal. Thus, under a positive but re- Moreover, since ports interact in many ways
duced yield from the overall proposal, the risk with the surrounding township, port master
of concealment of a nonproductive section is planning should take into account, apart from
avoided. The drafting of a port development strictly engineering issues, such aspects as so-
plan calls for the conduct of the following spe- cial, economic, and environmental constraints
cial studies: and should easily fit within the relevant town
and regional plans. This frequently calls for a
1. Analysis of the functionality of the port as compromise between the requirements of the
regards the services offered in con- port and the local authorities.
junction with capacity
2. Designs, with budgets
1.3.2 Principles of Port Design
3. Operational design, with budget
4. Financial and financing study 1.3.2.1 Guiding Principles. If the undertak-
ing involves the development of an existing
port, before proceeding with development plans
In large port development projects it is cus- it would be prudent to make efforts to (1)
tomary to reexamine the organization and man- increase productivity and (2) improve existing
agement of the port operating agency and to installations. Factors that contribute to increas-
recommend organizational improvements on a ing productivity in an existing port are im-
small or larger scale. It is possible that many of provements in loading and unloading practices,
the ports in a country do not warrant a de- to the overall operation of the port terminals,
velopment effort beyond maintenance of exist- and to modernization of cargo handling and
ing structures or appropriate modification, such hauling equipment. As pointed out, the expan-
as to serve fishing vessels or pleasure craft. sions that may be required additionally to the
Such modifications are nowadays met quite fre- improvements above should be incorporated in
quently, since old ports, traditionally being part the master plan of the port and should be im-
of the core of their town, cannot easily incor- plemented within a time horizon in order to
porate large land expanses needed in modern constitute productive projects according to the
port layouts. Also, environmental and social is- pertinent feasibility studies.
sues do not allow in many cases major ex-
Particularly as regards the individual termin-
panses of an old port site. The requirement that
als within a port, the respective capacity cal-
the citizenship should be granted free access to
culations are based on different factors,
the waterfront of their city is gradually being
depending on the nature of each terminal as
respected by more and more authorities. Nev-
follows:
ertheless, the problem of what to do with the old
port installations is a complex one, where both
the needs of the local community and the 1. In conventional cargo terminals, the re-
benefits of the relevant port authority should be quired number of berths is determined
accommodated. As noted above a common first, to keep vessels’ waiting time below
trend is to change the character of a past com- a specified limit, determined by eco-
mercial port into a marina or fishing vessels nomic and other criteria.
refuge. There are also examples (London, Mar- 2. In container terminals, the land area re-
seille, etc.) where old ports were completely quired for the unobstructed movement of
refurbished into commercial or recreational cargo flow is calculated.
zones, some of them arousing controversial 3. For specialized bulk cargo terminals, the
discussions among town-palnners. cargo flow during loading and unloading
12 PORT PLANNING

has to be calculated first, to ensure that Traffic corresponding to point B in Figure

vessels will be serviced within acceptable 1.3 is less than that at point A. This means that
periods of time. the optimum traffic volume for a port is lower
when the total cost is taken into account than
As arrival times of commercial vessels at when either the total port cost or the total ves-
ports cannot adhere to an exact schedule, en- sel cost is considered. Of course, the difference
abling ready scheduling of requisite berthing between A and B depends on vessel types,
and eliminating waiting time, to determine the which determines the corresponding vessel cost
number of berths a compromise is usually made curves.
between two extreme situations: on the one A measure often used to describe the level of
hand, the minimization of vessel waiting time, service offered to vessels is the ratio of wait-ing
and on the other, the maximization of berth time to service time. It is generally rec-
occupancy. ommended that this ratio be lower than, say,
20%, but there is a danger here of showing an
1.3.2.2 Port Costs. Two factors constitute port improvement of service provided through a
costs: investment cost, which does not de-pend unilateral increase in service time. This is why
on traffic, and operating cost, which does. If the for the purposes of evaluation, absolute values
cost were to be expressed per unit of cargo of total vessel waiting time at the port are also
throughput, the relation between cost and traffic required.
volume is depicted as in Figure 1.1. A ship’s
cost in port is also made up of two con-stituents: 1.3.2.3 Traffic Fluctuations. Even a propor-
the cost of the vessel’s waiting time and the cost tionally small but persistent increase in the traf-
of the ship while berthed. The ship’s total port fic of a port may very quickly cause congestion
cost curve expressed as above is shown in in a port lacking in reserve spaces; the conges-
Figure 1.2. The sum of the port cost and the cost tion will cause a reduction in the productivity of
of the ship in port provides a total cost, as serviced vessels, which aggravates the prob-lem
shown in Figure 1.3. further. The increase in traffic may be

Figure 1.1 Port cost as a function of cargo throughput. 1, Port’s cost; 2, cost of operation; 3, capital cost.
 1.3 PORT PLANNING AT THE INDIVIDUAL PORT LEVEL 13

Figure 1.2 Cost of ship in port. 1, Ship cost in port; 2, cost of waiting; 3, cost of berth.

Figure 1.3 Total vessel–port cost curve. 1, Total cost; 2, cost of vessel; 3, cost of port.

caused by a new shipping line, larger cargo adversely. It is assumed that the problems cre-
volumes, more frequent or occasional vessel ated by a steady increase in traffic will be met
calls, and so on. Even a change in the packing in good time through the implementation of
method of a product of large throughput may suitable development projects based on the
affect the efficiency and productivity of a port master plan of the port.
14 PORT PLANNING

The fluctuations around more-or-less regular that the fact that some vessels experience ex-
average traffic may be faced by a carefully de- cessive waiting times does not necessarily mean
signed emergency plan according to which old that the port is congested.
quays, anchorages, and so on, on reserve, which
are not used as vessel servicing posi-tions, may 1.3.2.5 Grouping of Installations. De-
be brought into operation. Usually, the reserve pending on the type of cargo traffic and on the
capacity of a port consists of in-expensive equipment required, berthing positions and
installations, which, however, give rise to a high other installations are grouped in more-or-less
cost of operation. These reserves should be independently operating areas of a port. This
allocated equally among all the port’s sections. grouping implies specialization in the type of
Other means of a temporary in-crease to port cargo traffic being served in each port section.
capacity could be an improve-ment in cargo Thus, better utilization is achieved: for exam-
handling: for example, an increase in work ple, in wharf depths and quicker servicing of
gangs per vessel serviced, the hiring of vessels and cargoes. However, there are also
additional mobile cranes or other equipment, or disadvantages to grouping port installations.
the use of lighters for loading and discharging Basically, the flexibility obtainable by the
on two sides. greater number of berths is reduced. This offers
The size of the cargo to be taken for plan- a more productive exploitation of both water
ning purposes should be selected carefully so and land spaces.
that potential fluctuations may be absorbed with Implementing a sort of grouping therefore
some acceptable increase in vessel waiting time. should proceed when conditions are ripe: for
As regards high-cost installations and vessels, a example, when there is high traffic or when a
method of smoothing the peaks in waiting time good number of berths are required. An inter-
is that of serving by priority, ac-cording to mediate stage of providing a multipurpose ter-
which, when the vessel arrives at a minal serving two (or even three) types of
predetermined time, it will have guaranteed ac- movement may be interposed prior to the final
cess. The more such agreements between ports stage of specialized port terminal. This termi-
and liner operators are signed, the greater the nal will require cargo handling equipment ca-
smoothing of the traffic curve. pable of handling more than one type of cargo.
Such equipment may be more expensive, so the
1.3.2.4 The Optimum State. The chief ben- servicing of vessels and of cargoes may not
efit from investments in port projects is the pos- attain the efficiency of specialized terminals,
sibility if reducing total vessel time at a port. but there is more than acceptable utilization of
Despite the fact that ships are the first party to equipment and in general of the entire instal-
benefit, in the medium term both the port and lation of a multipurpose terminal. A multipur-
the country benefit overall from the develop- pose terminal should retain some flexibility so
ment of ports. From a practical point of view, that in the future it may be converted into a
optimization of the waiting time–quay use is- specialized terminal when conditions permit.
sue may result in a 75% occupancy factor for a
group of, say, five general cargo berths, which
1.3.3 Cargo Volume Forecasts
produces a wait of half a day, for an average
service time of 3.5 days. This means that over a 1.3.3.1 Scope. Cargo volume forecasts for a
long period of time: 55% of vessels will berth port provide estimates of:
immediately, 10% of vessels will wait for 2
days, and 5% of vessels will wait for 5 days. It • The types and quantities of the various goods to be
moved through the port
can be deduced from the above
 1.3 PORT PLANNING AT THE INDIVIDUAL PORT LEVEL 15

• Packing by type of cargo riage. Ro-Ro cargoes may consist of (1)

• The number of vessel calls corresponding containers, (2) vehicles, (3) general cargo, and
to the quantities above (4) products of intermediate unitization.
Container cargoes are calculated in 20-foot
If a national ports policy has been drawn up, equivalent units (TEU), inclusive of empty con-
the magnitudes above will already be known; tainers. Forecasts should provide for some in-
otherwise, forecasts are made individually for crease in the number of products accepting
the specific port under consideration. There is containerization. The net weight of the TEU
potentially great uncertainty in forecasts, and ranges from 5 to 18 tons, depending on the
therefore the planning should accommodate stowage factor of the cargo within the con-
flexibility to enable adaptation to meet future tainer. For instance, if this factor were 2.8 m3 /
traffic. The parameters considered in cargo vol- ton, the net weight per TEU would amount to
ume forecasts include: 10.4 tons. The results of cargo projections by
cargo type and route should be reformulated by
• Population and national product cargo category (e.g., dry bulk cargo). The total
• Regional development programs probability of a complex flow depends on the
partial probabilities of the constituent flow
• The transport network and its projected fu- forecasts and on the degree of their interde-
ture pendence. It is advisable to analyze the flows of
• Coastal shipping products with intense seasonal fluctuation
• Diversion of a portion of the traffic to other separately and then to add them to the other
harbors flow forecasts.

It is customary to hold interviews with gov- 1.3.3.3 National Transshipment. To esti-

ernment and local authorities, the shipping mate the transshipment flows either originated
community, and interested parties to gain an from or directed to a national port, and of the
understanding of the present and future traffic corresponding quays required, the alternative
patterns. An independent review of global com- cargo flows between ports A and B should be
mercial and trade prospects that play a major examined. The latter implies that the required
role in traffic forecasts should also be con- volume of cargo could be delivered to each port
ducted. Usually, the dependence of the results either directly, or the total volume of cargo di-
on the parameters is estimated on the basis of rected to both locations will be delivered to one
sensitivity control of the various calculations. port only, from which it will be transshipped to
Thus, in addition to the central forecast, we the other location either by land, or by sea using
frequently include both an optimistic and a smaller ships (coasters). For details, con-sult the
downside forecast, based on the corresponding proceedings of a United Nations con-ference
growth scenario. An important port function in- (1978).
volves monitoring the accuracy of the forecasts
by comparing them with actual traffic.
1.3.4 Port Productivity
1.3.3.2 Cargo Flow Combination. Usually, The productivity of a port is the measure of its
forecasts of significant cargo flows are con- ability to move cargo through it within a unit of
ducted by type of cargo and by route. Bulk time under actual conditions. It is known that
cargoes should be distinguished by type of cargoes undergo various stages of handling
cargo; container and Ro-Ro cargoes are distin- while in port. For example, imported goods un-
guished by type of vessel performing the car- dergo the following handling procedures:
16 PORT PLANNING

• Discharging while a vessel is berthed be directed initially at the least efficient pro-
• Transport to storage area and stowage cedure, with the purpose of balancing it out with
• Removal from storage and transport to area handling legs of higher efficiency. The fol-
of transshipment or to means of over-land lowing are the most typical pairs of consecutive
transport cargo handling legs in port cargo handling pro-
cedures:
• Loading onto means of overland transport
• Departure from the port
• Dock loading and unloading: transport
from quay to storage area, or vice versa
Obviously, the total productivity of a port is
determined by the lowest partial productivity of • Transport from storage area to means of
each link in the cargo handling chain. The con- overland transport: flow of means of
ditions prevailing at the port at any given transport to and from inland areas
moment, such as weather conditions, human
resources, and condition of machinery, affect An efficiency equalization between each of
the productivity of the partial procedures con- the constituent parts of a cargo handling pair
siderably. Consequently, a substantial time should be achieved, measured on an hourly (or
range representative of prevailing conditions even daily) basis. Equalization should also be
has to be assumed for the evaluation. effected between the pairs themselves, al-
The cargo handling practices pursued in each though over a greater time period, that of a
port have a decisive bearing on productiv-ity, week, during which the cargoes remain in the
and any attempt at their improvement should storage areas, where the various checks and
also factor-in a period of adjustment of these other procedures are conducted. This require-
practices to the new machinery and han-dling ment for efficiency equalization ensures smooth
methods. Generally, a reference to any measure functioning of the storage areas, thus averting
of productivity should be correlated with its the risk of congestion.
corresponding time period. If this in-volves an Efficiency increase may be achieved by in-
extensive time period, on the order of several tervention in three areas: (1) human resources,
months, productivity may be reduced to half its (2) technical matters, and (3) management and
value achieved in a short period of time (e.g., 1 procedures. Intervention in the first area in-
hour). This may apply to all the particular volves mainly an improvement in working con-
procedures and handling of cargo flows within ditions; in the second area, equipment renewal,
the port. For instance, over a short period of better maintenance, and backup provisions; and
time, say a few hours, the container discharge for the third area, procedure simplification, im-
efficiency at the dockside phase may amount to position of a maximum time limit for cargo to
750 TEU per day per berthing po-sition, remain at the storage areas, and so on.
whereas over a period of several months the It should be noted that an increase in pro-
corresponding output for the same berth may ductivity of a terminal by L % does not reduce
drop to 400 TEU per day. Obviously, the long- vessel servicing time by the same percentage,
term efficiency rate is important in the de-sign but rather by L/ (1 L), as is easily deduced by the
of port installations. definition of loading / unloading produc-tivity at
Since the total efficiency of a commercial the quay ( cargo loaded or unloaded/ vessel
port or terminal is determined by the lowest servicing time). The efficiency of a port terminal is
productivity of the partial handling leg, every affected by the quantity of cargo to be loaded to
intervention for increased productivity should and unloaded from a vessel. It has
 1.3 PORT PLANNING AT THE INDIVIDUAL PORT LEVEL 17

been found that a large quantity of homoge- The prerequisites for such relocation are (1) se-
neous products increases productivity, but usu- cure maritime approaches, (2) ample availabil-
ally this is not considered in the relevant ity of land area, and (3) satisfactory access by
calculations. land.
For an initial new site evaluation, an exten-
sive list of data to be collected is usually drawn
1.3.5 The Master Plan
up. Some of the items included are:
1.3.5.1 Port Categories. From a construc-tion
point of view, ports may be classified into the • Uses and ownership of the land
following categories. • Topography and access
• Existing utilities and structures at the site
Artificial Ports. Artificial ports are those con-
• Wind and rainfall data
structed along a shoreline by means of earth fill
or excavation (Figure 1.4). In both cases these • Hydrographic information
ports have to be protected from the ad-verse • Geotechnical data, including potential
effects of waves and currents. In the for-mer sources of construction materials
case (Figure 1.4a) the land part of a port is • Environmental assessment of the area
created by means of earth fill, and in the latter
case (Figure 1.4b) the port basin is cre-ated During the initial site evaluation, some as-
artificially by means of excavation of land pects of the project that may affect its devel-
adjacent to the shoreline. The geometry of the opment should be investigated. These may
excavated basin depends on port size and mode include necessary permissions and ownership
of operation. The excavated harbor is joined implications, dredging and spoil disposal re-
with the sea via an approach channel. The en- quirements, environmental constraints, and so
trance to this channel is usually protected from on. In cases of inability to relocate, an alter-
waves and current by means of breakwaters and native to be examined is that of establishing
dikes. For more information on excavated additional land facilities inland such as an in-
harbors, readers are referred to Memos (1999). land depot.

Ports Constructed in a Natural Harbor. 1.3.5.3 Design Criteria. During the master
Examples are shown in Figure 1.5. Significant planning stage of a project preliminary design
factors to be considered in opting for one of the criteria should be proposed covering aspects
foregoing types of port is availability of land, such as types of operations to be undertaken
land fill material, soil quality, depth of water, (e.g., containers, transit and transshipment
environmental conditions, and others. flows, import / export; design vessel, operating
equipment).
1.3.5.2 Port Location. Traditionally, ports are
situated in a location central to the urban area
1.3.6 General Layout of Port Works
they serve. The port is thus surrounded by
urbanized area, and both further development of 1.3.6.1 Guiding Principles. The arrange-ment
the port and access to it are rendered diffi-cult. of port works should be such as to ensure easy
This situation restricts expansion of the port berthing of vessels, secure efficient cargo
required to meet modern demands. In most loading and unloading, and safe passenger em-
cases, a feasibility survey for relocation of the barkation and disembarkation operations. Spe-
port outside the city will have to be conducted. cifically, easy access of vessels to a port should
18 PORT PLANNING

Figure 1.4 Conceptual arrangements of artificial ports: (a) created by earthfill; (b) created by excavation. 1–3,
Breakwaters, 4, pier; 5, marginal wharf; 6, outfitting pier; 7, dry dock; 8, marina; 9, existing
shoreline; 10, approach channel; 11, excavated basin.
 1.3 PORT PLANNING AT THE INDIVIDUAL PORT LEVEL 19

Figure 1.5 Ports constructed in natural harbors. (a) Entrance to the harbor is naturally protected by existing
islands. (b) Entrance to the harbor is protected by the breakwater. 1, Coastal line; 2, harbor; 3, existing island;
4, port facilities; 5, breakwater.

be ensured through an appropriate navigation that functions as a relief zone for the incoming
channel, a suitably designed port entrance, an waves, thus producing easier port-entry condi-
adequate maneuvering area, and avoidance of tions. Next comes a closer examination of the
undesirable erosion or deposition of material in most important elements that have a direct im-
and around the harbor area. pact on the general layout of the principal port
Factors to be considered in drafting a well- structures. For issues related to the navigation
designed layout of port works include winds, channels that serve ports, readers are referred to
waves, and currents and also the transportation Chapter 10.
of deposits in the study area. The existence of
river or torrent mouths in the vicinity of the 1.3.6.2 Port Entrance. The port entrance
works has to be considered seriously in choos- demands careful consideration to ensure quick
ing the location and arrangement of the harbor. and safe entry of vessels in the harbor. The
The disturbance of harbor basins is a signif- orientation and width of the entrance should
icant parameter, and low agitation should be reconcile two opposing criteria. For reasons of
achieved through a suitable arrangement of comfortable navigation, the harbor entrance
harbor structures. Specifically, the appearance should communicate directly with the open sea
of reflection and resonance phenomena within and should be as wide as possible. On the other
the harbor should be avoided through the use of hand, the narrower and more protected the en-
absorbing beaches and suitable geometry of the trance, the smaller the degree of wave energy
structures that delineate it. The problem of and deposits that penetrate the harbor basin, re-
excess wave agitation should be explored in ei- sulting in more favorable conditions for attain-
ther a physical or a mathematical model in or- ing tranquility of the in-harbor sea surface.
der to arrive at an optimum layout of port It is recommended that orientation of the en-
works. Such models may also be used to op- trance be such that vessels entering the harbor
timize the constituent elements of the port, such have the prevailing wind to the fore. Transverse
as the port entrance. winds and waves create difficult conditions for
Several of the subjects above may be tackled steering a vessel through the critical phase of
successfully by providing for an outer harbor entering the harbor basin, and a layout of port
20 PORT PLANNING

works that would permit frequent occurrences the harbor will always be accessible. In areas
of such situations should be avoided. with a large tidal range in which the sea level
Naturally, in most cases, the designer is can fluctuate by several meters, the question
obliged to compromise, as mentioned above. arises as to whether it is necessary to ensure
Obviously, the designer should avoid placing accessibility to the port at all times. To meet
the entrance in the zone of wave breaking be- such a requirement would signify an increase in
cause of the difficulties to vessel maneuvering the dredge depth equal to the range in tidal
that may arise. Frequently, the entrance is level. Alternatively, it could be accepted that the
formed by a suitable alignment of the protec- entrance be equipped with gates and that the
tion works, whose structure heads are suitably port not be accessible during certain low-tide
marked with navigation lights. In the event that periods. Because such periods are foresee-able,
it is not possible to avoid transversal winds and as relying mainly on precise astronomical
waves, it is recommended that calm conditions predictions, and because they are of relatively
at the harbor entrance be created by means of small duration, this solution is not to be re-
extending the windward breakwater to a satis- jected offhand, particularly if the harbor is ac-
factory length beyond the entrance, at least to cessible by means of long access channels.
the length of one design vessel. In such cases it Vessels wait in the open sea up to the time
is advisable that the superstructure of the out- when the channel is navigable for a specific
ward port structure be raised so that the wind vessel. Obviously, the internal harbor works of
pressures on the sides of the incoming vessel a tidal harbor will be compatible as regards
are reduced. drafts, with the planned navigation channel
To attain the calmest possible conditions at drafts suitably increased by a factor to com-
the harbor entrance area, it is recommended that pensate for the tidal increase during the open
the external works in its vicinity be formed with phase of the harbor. Thus, the vessels may al-
sloping mounds so that wave energy in the ways be safely afloat as long as they are in the
entrance area can be absorbed. Breakwaters harbor. Such a solution for periodic operation of
with a vertical front near the entrance may the port entrance and channel has shortcom-
cause difficult navigation conditions there, be- ings, of course, because of vessel delays and
cause of the reflected and semistationary other harbor malfunctions. Consequently, a
wavetrains created in that region. Moreover, in careful cost–benefit analysis should be con-
designing the layout of the harbor arms that ducted prior to deciding the extent to which the
bound the entrance, care should be taken that port will be of free or of limited navigability.
any sedimentation of deposits in the area be Such problems do not arise in ports with rela-
reduced. For significant projects, study of the tively small tidal fluctuations.
entrance usually culminates in a physical model A safety factor of about 15% of the design
in which optimization of the arrange-ment is vessel draft is sufficient for purposes of defin-ing
effected by conjoining all the relative the minimum entrance depth. Alternatively, a
requirements. margin of about 1.5 to 2.0 m over the draft of a
The width of the harbor entrance is defined loaded vessel gives a safe water depth at the port
in terms of the smallest length vertical to the entrance. The width of a free entrance usually
entrance axis for which the minimum required ranges between 100 and 250 m, de-pending on
draft applies. The depth at the entrance is gen- the size of the port. It is recom-mended that
erally determined by the maximum draft of the width be at least equal to the length of the design
design vessel to be served. This figure should be vessel the port is to serve. Thus, for small harbors
taken beneath the lowest low water so that it is possible to specify
 1.3 PORT PLANNING AT THE INDIVIDUAL PORT LEVEL 21

Figure 1.6 Layout of a large multipurpose artificial port. 1, General cargo terminal; 2, container terminal; 3,
passenger terminal; 4, oil berth; 5, fishing port; 6, dry dock; 7, ship repair area; 8, anchorage area; 9, maneu-
vering circle; 10, mooring dolphins; 11, breakwater; 12, tugboat berth; 13, coastal line.

entrance width to be as low as, say, 50 m. The harbor, situated between the port entrance and
corresponding width of a closed port is signif- the main port, or in the main harbor basin clos-
icantly smaller than the sizes above. For more est to the entrance.
information, readers are referred to Tsinker Apart from reducing speed during an initial
(1997) and Chapter 9. stage of straight movement, the vessel conducts
maneuvers for positioning itself appropriately
1.3.6.3 Maneuvering Area. When a vessel for the berthing position, which has been de-
enters the harbor basin, its speed needs to be termined beforehand. This expanse of sea,
reduced to proceed with anchoring and berth- called the maneuvering area or circle, should
ing maneuvers. In practical terms, these ma- have dimensions calculated on the basis of the
neuvers may be conducted at a normal speed of harbor’s design vessel. If the port is sufficiently
8 to 11 knots over a length of 2 to 3L, L being large, more than one maneuvering area may be
the vessel length, although larger dis-tances designed and located at intervals of about 1 km.
may be required for larger vessels with modern Figure 1.6 depicts the layout of a large artificial
hydrodynamic shapes. A significant port with a maneuvering circle.
consideration in determining the required length The diameter of the maneuvering circle re-
for minimizing speed is the vessel’s fit-tings in quired is affected directly by the type of rud-
maneuvering equipment, as well as the type of ders and propellers with which a vessel is
propeller; if the latter is of variable pitch, the equipped, whether or not tugboats will be
distance can be reduced to 1.5L. The employed, or whether anchors or wrapping
maneuvering area is located either in the outer dolphins will be used. For unfavorable ma-
22 PORT PLANNING

neuvering conditions, no tugs, and vessels with anchors for their maneuvers, and while they are
only one rudder, a 4L diameter is required, preparing for their berthing, mooring lines are
whereas in favorable conditions with modern also used, tied to the dock bollards. It may be
navigation systems, a 3L diameter may suffice. necessary to immobilize vessels before entry
Instead of a circle, maneuvering requirements into port, either while waiting for a free berth or
may be satisfied by an ellipse with 3L and 2L for the tidal water to rise above the critical level
axes, the main axis being lengthwise of the at the entrance channel. This is achieved either
vessel’s course. If maneuvers are conducted by using the ship’s anchors or by using suitable
with the aid of tugboats, the minimum diameter mooring buoys or dolphins located in the
of the maneuvering circle may be reduced to 2L. waiting area. Detailed information on an-chors
A corresponding decrease is also achieved if the and anchorage area is provided in Chap-ters 7
vessel is fitted with a second rudder or a lateral and 8.
propeller, usually a bow thrust.
During towage, a vessel’s engines usually are 1.3.6.5 Wave Agitation in the Port Basin.
stopped or are in excellent synchronization with It was mentioned previously that the basic
the tugboats. Furthermore, if a vessel has the function of a port is provision of a protected
ability to use bow and stern anchors or anchorage for vessels and the facilitation of
wrapping doplhins, the diameter of the maneu- quick and safe loading and unloading opera-
vering circle may reach the minimum dimen- tions and embarkation and disembarkation of
sion of 1.2L. passengers. Therefore, the absence of disturb-
In the maneuvering area, the sea surface is ing waves in the basin that would impede the
generally calmer than that at the entrance, and it smooth functioning of the port is mandatory.
is advisable that the lateral currents in this area The study of disturbances in a harbor basin
be weaker than approximately 0.15 m / s. should take as input the prevailing wave pattern
Furthermore, the reduction in available draft and provide as output the percentage of time
due to squat is insignificant in the maneuvering during which the port, or individual sections of
circle. Consequently, the required draft in the it, cannot be operational. As stated earlier, the
maneuvering area may be somewhat smaller main factor causing an interruption in the op-
than that at the entrance. In most cases, a safety eration of a port, and indeed one that demands
margin of about 1.5 m below the maximum careful examination, is that of wind-generated
draft of the design vessel is sufficient. waves. Apart from penetration through the en-
To avoid accidents, the maneuvering area trance, wave transmission and overtopping at
should be surrounded by a safety zone from breakwaters should be considered in determin-
fixed structures or vessel moorings. It is ac- ing surface agitation in a basin.
cepted that the width of this zone is a minimum It follows that planning the layout of port
of 1.5B, where B is the design vessel’s beam, structures is of crucial importance in attaining the
and in any case it should be above 30 m. More necessary tranquility of the sea surface in a
information is given in Chapter 9. harbor basin. That is why particular attention
must be paid to this problem in the course of
1.3.6.4 Vessel Anchorage and Mooring. studying the layout of port works. A satisfac-tory
Perhaps the most significant role of a harbor is answer may be obtained by laboratory testing of
to provide shelter to vessels and to protect them various designs in a physical model. In these tests,
from waves, currents, and strong winds. Once wave disturbance is recorded at suitably selected
ships enter port, they generally use one or more locations in the harbor basin,
 1.3 PORT PLANNING AT THE INDIVIDUAL PORT LEVEL 23

as well as resulting movements of berthed ves- cases, the flow velocity at the nodes of the
sels. The acceptable limits of these movements oscillation of the free surface may reach 0.5 m /
are determined depending on the loading and s even though the vertical surface excur-sions
unloading method and the type of cargo han- may generally be small. Long waves with
dling equipment being used. periods usually in the region of 1 to 3 min place
Apart from physical models, a good deal of stresses on docked vessels, particularly when
information can be obtained from mathematical this involves larger ships with taut moor-ing
models, which can be developed to various de- lines. The phase velocity of these long waves in
grees of accuracy. In this case, the wave heights relatively shallow harbor waters is given
in sections of the harbor basin are determined approximately by (gd)1 / 2, d being the uniform
under various environmental conditions and de- depth of water. Consequently, for a harbor basin
grees of absorption of the solid boundaries, al- with a rectangular plan of dimen-sions L W with
though it is exceedingly difficult to simulate an entrance on the W (width) side, the resonance
vessel movements. Wavelengths of the incident period of standing waves, TL, along the two
wave field have a particularly significant effect directions will be
on vessel behavior; certain wavelengths pro-
duce dangerous conditions, as noted below T 4L n 1, 3, 5, . . . (1.1)
when we discuss disturbance due to long os- L
n(gd)1 / 2
cillations. Any examination of port basin tran-
quility does, of course, include an assessment of with a node of the standing wave at the en-
the cost of the port works required to obtain trance and an antinode at the opposite end of the
each degree of basin calmness. harbor basin, and
Long Oscillations. Apart from wind-generated
T 2W n 1, 2, 3, . . . (1.2)
waves, a range of other natural factors can dis- w
turb a harbor basin, although to a lesser extent. n(gd)1 / 2
Many of these have to do with extreme events,
such as storms and seismically created waves. with antinodes at both opposing docks.
In such cases, many harbors do not offer sat- A basic means of avoiding resonance in a
isfactory shelter to vessels, which prefer to sail new harbor is the design of harbor basins with
out to the open sea to avoid sustaining or caus- such geometry that the frequencies above are far
ing damage in port. from the usual frequencies of long waves in the
Among these factors, those most significant region. The latter may be traced through the use
as to continuous effects on harbor basins and of recording devices of surface eleva-tion not
therefore on ships’ operations can generically sensitive to high-frequency waves. In cases
be termed long oscillations (seiches). In effect, where the harbor evidences complex ge-ometry,
these refer to trapped oscillations with periods the typical resonance modes are deter-mined
in excess of 30 s caused by changes in atmos- through mathematical models, or even through
pheric pressure, long waves caused in the open physical models in some cases, in a way similar
sea by barometric lows, surf beats, edge waves, to examination of the disturbance due to wind
and so on. A serious problem arises when the waves. As known, low-frequency waves may
harbor basin’s geometry favors the develop- penetrate harbor basins without un-dergoing
ment of resonance at the frequencies of the free significant reduction of their ampli-tude. That is
oscillations prevailing in the region. In such why any attempt toward a better
24 PORT PLANNING

layout of the protection works and of the en- particularly from wind-generated waves, are
trances will be fruitless with regards to the termed harbor protection works. These may in-
elimination of long waves. clude the following:

Recommendations for Improving a Port 1. Breakwaters, usually constructed either

Basin’s Tranquility. It is obvious that a basic connected to the shore or detached. Shore-
element in designing a port is to achieve the connected breakwaters are classi-fied as
lowest possible disturbance in the harbor basin, windward or primary and leeward or
particularly close to berths. For this reason, it is secondary. The former protect the harbor
recommended that the following factors be from the main wave direction, and the
examined: latter protect from waves of secondary
directions. Frequently, leeward
1. Provision for an adequate extent of the breakwaters are partially protected by
outer harbor area and of all the harbor windward breakwaters.
basins, for dispersion of wave energy 2. Jetties, usually arranged in pairs to form
penetrating the harbor entrances to harbors located inward from
2. Provision for spending beaches in suita- the shoreline or in rivers. Paired jetties
ble locations of the harbor, especially may also increase the flow speed and thus
those attacked directly by waves entering prevent sedimentation.
the basin.
3. Provision for absorbent wharves with
Figures 1.4 through 1.6 depict certain com-
suitable design for dissipating disturbing
mon arrangements of outer port works, de-
wave agitation. It is recommended that
pending on the type of harbor. The free end of
this type of work be checked through
protection works is called the structure head,
physical modeling because the phenom-
and the remainder is the structure trunk. The
ena of conversion of wave energy, expel-
effect of harbor works to be constructed on the
ling of air, upward loading of the crown
transport regime of sediments in the region is
slab of the quay, and so on, are suffi-
particularly important. Quite often, port works
ciently complex and do not easily lend
are located in the surf zone, where the largest
themselves to analysis through mathe-
percentage of sediment transport takes place.
matical modeling.
Consequently, the effect of these works on
coastal erosion or deposition may be quite sig-
In any case, the usefulness of absorbing quay nificant. The phenomena usually caused by
walls is debatable, chiefly because of the wave harbor protection works as regards sedimenta-
reflection caused by berthed vessels at their sea tion is a concentration of deposits upstream of
side, a fact that reduces the efficiency of these the windward breakwater, erosion of the shore
structures considerably. downstream of the leeward breakwater, sedi-
mentation in the vicinity of the harbor entrance
1.3.6.6 General Layout of and the approach channel, and others (Figure
Protection Works 1.7).
The solution to such types of problems is not
Layout of Main Structures. Works whose an easy matter, and in many cases recourse to the
function is to ensure the calmest possible con- method of sand bypassing is considered to
ditions within harbor basins and along quays, minimize the dredging required for mainte-
 1.3 PORT PLANNING AT THE INDIVIDUAL PORT LEVEL 25

Figure 1.7 Effects of harbor works on coastal sedimentation. a, Longshore littoral transport; b, accretion; c,
deposition; d, erosion; 1, natural shoreline; 2, breakwater; 3, landfill for port construction; 4, artificial harbor.

nance of drafts. The general idea in designing Finally, the possibility of water renewal
the layout of protection works should be to fa- should be investigated, to reduce pollution of
vor the transfer of sediment to deeper waters, harbor basins to the minimum possible. It is not
where they are less harmful. Application of this easy to suggest arrangements that can attain this
general rule is not always easy, of course; that is target. As regards intervention in the har-bor’s
why port designers usually resort to labora-tory protection works, the matter is usually handled
tests of the general arrangement of a har-bor’s by providing openings across the body of the
defense works. structure, to facilitate water circulation.
The protection structures are in principle laid However, for these openings to be effective,
out such as to provide the space required for a they should be of sufficient width, which of
calm harbor basin, maneuvering areas, and course results in allowing significant distur-
necessary safety margins. Following that, an bance into the harbor basin. Also, undesirable
examination is conducted to ascertain the sediments may enter the harbor and be depos-
degree to which a large portion of the outer ited if the openings extend down to the seabed.
works is located in the wave-breaking zone. Therefore, in most cases the openings are not
Selected values of wave heights are examined extended at depths beyond the surface layer in
and the required modifications to the layout of which the wind-generated water circulation
the works are made so that the works are placed generally takes place, to prevent the transfer of
outside the breaking zone of the crucial design heavy sediments that occurrs at the lower part
waves. This is done to reduce wave loads on the of the water column.
relevant structures and conse-quently, their cost.
An important step follows: that of forming the 1.3.6.7 General Layout of Inner
harbor entrance in accord-ance with the Port Works
guidelines of Section 1.3.6.2. An-other point
that relates to the shape of the breakwaters Geometric Elements. The arrangement of
refers to the avoidance of angles to the open sea berths and docking installations follows the
smaller than 1808, to evade a concentration of principles noted in Section 1.3.6.5. Layouts that
wave energy, with adverse ef-fects on the favor enhancement of long oscillations should
structure’s integrity. be avoided, and it is also recommended
26 PORT PLANNING

that spending beaches be placed in suitable lo- piers are used to increase quay length. Their
cations in the harbor basin. The geotechnical width can be 300 m or more, and they may be
properties of the seabed in the project area play placed at a small angle to the shoreline if this
a significant role in deciding the general layout would have the benefit of protecting them from
of the inner works. If a rocky seafloor is pres- waves and provide better operational condi-
ent, it is usually advisable to place the line of tions.
wharfs close to their final depth, to avoid ex- Quay length is determined by the particular
pensive excavations of the rocky bed. If the method of docking and by the number of berths.
latter is soft, the location of the wharfs is de- Alongside berthing for a vessel of length L
termined by, among other factors, a detailed requires a quay length of b L 30 to 40 m or b
technical and economic comparison of reclaim- 1.2L. For Ro-Ro stern (or bow)-to-shore
ing versus dredging. berthing, the required quay length b is
It has been pointed out that maneuvering determined by the vessel’s beam B and is
surfaces should have a security distance of be- roughly b 1.2 to 1.5B. The minimum depth h of
tween 30 and 50 m from any vessels docked at the sea at the quay is determined by the design
the planned berths. Figures 1.4a and 1.6 give vessel’s maximum draft dmax. A safety factor for
the main elements of a harbor’s inner works. As this value (i.e., pilot’s foot) in the region of 1 m
a general rule, the plan must ensure that the should be added to cover for any heaving
shape of the docks provides for better use of the motion due to wave disturbance. Thus
harbor basin and easier navigational con-ditions h dmax 1 m. The dimensions usually rec-
for vessel maneuvers, and that the func-tioning ommended for seaport docks are illustrated in
of dock equipment and machinery is not Figure 1.8. Other inner installations apart from
hampered. Furthermore, to keep pollution of berthing quays, such as dry docks, slipways,
harbor basins to a minimum, placing docks and and maintenance quays, should be situated in-
basins in recessed positions of a harbor should dependent of the customary loading and un-
be avoided, because the renewal of wa-ter there loading quays and as much as possible in
is weak. If narrow piers are planned (e.g., only protected areas of the harbor.
for the mooring of small vessels), it is advisable
to examine the possibility of de-signing them on Connections with Inland Areas. It has already
piles with openings for facil-itation of water been mentioned that the nature of a modern
circulation. The development of a port over cargo port resembles more a cargo handling hub
time is generally associated with a required strip within a combined transport system than a sea
of land parallel to the berths. Previously, this transport terminal point. Consequently, a basic
strip was planned to be about 50 m wide; later, element in the smooth operation and de-
adapting to technological de-velopment in cargo velopment of a terminal are the port’s inland
handling, this was in-creased to 100 and 200 m. connections. These connections, through which
A result of this change was a tendency to shift nonsea transport of goods to and from the port is
from narrow piers that created a zigzag layout effected, may be road or rail accesses, arti-ficial
of docks to straight quay lines parallel to the or natural inland navigable routes, air-lines, or oil
shore, which ensures large land areas. product pipelines. Road, rail, and river
connections (to which we refer later) can also
The linear dock arrangement, however, takes connect a port with specialized cargo con-
up a far greater length of coast, which fre- centration terminals located in suitable inland
quently is very expensive, or not feasible to depots. These stations serve to smooth out the
acquire for other reasons. In such cases, wide peaks in demand and supply of goods to a port
 1.3 PORT PLANNING AT THE INDIVIDUAL PORT LEVEL 27

Figure 1.8 Main dimensions of sea docks.

that has limited storage areas. Figure 1.9 de- reason for this development is that loading / un-
picts some general arrangements of such con- loading vehicles obstruct dock operations, in
nections. addition to the frequent inability to coordinate
The provision of inland storage areas form- ship–train operations, resulting in vessel delay.
ing part of a port is a modern tendency pro- Two alternative handling options are available
nounced in container transport, which creates in this respect: (1) the full cargo can be for-
the need for larger backup areas and also a need warded inland via port sheds, or (2) ‘‘direct’’
for boxes to stay in port for a shorter time. The loading / unloading to and from rail or road ve-
transport of goods between port and inland hicles can be retained but conducted at some
depots is thus carried out quickly and effi- distance from the docks. The second alternative
ciently, in contrast with the traditional servic- demands an additional fleet of tractors and plat-
ing of all destination points directly from a port forms to link docks with transshipment areas to
without intermediate transshipment. In addition means of overland transportation. This alter-
to being effected by road, the connection be- native solution is depicted in Figure 1.11 to-
tween port and inland depot may be by rail, gether with the traditional arrangement, which,
particularly when the distance is great. In the as mentioned, is gradually being abandoned by
latter case, the loading of trains, when this in- many ports.
volves imports, may be effected at a small dis- The tendency to shift land transportation
tance from the port, where the goods are away from docks is even more prevalent in
forwarded through a system of wheeled trailers container or Ro-Ro port terminals. Inland con-
fed from the port, as shown in Figure 1.10. In nections are allowed only to reach a delivery
each case, the traditional arrangement in gen- and receiving area, which in container termin-
eral cargo terminals in which rail (or road) als is generally located near the container
vehicles approach the docks for immediate freight station (for details, see Section 1.4.3). In
loading and unloading of cargo through the use most cases, road access to ports is appealing,
of dock cranes is being abandoned. The main particularly for small and moderate distances.
28 PORT PLANNING

Figure 1.9 Connection of a port with an inland cargo collection terminal. (From United Nations, 1978.)

Figure 1.10 Combination of road–rail connections of the port with the inland depot. (From United Nations,
1978.)
 1.3 PORT PLANNING AT THE INDIVIDUAL PORT LEVEL 29

Figure 1.11 Restricting the approach of vehicles to the docks: (a) traditional approach; (b) alternative ap-
proach. (From United Nations, 1978.)

The variety and types of road vehicles render means of inland navigable routes. Connections
them versatile, and in conjunction with a dense by inland navigation offer economy and are
road network in many regions, make them suit- particularly suitable for the transport of bulk
able for ‘‘door-to-door’’ service. Rail connec- cargoes and for supporting combined transports
tion at ports offers security, speed, and between river ports and seaports that serve
economical transport of bulky goods over large barge-carrying vessels.
distances.
Many ports throughout the world are con- Additional Points to Be Considered. Several
structed at the mouths of navigable rivers or issues of general application to the layout of
canals, to connect them with other areas by land installations of a port are listed below.
30 PORT PLANNING

1. The conventional berthing positions for terminals, such as for bagged grains or petro-
general cargo require a smaller draft at the leum in barrels.
quay (usually 7.70 to 10 m) than those
required for containers or bulk cargo. Phase 2: Break-Bulk Cargoes. When break-
bulk cargo flow exceeds an economically ac-
2. Much larger land areas are required in ceptable limit, these cargoes are transported in
terminals where containers are to be han- bulk form and the port develops a special bulk-
dled. cargo terminal. At the same time, the break-bulk
3. Care should be taken in drawing up the berths are increased, to accommodate the higher
land use so that smells from bulk cargoes demand.
carried by prevailing winds do not dam-
age the environment. Phase 3: Unit Loads. Unit loads start being
carried on conventional vessels in small quan-
4. Security issues should be examined, par-
tities in units such as palettes, containers, or
ticularly as regards flammable materials
packaged lumber. At the same time, break-bulk
or explosives.
cargo flows, particularly those of bulked break-
5. Product compatibility should be exam- bulk cargoes, start diminishing to levels that
ined for cargoes adjacent to their re- require separation of cargo terminals for vari-
spective handling areas. For instance, ous cargo categories.
pairing coal with grains is incompatible,
as is pairing grains with fertilizers. Phase 4: Multipurpose Terminal. Unitized car-
6. The overall traffic pattern in the land area goes on specialized vessels start appearing in
at a port should be examined, to avoid quantities that do not yet require development
potential congestion or a need for bridg- of a specialized terminal. Thus, a multipurpose
ing. terminal is created in which break-bulk cargo
traffic is diminished, although unitized cargo is
also handled. At the same time, the speciali-
zation of dry bulk cargo terminals continues.
1.4 PORT PLANNING AT THE
TERMINAL LEVEL Phase 5: Specialized Terminal. With an in-
crease in unit loads beyond certain levels,
1.4.1 Port Development specialized cargo terminals are created for
1.4.1.1 Phases of Port Development. The handling containers, packaged lumber, and Ro-
course of development of a port or port ter- Ro. The multipurpose terminal of phase 4 is
minal usually undergoes phases, which also in- converted into a specialized terminal, with the
dicate its age. Evolution from a traditional addition of specialized cargo handling equip-
break-bulk cargo port to a specialized unitized ment. Break-bulk general cargo is reduced fur-
cargo port may be gradual. However, it is dis- ther.
tinguishable into qualitative changes that take
place in specific periods throughout the overall It should be noted that in normal situations,
life of the port. These phases are as follows: the transition from phase 3 to phase 5 should
progress through phase 4, so as to provide an
opportunity to the port to increase unitized
Phase 1: Traditional General Cargo Flow. A cargo traffic to volumes that will enable eco-
port with break-bulk or packaged bulk cargo nomically feasible development of a special-
 1.4 PORT PLANNING AT THE TERMINAL LEVEL 31

ized terminal in phase 5. Moreover, in the event this break-bulk cargo terminal are prepared to
that a port has entered phase 3 of its develop- see it evolve into a multipurpose terminal or
ment, care should be taken to avoid creating even into a specialized container or bulk-cargo
additional general cargo berths. terminal. This decision will be based on the
percentages of the flows and the unit loading
1.4.1.2 Review of Existing Port Installa- that conventionally packaged cargoes assume
tions. The examination of existing installa- over time.
tions should precede any decision to expand Analysis of these data will also reveal
old, or to construct new, port terminals. The whether berth productivity falls short of theo-
purpose of such a study is to identify any func- retical values. In this case, and particularly if
tional difficulties that would detract signifi- significant vessel waiting times are observed,
cantly from the theoretical productivity of the the cause of the reduced output should be
marine and land sector of the port terminal. In looked into carefully. Usually, a standard effi-
many cases, improved organization of the com- ciency rating per berth with a high degree of
ponent operations of the port terminal produces break-bulk cargo traffic is 100,000 tons per
a significant increase in its productivity. In ad- year, whereas if unitized cargoes constitute 30
dition to an improvement in the terminal’s or- to 40% of the traffic, this productivity figure
ganizational structure, there is the possibility of may rise to more than 150,000 tons per year.
introducing structural changes and upgrades of
port installations, which will usually necessi- 1.4.1.4 Bulk Cargo Terminal. To decide on
tate a considerable expenditure. It should be the expansion of a bulk cargo terminal, the data
noted that in many cases, technological devel- from the existing terminal have to be consid-
opments and changes in packaging and cargo ered. Just as in the case of break-bulk termin-
handling methods frequently render the up- als, the purpose of this examination is to
grading of existing installations a difficult and determine whether the lower productivity of the
complicated task. At the same time, the exis- terminal is due to malfunctioning or to increases
tence of spare capacity is always a desirable in traffic volume. In ore-exporting terminals,
feature in a modern port able to accommodate the latter case may be due to improvements in
peaks in cargo flows, albeit with reduced pro- mining technology or to dis-coveries of new
ductivity. Thus in cases where the recom- deposits. The study should fo-cus on such issues
mended installation upgrade marginally covers as coordination between the various phases of
the expected demand, it is recommended that product movement, on lags, if such exist, during
old installations be placed on standby to cover which no product is avail-able for loading on
unforeseen requirements and that expansion of the vessel, and on the method of cargo
an existing, or construction of a new, port ter- movement over land. The findings of this
minal be opted for. examination will lead to a de-cision either to
improve the operational pro-cedures and the
1.4.1.3 General Cargo Terminal. The first equipment of the existing terminal, or to create
phase in a design for expansion of an existing an additional bulk cargo terminal.
break-bulk cargo terminal or for the creation of
a new one involves diligent collection and anal-
ysis of statistical data regarding the existing
1.4.2 General Cargo Terminal
terminal’s output. This analysis will also deter-
mine the ‘‘age’’ of the existing terminal—in Despite the fact that the general cargo terminal
other words, the degree to which the owners of is becoming increasingly scarce, the main fac-
32 PORT PLANNING

tors pertinent to its organization and operation 1.4.2.2 Berth Occupancy. The occupancy
are presented below, so they may also be used rate of a group of berths expresses the per-
in the study of a multipurpose terminal. centage of time that berth positions are occu-
pied by ships being serviced. The effect of berth
1.4.2.1 Vessel Waiting Time. It is generally occupancy on waiting time depends on the
accepted that arrivals of general cargo vessels probability distributions of arrivals and of
follow a Poisson distribution. According to this, servicing times as well as on the number of
the probability P(n) for n vessels to arrive in berths available to the sector of the port being
examined. With regard to a general cargo ter-
port within a specified period—usually 1 day—
is minal, an M/E2 / n queue is usually assumed, as
stated above. The effect that the grouping of
berthing places on vessel waiting times can be
P(n) (N)ee N (1.3) seen through the congestion factor, defined be-
n! low, values of which are contained in Table 1.1.
In general, a larger number of berths enables
where N is the average number of arrivals per greater occupancy rates for the same waiting
day over a long time period. The observation periods.
above is equivalent to saying that the distribu- For the sake of demonstration, let us assume
tion of the time intervals t between successive 10 general cargo berths and an average of two
arrivals is negative-exponential: vessel calls per day headed for these berths. If
the average servicing time is 3.5 days, the oc-
cupancy factor k0 is
P(t) e t / T (1.4)

k0 2 3.5 0.70
where T is the average of these intervals over a
10
large time period. On the basis of existing data
it is estimated that the time periods t for
servicing of berthed vessels follow an Erlang in which case the congestion factor k9, which
0
distribution with K 2. The Erlang distribution is in average terms expresses waiting time as a
expressed by the formula percentage of servicing time, amounts to 6% or
K 1 0.2 day. Now, if the total of these berths is di-
(Kt/T)n vided into two independently operating groups,
Kt / T
P(t) e (1.5) with one vessel call per day per group, the oc-
n 0 n! cupancy rate remains the same, while the con-
gestion factor is tripled, to 19%. Table 1.1
where T is the average servicing time. Within provides an approximation of the waiting time
reasonable accuracy, queue theory can provide for the queue above expressed as a percentage
values of vessel waiting time for various de- of the average servicing time as a function of
grees of utilization of the system. In the case of the number of berths and of their occupancy.
the general cargo terminal, assumptions are The optimum berth use depends on the cost
made of random arrivals and distribution of ratio between berths and vessels. The values
servicing times according to an Erlang2 distri- given in Table 1.2 give occupancy factors gen-
bution. This in fact corresponds to an M /E2 /a erally recommended for a 1:4 cost ratio, de-
queue, where M denotes the Poisson distribu- pending on the number of berths of the general
tion of arrivals and a is the number of berths. cargo terminal. It should be noted that the
 1.4 PORT PLANNING AT THE TERMINAL LEVEL 33
Table 1.1 Congestion factor in queue M / E2 / n

Occupancy Number of Berths

Factor 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
0.10 0.08 0.01 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0.15 0.13 0.02 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0.20 0.19 0.03 0.01 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0.25 0.25 0.05 0.02 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0.30 0.32 0.08 0.03 0.01 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0.35 0.40 0.11 0.04 0.02 0.01 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0.40 0.50 0.15 0.06 0.03 0.02 0.01 0.01 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0.45 0.60 0.20 0.08 0.05 0.03 0.02 0.01 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0.50 0.75 0.26 0.12 0.07 0.04 0.03 0.02 0.01 0.01 0.01 0 0 0 0 0
0.55 0.91 0.33 0.16 0.10 0.06 0.04 0.03 0.02 0.02 0.01 0.01 0.01 0 0 0
0.60 1.13 0.43 0.23 0.14 0.09 0.06 0.05 0.03 0.03 0.02 0.02 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01
0.65 1.38 0.55 0.30 0.19 0.12 0.09 0.07 0.05 0.04 0.03 0.03 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02
0.70 1.75 0.73 0.42 0.27 0.19 0.14 0.11 0.09 0.07 0.06 0.05 0.04 0.03 0.03 0.03
0.75 2.22 0.96 0.59 0.39 0.28 0.21 0.17 0.14 0.12 0.10 0.08 0.07 0.06 0.05 0.05
0.80 3.00 1.34 0.82 0.57 0.42 0.33 0.27 0.22 0.18 0.16 0.13 0.11 0.10 0.09 0.08
0.85 4.50 2.00 1.34 0.90 0.70 0.54 0.46 0.39 0.34 0.30 0.26 0.23 0.20 0.10 0.16
0.90 6.75 3.14 2.01 1.45 1.12 0.91 0.76 0.65 0.56 0.50 0.45 0.40 0.36 0.33 0.30
Source: United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD), 1978.

Table 1.2 Recommended occupancy factors throughput of the terminal and on the prede-
Number of Occupancy Congestion termined level of vessel servicing to be offered
Berths Factor k (%) Factor k9 (%) by the terminal. The latter depends on the cor-
0 0
1 40–50 50–75 responding waiting periods discussed previ-
2 50–60 26–43 ously. The number of berths n can be expressed
3 53–65 14–30 as
4 56–65 11–19
5 60–70 9–19 n Q (1.6)
6–10 62–75 2–21 24k0qprN
10 70–85 0–26
where Q is the annual cargo flow estimate
(tonnes), k0 the berth occupancy factor, q the
average tonnage handled by one gang per hour
higher factor values are more fitted for E2 / E2 / (calculated from statistical data of this or a sim-
n queues, which are more applicable to con- ilar port), p the fraction of time during which
tainer terminals. the berths are operational (e.g., if the total daily
working hours per berth is 16 over 6 days per
1.4.2.3 Number of Berths. The key param- week, this factor would be 16 6 / 24 7 0.572), r
eter in the design of a general cargo port ter- the average number of gangs concur-rently
minal is that of the number of berths. This loading or unloading an average-sized vessel
parameter depends mainly on the annual cargo (depends on cargo type and vessel size),
34 PORT PLANNING

and N the days of berth operation in a year on the basis of existing statistical data); d the
(days when berths are in a position to receive cargo density [tons / m3; this may be calculated
vessels, e.g., not closed for maintenance). using the stowage factor (in m 3 / ton), typical
The number of berths, n, may also be ex- values of which are shown in Table 1.3]; H the
pressed approximately as a function of cargo average stowage height (m; depends on type of
throughput, Q, expressed in units of 100,000 cargo, its packing, and stowage means; an av-
tons per year as follows: erage value is 2 to 3 m; the smaller the stowage
height, the larger the storage areas, but simpler
Q mechanical means are required for cargo han-
n (1.7) dling; for this reason, comparisons should be
k0 made between various alternatives); and p the
peak factor, multiplies the average area re-
where k0 is the occupancy factor. Having de-
quired to accommodate cargo flow peaks (usu-
termined the number of berths in the terminal,
ally, this increase is between 25 and 40%).
berth length is then calculated on the basis of
The factor 1.7 in eq. (1.8) covers the extra
the length of the design vessel to be calling at
space required because of the splitting of con-
the terminal. Berth length is generally taken to
signments into smaller units and accommo-
be 20% above the design vessel length. Wharf
dates areas not used for stacking, such as
width should typically include free sea space of
corridors and offices. Assuming a rectangular
at least two design vessel widths. The pro-
shape of the storage area, the dimensions of the
ductivity per running meter of a general cargo
berth usually ranges from 600 to 1200 tons of shed may be calculated to have a width of
cargo per year for average occupancy. Where roughly half the length. In any case the width
container units are handled by conventional should be above 40 to 50 m.
quay cranes or by vessel gear, this output may In ports, cargo is stored in sheds, ware-
reach 1600 tons per year. houses, or in the open. Sheds usually are steel
frame constructions at ground level, situated
1.4.2.4 Storage Area. A small portion of the
total throughput of a general cargo terminal is
either loaded directly to or discharged di-rectly Table 1.3 Typical cargo densities
from land transportation means without
requiring storage at the terminal. The other Stowage Factor Cargo Density
cargo is stored for a period of time in sheds, Cargo (m3 / ton) (tons / m3)
open areas, or warehouses. The required cargo Bagged cement 1.0 1.00
storage area A (thousands of m2) can be ex- Plaster, bagged 1.2 0.83
pressed as a function of known parameters, by Sand, bagged 0.5 2.00
adopting the following simple relation: Animal feed, 1.5 0.67
1.7 QD p bagged
Bagged coffee 1.8 0.56
Citrus fruits 2.5 0.40
A 365 dH 1 100 (1.8) Cotton bales 2.7 0.37
Bagged flour 1.3 0.77
where Q is the annual tonnage to be stored Grapes 3.9 0.26
(thousands of tons; this refers to the portion of Frozen fish 2.1 0.48
total cargo flow that requires storage); D the (boxed)
average storage duration (days; it is assumed Paper rolls 2.5 0.40
 1.4 PORT PLANNING AT THE TERMINAL LEVEL 35

lengthwise and relatively near the wharves and inland areas by road and by rail, if such a con-
used for cargo storage over a short period of nection exists. Rail tracks are laid embedded so
time. Conversely, since they are not part of the as not to protrude from the floor surface. If it is
fast-track cargo handling chain, warehouses are not possible to create a permanent platform as
usually situated behind the sheds so as not to indicated above, mobile loading ramps may be
take up valuable space near the berths. Cargo employed. In this case, the shed floor may be
that is to remain in port for a substantial period shaped with a double slope, with a water-shed
of time is stored there. Such situations arise along the lengthwise axis of the shed.
when the port owners wish to engage in the The width of the area between the shed and
warehousing of goods: for instance, goods re- the berth (apron) is about 20 to 30 m. Tradi-
quiring ripening or separation and repackaging tionally, conventional portal cranes placed on
for direct ex-warehouse sale. Contrary to sheds, rail tracks alongside the quay have been used in
warehouses may be multistoried buildings, al- this zone, and railcars approached this zone to
though single-storied warehouses are more load and unload directly from the dock cranes.
practical. A typical layout of a general cargo Experience has shown that it is difficult to load
terminal for three berths is shown in Figure and unload railcars satisfactorily, with the result
1.12. that cargo handling efficiency is re-duced.
Currently, the practice of approaching general
1.4.2.5 Sheds. The basic requirements for a cargo berths by rail has been aban-doned, and
port shed are as follows: cargo flow is effected through sheds and
warehouses.
1. To be of sufficient width, which should A further development in the dockside zone
extend at least to 40 to 50 m is the increasingly reduced presence of dock
2. To have as few columns as possible cranes on rails. Many such cranes, which in the
within the storage area past were characteristic of general cargo ter-
3. To have sufficient ventilation and lighting minals, are now being replaced by versatile
heavy mobile cranes supplemented, if possible,
4. To have a smooth and durable floor sur-
by a vessel’s gear. Apart from loading and un-
face
loading heavy unitized cargo at the dockside,
5. To have an adequate number of large these cranes, with an approximate 20-ton lift-
sliding doors, with easy handling ing capacity, may assist operations in other ar-
6. To save floor space by placing offices at a eas of a terminal. In general, the number of
higher level cranes and their lifting capacity depend on the
7. To be constructed so as to enable expan- type and volume of cargo and its method of
sion or other envisaged modifications handling at the port. The overall width of the
land zone required to sustain all cargo handling
The shed floor should be adequately sloped operations in a modern general cargo port ter-
to enable drainage. Usually, such a slope is minal should extend 200 m from the quay line.
specified up to 1:40 for purposes of good func-
tioning of handling equipment and stacking 1.4.2.6 Cargo Handling. Following unload-ing
stability. The shaping of this slope may be by cranes of general cargo onto a dock,
combined with the construction of a loading transporting and stacking it in sheds follows. A
platform lengthwise to the land side of the shed, reverse course applies in the case of cargo ex-
to an approximate height of 1 m. A load-ing port. Transfer to and from a shed may be ef-
platform is needed to connect the shed with fected in the following ways: (1) use of a
36

Figure 1.12 Typical layout of a general cargo terminal.

 1.4 PORT PLANNING AT THE TERMINAL LEVEL 37

tractor–trailer combination and (2) use of heavy Containers are transported mainly in spe-
forklift trucks. Cargo unloaded by dock-side cialized vessels, classified into ‘‘generations’’
cranes can be placed directly on trailers that are depending on their size. Typical dimensions of
transported back and forth by tractors. Under modern container ships are given in Chapters 2
normal working conditions, a tractor may and 10. Most container ships are capable of
service three or four trailers. If forklifts are used crossing the Panama Canal (Panamax-type
instead of tractors and trailers, the cranes vesssels), allowing 13-box-wide storage across
discharge the cargo directly onto the dock floor the deck. During the 1990s post-Panamax ves-
for forklifts to pick up. Cargo stack-ing at a sels appeared, having capacities exceeding 8000
shed is effected by means of forklifts, while in TEU with drafts of 14.5 m. These vessels have
open storage areas it is performed ei-ther by beams of 43 m, allowing 17-box-wide deck
forklifts or by 10-ton mobile cranes. In the storage. It has been announced that in 2004 two
absence of statistical data, the cargo han-dling containerships of 9800 TEU will en-ter trans-
equipment required at break-bulk cargo Pacific service. Engineers consider that there is
terminals may be calculated by means of the no technical constraint to building a ship of
following approximate norms: 15,000 or even 18,000 TEU, the latter size being
imposed by the shallowest point in the Malacca
• Number of1 loading and unloading gangs Strait in Southeast Asia, allowing a draft of 21
1
per vessel: 3– for oceangoing vessels; 1–
2 2
m. Such megaships might have a length of 400
for feeder vessels m and a beam of 60 m, giving 24-box-wide deck
• 3 forklifts per gang, or 2 tractors and 8 storage. Table 1.4 shows the principal
trailers per gang dimensions of some of the new gen-eration
vessels together with the projected 12,500 TEU
• 0.8 forklift and 0.4 stacking crane per gang
capacity vessel. This latter Ultra Large
Container Ship (ULCS) was found to be of an
Furthermore, for equipment an extra 20 to optimal size by a study carried out by Lloyds
25%, and for trailers an extra 5%, is required for Register of Shipping and Ocean Ship-ping
repair and maintenance purposes. Consultants. These gradually increasing
dimensions of new vessels have a significant
impact on the geometric requirements of ports’
1.4.3 Container Terminal
layout. Thus berths of up to 400-m long with
1.4.3.1 Cargo Unitization. One of the most water depths down to 16 m become increas-
significant developments in maritime transport ingly the norm for modern container terminals.
was the establishment some 40 years ago of the Also, gantry cranes should be able to cope with
container as a cargo packaging unit. Over the increased beams and the capacity of handling
past 30 years the amount of goods shipped in equipment should be compatible with larger
containers increased at a rate of about 7% per consignments. Containers can be stacked in the
year (i.e., more than double the growth in the hold or four high on the ship’s deck. Difficul-
world economy and 50% over the expansion in ties arise with large stacking heights as regards
world trade). In the container terminal, in- container fastening and other aspects.
creased throughput productivity is attained in The container ships mentioned above are
addition to other advantages, such as canceling oceangoing vessels and in many cases avoid
the need for extensive sheltered storage areas, making frequent calls at nearby ports. Thus,
security, and standardization in equipment di- smaller, intensively utilized feeder vessels are
mensions and required spaces. employed in short distances for the collection
38 PORT PLANNING

Table 1.4 New generation container ships

Launch Dead-Weight LOA Beam Draft

Vessel Name Date Tonnage TEU (m) (m) (m)
Hyundai Admiral 1992 59,000 4,411 275 37.1 13.6
NYK Altair 1994 63,163 4,473 300 37.1 13.0
APL China 1995 66,520 4,832 276 40.0 14.0
Ever Ultra 1996 63,388 5,364 285 40.0 12.7
Hajin London 1996 67,298 5,302 279 40.4 14.0
Regina Maersk 1996 82,135 6,418 318 42.8 12.2
NYK Antares 1997 81,819 5,798 300 40.0 14.0
Sovereign Maersk 1997 104,696 8,736 347 42.9 14.5
ULCS 120,000 12,500 400 60 14.8

or distribution of cargoes from a region (e.g., gular shape, as shown in Figure 1.13. Table 1.6
the eastern Mediterranean). These feeder ves- lists the typical dimensions of various container
sels are of 30 to 350 TEU capacity and usually sizes. It is estimated that in the future the trend
have no lifting gear. Loading and unloading are toward greater container length, in the region of
conducted by means of a single dockside gan- 45 ft, and a weight of over 35 tons will gain
try crane, with a corresponding reduction in momentum.
output. These feeder vessels are usually Ro-Ro
or combined type. Table 1.5 lists the main di- 1.4.3.2 Cargo Handling. Practice has shown
mensions of typical feeder vessels. that the actual productivity of container termin-
Because of the container terminal’s special- als is significantly lower than the theoretical
ization and the large investment involved, a productivity. An average daily productivity per
minimum level of cargo volume is required to berth used to be in the region of 450 TEU for
render the investment profitable. This through- many small container terminals, whereas large
out depends on individual conditions and ranges modern terminals can achieve up to 2000
typically around 70,000 TEU annually. It is movements, as in the port of Singapore. A con-
characteristic that the investment cost per TEU cept of narrow docks has been proposed, where
for an annual traffic rate of 20,000 TEU is triple a vessel could be served by cranes at both sides,
that of the corresponding cost for 80,000 TEU. thus achieving high productivity, on the order of
Containers are of simple rectan- 300 movements per hour per berth.

Table 1.5 Typical dimensions of feeder vessels

Feeder Vessel Dead-Weight Length Beam Draft

Type Tonnage TEU (m) (m) (m)
Ro / Ro 4580 176 130 17 6.25
Lo / Lo 1260 106 77 13 3.70
Combined 2080 111 87 14 4.70
Combined 6500 330 115 19 7.40
 1.4 PORT PLANNING AT THE TERMINAL LEVEL 39

gantry crane extends to 15 years and 2,000,000

operating cycles. Some typical gantry crane di-
mensions are:

• Lifting capacity 30–50 tons

• Rail gauge 15–40 m
• Maximum lifting height above 25 m
dock
• Maximum depth beneath dock 15 m
• Maximum seaward overhang 25–40 m
• Landward overhang 5–25 m

Large quayside gantry cranes may serve ves-

sels up to 18 container rows, while several ter-
minals around the world are already operating
gantries capable of serving vessels 22-boxes
wide with outreaches more than 60 m, serving
super post Panamax vessels. Among the ad-
vances in gantry technology the twin-lift
spreaders are worth mentioning, capable of
handling two 20-ft boxes simultaneously. The
critical operating parameter of a dock gantry
crane is its output, which should be as high as
possible to reduce vessel berthing time. For this
Figure 1.13 Steel container.
reason, methods of making the loading / unload-
ing cycle at the dock independent of the trans-
port cycle of the boxes to open-air storage are
employed, to attain a continuous supply to and
Loading and unloading operations are carried removal of containers from the dock gantry
out by means of powerful dock gantry cranes crane. Extensive land areas, required for stor-
that can attain an output of 25 to 30 TEU per age of containers forwarded through a terminal,
hour, although usually their average productiv- constitute the distinguishing characteristic of
ity is lower. The operational life of a typical specialized container terminals. In the case of

Table 1.6 Selected container sizes

External Dimensions Maximum Lifting Cubic Capacity

ISO Type TEU (m) Capacity (tons) (m3)
1C (20 ft) 1 6.05 2.435 2.435 20 29.0
1A (40 ft)
1B (30 ft)
2
1–
12.190 2.435
9.125 2.435
2.4352.435
30
25
60.5
45.0
1
1D (10 ft) 2
–
2.990 2.435 2.435 10 14.1
1
2
40 PORT PLANNING

imports, containers are transferred from docks straddle carriers so that the latter also carry out
to the stacking yard, for pickup a few days later the transport of containers from docks to the
for overland transport. The reverse procedure storage area. However, using straddle carriers
applies for exports. The simplest handling pro- for long distances does not put them to opti-
cedure involves the use of container chassis mum use. Other disadvantages of these vehi-
such as the one depicted in Figure 1.13. cles include the problem of requiring frequent
The procedure followed in the case of im- maintenance and repairs and providing limited
ported containers involves the following stages: visibility to the operator; on the other hand, they
are exceedingly versatile machines. Re-cent
• Loading of the container by dock gantry technical developments in straddle carriers
crane onto a container chassis include the incorporation of twin spreader sys-
tems, similar to those used in quayside gantry
• Transport of container chassis by tractor to
cranes.
the storage area
Another method of cargo handling in the
• Chassis and container retained in storage stowage area is through use of special gantry
area until delivery cranes with a 45-ton lifting capacity that can
stack containers four, or even five, high (Figure
Unloaded container chassis are parked in a 1.14). These gantry cranes, usually called por-
dedicated lot. In a storage area, containers may tainers, may move on rails, spanning about 20
be handled by straddle carriers, miscellaneous container rows. They can also be fitted with
rubber-tired high-lift (front loader) high-reach tires, in which case they have a smaller span, in
stackers, and so on. For details, consult Chapter the region of six or seven container rows and
2. Loaded containers may be stacked to a max- smaller stacking capacity; usually three to four
imum height of three or four, depending on the container height. Portainers on tires are, how-
type of equipment used. Empty containers may ever, more versatile and capable of being ap-
be stacked six or seven high. Representative plied to various operations.
examples are shown in Figures 1.14 through Stowage gantry cranes are preferred in con-
1.16. tainer terminals with large throughput, partic-
The minimum width of corridors between ularly export traffic, and are amenable to
container rows in a linear layout is approxi- adaptation for automated applications in con-
mately 1.20 m, to enable access by a straddle tainer placing and identification. It is noted that
carrier’s legs. Circulation lanes are provided at information technologies are applied increas-
regular intervals, forming a road network for the ingly in most operations that take place in
use of straddle carriers and other vehicles. modern container terminals, not only in box
These lanes have a minimum width of 12 m stacking. A recent attempt toward full auto-
when they have to allow for turning of the mation between dockside and yard was mani-
rubber-tired straddle carrier, and 5.5 m in other fested in the design of dockside and stacking
cases. Usually, free gaps about 0.80 m wide are gantries with overlapping reaches.
also allowed between the smaller surfaces of Yard gantry cranes may also be used to move
adjacent containers to facilitate handling, in- containers between open-air storage and rail or
spection, and so on. road vehicles. The handling systems above may
This handling system may be simplified as be combined to suit the require-ments of any
regards the variety of equipment. Thus, tractors particular port terminal. It is ev-ident that with
and chassis may be replaced by rubber-tired exports, a higher stacking height
 1.4 PORT PLANNING AT THE TERMINAL LEVEL 41

Figure 1.14 Containers stacked in storage area by gantry crane.

can be accepted than in the imports section be- the boxes on the ground with automated rack-
cause of the reduced probability for additional ing systems.
maneuvers to reach an underlying container in
the stack.
Overhead cranes were recently introduced in 1.4.3.3 Storage Yard. Containers remain in
Singapore port. These are capable of stacking open-air storage areas for a few days until they
nine boxes high spanning ten rows across. They are forwarded to either sea or land transport.
are operated remotely, having a high de-gree of Indicative average values of waiting time for
automation built in. imported containers is roughly 6 days, and 4
New ideas on container storage are also be- days for containers destined for export, while
ing considered to replace the method of placing empty containers usually remain in port about
42 PORT PLANNING

10 to 20 days. The required container storage

area depends on the stowage method and avail-
able equipment. Table 1.7 lists the area re-
quired per container, including space for access
to the corresponding handling equipment.
The vehicle access lanes at the container ter-
minal should have a width of 3.5 m for trucks or
trailers, 5.5 to 7.0 m for straddle carriers, and 5
m for side loaders. In 908 bends, the widths
above become 6, 12 to 15, and 7.5 m,
respectively. Front-loading forklifts require an
access lane of width equal to the length of the
containers handled, increased by a safety mar-
gin of approximately 1.0 m on each side.
Figure 1.15 Containers stacked by high-reach stacker The performance of various transport and
with telescopic boom. stacking equipment may be calculated by the
time it takes to stack (or to remove) a container

Figure 1.16 Container storage area; typical linear container stacking configuration.
 1.4 PORT PLANNING AT THE TERMINAL LEVEL 43

Table 1.7 Gross storage area requirements due to the cement-bound base. Bituminous sur-
Container Height Storage Area facing is relatively inexpensive, but it can be
Stacking Method (no. containers) (m2 / TEU) damaged by corner castings in the container
Trailer 1 65.0 storage area. Cast-in-situ concrete is more ex-
Straddle carrier 3 10.0 pensive, inflexible, but generally hard-wearing.
4 7.5 The other options include gravel, reinforced
Gantry crane 3 10.0 concrete plinths with gravel or other infill, and
4 7.5 block paving. Gravel is the cheapest option, but
5 6.0 it tends to spread onto adjacent readways, to get
Forklifts, side 2 19.0 stuck in corner castings of boxes, and to render
loaders 3 13.0 slot marking difficult. Block paving is relatively
expensive but is being accepted as the most
flexible surfacing for storage yards, since it
allows lifting and relaying of damaged sections.
and by the average speed of the vehicle. Stack-
ing time ranges from 0.5 to 1 min for straddle The yard surface should display a 1:40 to
carries, 1 to 2 min for forklifts, and 2 to 4 min 1:50 gradient for efficient runoff of rainwater.
for side loaders. Average speed ranges from 450 However, a yard surface should ideally be hor-
to 500 m / min for trucks, tractors, and side izontal for box stacking, so a compromise of
loaders, to 400 to 430 m / min for straddle car- about 1:100 gradient is generally used. Contin-
riers, and 300 to 350 m / min for forklifts. uous slot drains or individual catch pits
The storage area, E, in hectares required in a provided along roadways collect runoff and
container terminal may be calculated using the discharge it to outfall pipes. The terminal-
relation included yard and gates should be amply
E QD e 1 p (1.9) illuminated to ensure efficient round-the-clock
operations. Lighting is generally provided by
3560 ƒ 100 high-mast columns, typically 30 to 50 m high.
Layout of columns should be considered care-
where Q is the number of containers handled fully to avoid risk of collision or taking up vital
annually (thousands of TEU), D the average space in the storage area, achieving at the same
container waiting time (days), e the area re- time a more-or-less uniform illuminance. Fire-
quired per TEU (m2; taken from Table 1.6 on fighting facilities in the form of fire hydrants
the basis of the maximum possible height), ƒ the should also be provided throughout the termi-
ratio of average to maximum stacking height, nal, including the storage yard. Hydrants can be
and p the peak factor (%). in pillars or in pits, the latter case requiring a
The working surface of an open-air storage standpipe to be attached before hoses can be
yard is designed according to the type of con- connected. A typical paved surface storage yard
tainer equipment used. It could be either paved is shown in Figure 1.16.
or simply gravel covered. Usually, heavy fork-
lifts impose stricter requirements on road sur- 1.4.3.4 Container Freight Station and Other
faces than do tractors or straddle carriers. The Areas. A percentage of the containers handled
rolling zones of portainers on tires are usually at a container stripping terminal pass through a
reinforced. The U.K. guidelines indicate the special shed, where chartering, con-tainer
need for a minimum thickness of bituminous repacking, stuffing, and cargo realloca-tion
surfacing of 18 cm to avoid reflective cracking operations are conducted. This shed, called
44 PORT PLANNING

a container freight station (CFS), should have a nually, D, is calculated initially using the re-
capacity calculated on the basis of 29 m 3 per lation
TEU. The CFS’s design area, S (in thousands of
D T 1C (1.11)
m2), can be estimated by the formula
HPm 12
QD 29 p
S 365 h (1 r) 1 100(1.10)
where T is the ship’s cargo to be loaded or
unloaded (TEU), H the vessel working time per
where Q is the annual CFS container through- day, P the average quantity of TEU handled
put (thousands of TEU), D the average duration hourly per crane (including work stoppages or
of stay (days), h the average stacking height breakdowns), m the cranes per berth (allowing
(m), r the access factor (accommodating space for an efficiency factor as follows: 1 crane /
for lanes, maneuver areas, etc.), and p the peak berth: m 1.0; 2 cranes / berth: m 1.9; 3 cranes /
factor (%). berth: m 2.4; 4 cranes / berth or more: 80%
Along the two long sides of the shed, con- efficiency per crane), and C the annual number
tainers and trailers are served, respectively, to of vessels calling at the container ter-minal.
facilitate repacking operations. Trucks can park
outside or even within the station. The CFS is It should be pointed out that the real-life data
usually located at the rear of open-air storage of crane productivity vary significantly be-
areas of the terminal. It is possible, however, in tween ports. However, a design figure of
case the land required is not available within the 120,000 TEU per crane per year can be used for
terminal, to plan for this installation at a initial planning purposes. To convert the an-
distance from the port, and to maintain an ex- nual number of berth-days into the number of
clusive connection with it. This arrangement is berths required for the terminal, an optimum
preferred, for example, when an expansion of an level of vessel servicing has to be determined,
existing port within an urban area would after having analyzed the corresponding wait-
otherwise be required in an area where ob- ing queue.
taining additional space normally presents a For specialized container terminals, the as-
problem. Figure 1.17 indicates the two arrange- sumption is usually made that the time intervals
ments in question. between successive vessel arrivals do not fol-
In addition to open-air storage areas and low the negative exponential distribution appli-
container freight stations, other spaces are cable to general cargo terminals (see Section
needed to cover requirements, such as maneu- 1.4.2.2), but rather, follow an Erlang distribu-
vering for land vehicles (road or rail), person- tion, with K 2, because here there is some
nel parking, customs, administration building, regularity of container ship arrival compared to
refrigerated containers, storage of hazardous or that of general cargo vessels. It is further as-
flammable materials, and maintenance work- sumed that vessel servicing time follows an E2
shops. These additional installations amount to distribution as well. Table 1.8 gives the average
about 2 to 3 ha per berth. waiting time (congestion factor) for an E2 / E2 /
n queue as a percentage of servicing time for
1.4.3.5 Berths. Another parameter required for various degrees of berth use (occupancy). Us-ing
the design of container terminals is the number the data of Table 1.8, the choice of the suit-able
of berths required. To estimate this number, the number of berths for a container terminal is
number of berth-days needed an- calculated by eq. (1.11) through trial and er-
 1.4 PORT PLANNING AT THE TERMINAL LEVEL 45

Figure 1.17 Location of a CFS within (a) and outside (b) a port.

Table 1.8 Congestion factor in queue E2 / E2 / n

Number of Berths
Occupancy 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
0.01 0.02 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
0.15 0.03 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
0.20 0.06 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
0.25 0.09 0.02 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
0.30 0.13 0.02 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
0.35 0.17 0.03 0.02 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
0.40 0.24 0.06 0.02 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
0.45 0.30 0.09 0.04 0.02 0.01 0.01 0.00 0.00
0.50 0.39 0.12 0.05 0.03 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.00
0.55 0.49 0.16 0.07 0.04 0.02 0.02 0.01 0.01
0.60 0.63 0.22 0.11 0.06 0.04 0.03 0.02 0.01
0.65 0.80 0.30 0.16 0.09 0.06 0.05 0.03 0.02
0.70 1.04 0.41 0.23 0.14 0.10 0.07 0.05 0.04
0.75 1.38 0.58 0.32 0.21 0.14 0.11 0.08 0.07
0.80 1.87 0.83 0.46 0.33 0.23 0.19 0.14 0.12
0.85 2.80 1.30 0.75 0.55 0.39 0.34 0.26 0.22
0.90 4.36 2.00 1.20 0.92 0.65 0.57 0.44 0.40
46 PORT PLANNING

Figure 1.18 Small craft harbor at Monaco.

ror after estimating the days at berth required worldwide, with a corresponding increase in
annually. Typically, a key performance indica- pleasure craft and in a requirement for mooring
tor for a container terminal is the number of spaces. To be classified as a fully developed
TEUs handled per annum per linear meter of marina, a harbor should satisfy certain criteria
quay. Based on data from major international that extend beyond the provision of mooring
container terminals, a design figure of 1000 slots. These services include water and bunker
TEU per annum per linear meter of quay may supply, availability of a repair unit, vessel lift-
be used for the initial planning of well-equipped ing and launching arrangements, a supplies and
facilities. provisions outlet, and vessel dry berthing. An
example of a fully developed small craft harbor
is shown in Figure 1.18.
1.4.4 Marinas
Pleasure boats fall mainly into two catego-ries:
1.4.4.1 Basic Design Criteria. Marinas pro- motor-powered and sailboats. Boats of these
vide harboring and supply and repair services categories differ with regard to the geo-metric
for pleasure boats. Recently, marine tourism characteristics necessary for designing the
and other recreational activities, such as ama- moorings and in general, all the elements of a
teur fishing and sailing, have increased rapidly marina. The percentage of participation of
 1.4 PORT PLANNING AT THE TERMINAL LEVEL 47
Table 1.9 Typical design parameters of pleasure boats

Number of Draft (m) Beam (m)

Length Vessels Powerboats Sailboats
(m) (%) (%) (%) Powerboats Sailboats Powerboats Sailboats
0–5 50 40 10 0.80 1.40 2.20 1.80
5–9 30 21 9 1.00 2.00 3.60 3.00
9–12 10 5 5 1.20 2.40 4.10 3.40
12–15 7 4 3 1.040 2.080 4.80 3.90
15–20 3 2 1 1.660 3.40 5.30 4.40
Total 100 72 28

which may be either parallel (Figure 1.19b) or

perpendicular (Figure 1.19a) to the quay line.
Perpendicular berthing is effected either with
light buoys, fixed or dropped anchors, or
through the use of fingers. Fingers placed per-
pendicular to the main dock form single or
double boat slips. Usually, single boat slips are
for the use of relatively large boats; smaller
boats are accommodated in double boat slips.
Figure 1.20 indicates a mooring method in a
double boat slip. For purposes of economy, the
length of a finger may be designed to be smaller
than that of the largest boat by a per-centage
depending on the size of the boat to be served.
The ratio of finger length to the largest boat
length may be a minimum (according to British
Standards) of –3 for boats up to 10 m,
Figure 1.19 Typical moorings. 4
–7 for lengths up to 15 m, and 1.0 for larger
8
boats. Obviously, it is advisable that this re-
each category in the total number of vessels to duction in length be applied in comfortable
be serviced in the marina depends primarily on navigating conditions and low environmental
the country and the marine region involved. loads, such as wind and waves.
Over time, these percentages vary in accord- Navigation channels within a harbor basin
ance with the development of this type of rec- should be sufficiently wide to permit the nec-
reation as well as other parameters. A typical essary maneuvers. For comfortable conditions,
allocation of pleasure boats into the two cate- this width should be 2L for motorboats and 2.5L
gories above and five length classes is given in for sailboats, where L is the length of the design
Table 1.9, where the figures refer to typical di- boat. In sheltered areas and favorable
mensions of the largest vessel in each class. conditions, the channel width can be reduced to
1.75L or even 1.5L, measured between fixed or
1.4.4.2 Dock Layout. Marinas possess docks, movable obstacles, such as between fingers or
often floating docks, for vessel berthing, moored boats. The width of boat slips B de-
48 PORT PLANNING

Figure 1.20 Vessel mooring in a double boat slip.

 1.4 PORT PLANNING AT THE TERMINAL LEVEL 49

pends directly on the beam of the maximum fixed marginal quays is achieved by means of
boat W to be served. For a single boat slip it is B articulated ramps, as shown in Figure 1.21.
W 2C1; for a double boat slip it is B 2W 3C2 These ramps are usually hinged on the fixed
where C1 and C2 are the respective safety quay while the other end, resting on the float-
clearances. These depend on boat size, and ing dock, is fitted with a connecting plate roll-
according to the American Society of Civil ing on the floor of the floating dock. The
Engineers (ASCE, 1994), they are as given in maximum longitudinal ramp slope is 1:4 (m 4),
Table 1.10. the usable ramp width W 1.20 m, and the rail
Usable water depth at slips and channels height Hr 1.10 m above the walking sur-face.
should be maintained at 0.50 to 1.00 m greater
than the maximum draft of vessels using the
marina. In moorings without fingers, a common 1.4.4.3 Floating Docks. Floating docks are
type of mooring arrangement in the Mediter- commonly adopted to ensure the availability of
ranean, safety clearances between moored mooring slots in marinas, because of the rela-
boats are maintained at 0.5 m for boats up to tively small loads they receive from berthed
7.5 m long, 0.75 m for boats up 12 m, and vessels and operation loads. They are made up
1.0 m for larger boats. Finger width lies around of floats on which passageway decking, usually
0.9 m for finger lengths between 9 and 11 m wooden, is fitted. The floats may be either full
and 1.2 m for lengths between 12 and 15 m. or hollow, and they are basically constructed of
The width of floating docks at which the fin- expanded polystyrene, fiberglass, or plain con-
gers are connected at right angles depends on crete. Floating docks are anchored through
the total length of each dock, which is related gravity anchors and chains or by vertical piles
directly to the number of people using them. that prevent horizontal movement. An example
The figures in Table 1.11 are typical dock of a gravity anchor is depicted in Figure 1.22.
widths for marinas of rather high-level speci- Gravity anchor design calculations are made
fications. Access between floating docks and using the customary methods for floating bod-
ies. In these methods, boat impacts and wind
forces on berthed boats have to be considered.
Dock fingers are lighter constructions designed
Table 1.10 Safety clearances in boat slips
similar to floating docks. For more recent in-
Boat Length (m) C1 (m) C2 (m) formation on mooring systems for recreational
7.3 0.46 0.41 craft, readers are referred to data from the Per-
9.7 0.60 0.51 manent International Association of Navigation
12.2 0.76 0.61 Congresses (PIANC, 2002).
15.2 0.91 0.71
24.3 1.06 0.81 1.4.4.4 Marina Services. A well-organized
marina possesses a range of facilities and
equipment for its users.

Table 1.11 Floating dock width Freshwater Supply. Water pipes—generally,

Dock Length (m) Dock Width (m) those of the local water supply network—run
Up to 100 1.5
the length of the docks and supply water to
100–200 1.8
vessels through appropriate outlets. Usually, fire
Above 200 2.4 hydrants are provided in a water supply
network. They are positioned at approximately
50 PORT PLANNING

Figure 1.21 Articulated access ramp to a floating dock.

50-m intervals and are equipped with a 1.5-in. ment of water consumption can be made cen-
flexible hose kept at special firefighting points. trally for the marina as a whole or individually
Fire hydrants are attached to water mains of at outlet points. The points of water supply are
relatively large diameter, typically 2 in. or frequently combined with the power supply
more. As water is not the most suitable fire- within special pillars.
fighting means for a fire caused by fuel or an
electrical short-circuit, there is a tendency to Power Supply. Power supply sockets should be
replace conventional fire hydrants with chemi- provided along the length of docks to pro-vide an
cal fire-extinguishing equipment located appro- electric current of 20, 30, or 50 A at 120 or even
priately in the marina. 230 V. Typically, every vessel ex-ceeding 6 m in
Roughly 1-in.-diameter pipes are needed for length should have access to the relative power
water supply of adequate pressure, excluding outlet. Cabling is arranged in special ducts or
firefighting service, to serve up to 50 mooring suspended lengthwise along docks, to satisfy
slots. Flexible pipe sections are placed at cross- safety regulations. Grounding is provided by
ings between floating elements and at shore means of returns to shore. The marina lighting
connections to absorb the corresponding move- network is arranged in parallel with that of the
ments. Pipelines exposed to the sea are made of power supply. The lighting fix-tures are either
plastic or steel to avoid corrosion. Measure- incorporated in the supply
 1.4 PORT PLANNING AT THE TERMINAL LEVEL 51

Figure 1.22 Raw iron gravity anchor used for anchoring of floating docks.

points or are mounted on independent poles disposal of their accumulated waste by means of
preferably 3 m in average height. pumping. It would be useful to provide,
preferably on a fixed dock, appropriate intakes
Telephone Connection. The telephone system and conduits connected to the local sewerage
offered by each marina depends on the needs of network. For solid waste, garbage dumpers are
the particular situation and in conjunction with placed at suitable locations, accessible to gar-
cost, on the level of services offered. There bage trucks.
have been systems of full coverage, with
suitable supply points at each mooring posi- Storage Lockers. Many marinas provide lock-
tion, and others with a telephone switchboard ers for the storage and safekeeping of provi-
and paging or with the more accessible method sions, equipment, and so on, close to the
of card-operated phones. In any event, the de- moorings. These lockers may be combined with
velopment of cellular telephony has nearly the water or power supply stands de-scribed
eliminated the need for providing telephone above.
service to marinas.
Bunker Supply. A bunkering point can be sit-
Waste Disposal and Sewerage. An increasing uated on an appropriate berth of the marina,
number of pleasure boats possess systems for connected to shore storage tanks. Pumps with
52 PORT PLANNING

measuring devices are located on this dock. sailboats. Lifting a vessel is done using appro-
Care must be taken to avoid accidents, such as priate nylon slings.
fuel leakage into the marina basin. Bunker sup- A fixed jib crane (Figure 1.24) with a hori-
ply points are usually combined with installa- zontal boom is placed in an appropriate loca-
tions for receiving slops and removal of tion in a marina and at such a distance from the
chemical substances from boats’ tanks. Fre- dock as to avoid damage from a potential
quently, design of the fuel supply is assigned to collision with the dock wall of boats being
companies engaged in marina bunkering. lifted. The transfer of significant point loads
from a crane on the quay wall should be taken
into consideration in the design of the latter.
Cleats and Fenders. Along the length of
A special forklift possesses a vertical stem
docks, cleats or light bollards are to be pro-
that enables the forks to reach below the bot-
vided at suitable intervals. In the case of along-
tom of the boat to be lifted. The forklift ap-
side berthing, these will be located at either end
proaches the dock, alongside which a suitable
of the berthing place, with one more in the
retaining bar has been fixed to avert accidents.
middle for vessels exceeding 10 m. Cleats are
A safety margin between the movable parts of
manufactured of rustproof alloys or of hard-
the forklift and the vertical dock wall should
wood. Boats can also be tied fast on piles,
also be factored into the design. These forklifts
placed for this purpose along lines parallel to
may be used for boat storage during the winter
the docks, thus delimiting the boundaries of the
layup period. An example of multilayered win-
navigation channels within the marina. In ad-
ter storage of pleasure boats is depicted in Fig-
dition, floating dock guide piles may also be
ure 1.25.
used for mooring purposes. Fenders of fixed or
Finally, monorails are easy-to-use installa-
floating docks constitute serious equipment for
tions since the conveyor holding the vessel
the safety of both vessels and marina installa-
moves by remote control. The conveyor is sus-
tions. Various types of fenders are used, such as
pended over rails running centrally along the
continuous rubberform alongside a dock, single
length of the monorail. The monorail is placed
tires hanging vertically on the sides of the dock,
transversally to the dock and extends over the
or vertical wooden or plastic fenders for soft
sea by means of a protruding beam to enable
contact.
vertical lifting and relaunching of vessels. Fig-
ure 1.26 indicates the approximate relation be-
Vessel Lifting and Launching Installations. tween the length and weight of motor-driven
Boat lifting and launching procedures are a sig- craft and sailboats, from which the required
nificant part of an organized marina. A large lifting capacity of the marina’s equipment can
variety of lifting arrangements could be used as be estimated.
required. The commonest arrangements for The commonest method of launching rela-
vertical lifting in marinas are the travel lift, the tively small boats, which normally constitute the
fixed jib crane with horizontal boom, the spe- majority of vessels, is by use of launching ramps.
cial forklift, and the monorail. The travel lift These are slopes extending above and below sea
(Figure 1.23) is equipped with a crane mech- level with nonskid surfaces formed by means of
anism mounted on a steel frame usually fitted deep, gently sloped grooves of sufficient width.
with rubber tires. It travels along and above the The vehicles that are to pull out or launch boats
water surface of a boat slip so that it can be approach these ramps lat-erally with special
placed above the boat to be lifted. Travel-lift trailers and make use of the wire rope that holds
frames can be open at one end for servicing the vessel. A submarine
 1.4 PORT PLANNING AT THE TERMINAL LEVEL 53

Figure 1.23 Travel lift frame for launching and retrieving pleasure boats.

horizontal gravel mound is provided to stop a summarizes the basic characteristics of the pri-
vehicle from falling into the sea in the event of mary vessel lifting and launching systems.
an inability to brake. The ramp width is a min-
imum of 5 m. A sufficient expanse for parking Auxiliary Buildings and Installations. A well-
vehicles pulling boat-bearing trailers should be organized marina should contain a number of
provided for in a suitable location close to the auxiliary buildings and networks that should be
ramp. Moreover, this area should also contain a arranged and designed according to the needs
space for rinsing seawater off the vessel, the they are to serve. The following are the most
trailer, and the boat. Runoffs should be col- important such buildings and installations:
lected for treatment because it usually contains
oil, mud, and so on, that should not be allowed
to flow back freely into the harbor basin. Em- • Marina administration building. This
barkation and disembarkation docks and berths structure houses the administration, ac-
for boats waiting their turn to be lifted should be counts, inquiries, telephone switchboard,
situated near the launching slip. In areas with and so on.
weak tides, small floating ramps may be used • Harbor master’s building. This structure is
for relatively small vessels. Table 1.12 used to house the navigation and security
54 PORT PLANNING

Figure 1.24 Fixed jib crane.

services. It may be combined with the ad- • Provisions kiosk. All types of consumables
ministration building. and durable goods related to operation of
• Boat repair shop. This building or area the marina may be supplied through a shop
constitutes a point of attraction for many in the marina, as part of the administration
pleasure boats. It may be designated only building or otherwise.
for small or for larger vessels, in which • Sanitation areas. Approximately one toilet
case the arrangement for vessel lifting and for each 15 mooring places should be pro-
transfer to the boat repair shop is designed vided at intervals of less than 300 m.
accordingly. A range of equipment from • Road network, utilities networks, and
simple wheeled carriers to powerful lifts lighting. These are designed as for urban
and rails are used for the transport of ves- areas.
sels to and from the repair shop. • Entrance gate and fencing. Security is al-ways a
• Repair and maintenance building. This sensitive issue in marinas, and spe-cial care should
be given to protection from theft and vandalism.
structure is used for land equipment and Fencing of the marina land area and safeguarding
machinery. Usually, this building is com- of its perimeter contribute a great deal.
bined with the vessel repair shop if a shop
is provided.
 1.4 PORT PLANNING AT THE TERMINAL LEVEL 55

Figure 1.25 Winter storage for pleasure boats.

• Parking lots. Attention should be paid to up ashore. Table 1.13 lists typical dimensions
ensure adequate parking space for marina and weights of pleasure boats for dry berthing.
users, with clear signposting and unob- The majority of small sailing boats, under 4.5
structed traffic flow. A typical parking m, are placed by hand, keel upward, on special
place with a trailer occupies an area of 3 m shelves, after their mast has been re-moved.
by 12 m. Motor vessels under 7 m are placed on shelves
by forklift, keel downward (Figure 1.25). The
Boat Dry Stacking. A good number of marinas stacking areas may be open-air or sheltered.
provide shore areas for laying-up vessels Larger vessels, both sailboats and motor
ashore. Dry stacking of boats is preferred by vessels, are usually placed on special trailers
many users because of the improved mainte- which are drawn by their owner’s ve-hicle from
nance achieved (washing with sweet water, and to the storage area. When the storage is
etc.), but it adds extra capacity to the marina. done on scaffolding, marina person-nel
Under normal circumstances, dry storage is undertake handling of the vessels. The lift-ing
provided for vessels smaller than 2 tons, but if and launching equipment methods referred to
the marina possesses the appropriate mechani- previously are employed. Moreover, special
cal equipment, much larger vessels can be laid- arrangements can be used that combine lifting
56 PORT PLANNING

and launching with transport and stowage at the

dry berthing positions. Such an arrangement
may include a forklift suspended from a gantry
crane operating in a covered vessel slip. The
layup slots are arranged appropriately on scaf-
folds along the wet slip perimeter.
One of the advantages of laying-up ashore is
that a marina requires a far shorter quay length
than that of conventional mooring ar-
rangements, amounting to approximately 15%
of the latter. The total required marina area is
smaller than the corresponding surface for wet
berthing. For instance, a 200-vessel marina of
an average 6.5-m-long vessel with 22-m-wide
navigation channels requires roughly the sur-
faces denoted in Table 1.14 when it uses ex-
clusively wet or dry berthing.

Marina Water Renewal. Marina basins fre-

quently suffer from seawater pollution deriving
Figure 1.26 Approximate relation between length and from the marina area and also directly from
weight of pleasure boats. 1, Motorboats; 2, sailboats.
Note: L in meters, t in tons. (Adapted from U.S. Army
craft using the marina. Pollution of the sur-
Corps of Engineers, 1974.) rounding region may result from wastewater or
stormwater effluents discharging in the marina
basin and from surface water that carries a sig-

Table 1.12 Principal vessel lifting and launching system characteristics

Number
Lifting of Vessels Turnover Appropriate
Capacity Transferred Cyclea for Large Tide
No. System (tons) Daily (min) Fluctuation
1 Dry dock Adequate 1–2 20–60 Yes
2 Slipway Adequate 1–6 20–60 Yes
3 Lifting platform Adequate 1–10 20–50 Yes
4 Ramp and tractor / trailer 5 100–250 3–8 No
5 Crane and trailer 15 20–50 20–40 Yes
6 Monorail 20 30–80 10–30 Yes
7 Forklift 2 100–250 3–8 No (special
accessory
required)
8 Travel-lift with straps 250 50 10–20 Yes
Source: Adapted from PIANC (1980).
a Lifting, landing of vessel, and return of equipment to its original position.
 1.4 PORT PLANNING AT THE TERMINAL LEVEL 57
Table 1.13 Typical dimensions of vessels for dry stacking

Boat
Class Beam (m) Length (m) Height (m) Weight (tons)
I 2.40 5.40 0.90–1.50 1.25
IIa 2.40 4.80–6.30 1.20–1.80 0.75–1.75
IIb 2.40 5.40–7.20 1.50–2.10 1.75–2.75
IIIa 2.40 6.30–7.80 1.65–2.40 2.25–3.25
IIIb 2.40 7.50–8.70 2.10–2.70 3.00–4.25
Source: Dry Stack Marinas, Florida.

Table 1.14 Typical space requirements in a small regions with a weak tide, such as the Mediter-
marina (thousands of square meters)
ranean. It has been estimated that the water
Berthing quality begins to be unacceptable when the pe-
Marina Surfaces Dry Wet riod of water renewal exceeds roughly 10 days.
In severe cases, when no other method of cop-
Land 9.5 5.1
ing with a problem is available, recourse can be
Sea 2.5 13.2
Total 12.0 18.3
taken to mechanical mixers, which are po-
sitioned in the marina basin to create artificial
water circulation, thus renewing the polluted
water. For detailed information associated with
small craft marina design, construction, and
nificant polluting load. Boats may give rise to operation, readers are referred to a work by
pollution through effluents from washing, gar- Tobiasson and Kolmeyer (1991).
bage, oils, and so on. In each case the possi-
bility exists to avoid seawater pollution through
appropriate design of networks in the surround-
ing region by not allowing discharges within the 1.4.5 Fishing Ports
port and by providing for the collection of 1.4.5.1 Main Features. Annual world sea
garbage and other refuse from the boats, as fishing products amount to approximately
mentioned above. At the same time, pertinent 100,000,000 tons, with China providing one-
regulations governing protection of the marine fifth of the catch. Of this quantity, 28% is con-
environment have to be enforced. verted into fishmeal, the balance being
In any case, frequent renewal of marina wa- consumed by people (29% fresh fish, 12%
ter is desirable to avoid potential eutrophication canned, 8% cured, and 23% frozen). Fishing
due to the lingering pollution. For this reason, ports serve professional fishing vessels and
marinas with two sea entrances have an advan- demonstrate a series of particularities which
tage as regards their ability to enhance some differentiate them from other commercial ports.
streaming motion, which boosts the exchange of These particular characteristics are summarized
marina waters with offshore seawater. Usu-ally, below.
an effort is made to invigorate these streams by The services that a fishing port is required to
leaving openings at key locations across the provide to fishing vessels are not limited to safe
protection structures. It is obvious that the mooring to discharge the catch. The port should
problem becomes even more acute in also be able to provide a suitable num-
58 PORT PLANNING

ber of places for safe anchorage to fishing ves- • A sheltered area for cleaning and sorting
sels during long periods of inactivity. Due to the the catch
nature and duration of the stay of such fish-ing • A sheltered area for exhibiting the catch
vessels at port, the mooring types and rules of and for conducting the relevant commer-
safe clearances determining the berthing po- cial transactions
sitions of vessels are less strict than those for a • Offices and ancillary areas
commercial port.
• Fish processing and packaging units
In addition to being a refuge, a fishing port
should possess small to medium-sized ship- • Refrigerators for maintenance of the catch
building and repair facilities. This is because in • An ice-making unit
addition to conducting purely repair work, fish- • Fuel, power, fire safety, and water supply
ing vessels conduct their regular maintenance networks
work while in port. Thus, fishing ports should • Open-air areas for fish drying
provide all the necessary means to ensure a
minimum level of maintenance of the fleet they There are a large variety of fishing vessels,
serve. Similarly, there are significant differ- and therefore the periods when vessels are away
ences between the land zone of a fishing port at sea for fishing vary accordingly. Ves-sels fall
and that of a conventional commercial port. For under the following categories:
a fishing port, there is the systematic conduct of
commercial activity regarding the catch, with I. Small vessels up to 30 gross registered
the frequent presence of industrial units for tons (GRT), capable of putting out to sea
processing and packaging. Consequently, the for 1 day. These vessels are usually not
nature of a fishing port expands and it no longer equipped with refrigerating equip-ment.
acts as a hub in a combined transport system as
is the case with conventional ports. Rather, it
II. Medium-sized vessels between 30 and
evidences the features of a commer-cial and
150 GRT, with a fishing autonomy of
industrial zone, and its land area is set out about 1 week. These vessels are
accordingly. equipped with a refrigerated hold.
Moreover, it should be noted that in most
III. Deep-sea vessels over 150 GRT,
fishing ports no exporting sector exists, and
consequently, only unloading of vessels is car- equipped with refrigeration and deep-
ried out at the docks. In line with the specific freeze installations. Times out at sea for
requirements and characteristics above, a fish- this category usually extend to 1 month.
ing port may include, in addition to loading Such vessels may reach the 2000-GRT
wharves and mooring positions, the following size.
elements: IV. Large specialized industrial vessels.

• Repair docks Figure 1.27 shows the type of packing and

respective processing stages of the catch to-
• Launching ramps
ward consumption corresponding to the cate-
• Repair workshops gories of fishing vessels above.
• Open-air spaces for drying nets and re-
pairing nets and vessels 1.4.5.2 Design Criteria for Marina Instal-
• Provisioning and equipment stores lations. In each case, the design vessel deter-
• Sheds for storage of ships’ gear mines the scale of a port and its constituent
 Figure 1.27 Processing methods of catch and distribution stages. (After Bruun, 1981.)
59
60 PORT PLANNING

elements. Thus, depending on vessel size, the all time by vessel category listed in Table 1.17
entrance width of a port usually ranges be- is purely indicative and should always be
tween 20 and 120 m. Table 1.15 lists typical adapted to local conditions. In a fully devel-
dimensions of fishing vessels falling under the oped fishing port, the functions in the second to
categories listed in Section 1.4.5.1. Based on the fifth columns in Table 1.16 are conducted in
earlier discussion, an indicative fishing cy-cle different sections of the port. Of course, there
for each vessel category is given in Table 1.16. are situations where the functions, such as the
The total duration of the cycle consists of days second and third columns, may be combined in
at sea and days in port for unloading and the same location without the need to move the
provisioning, from which an estimate of the re- vessel around.
quired moorings can be made. Fishing vessel arrivals at port adhere to a
Repetition of the fishing cycle within the more-or-less given pattern with peaks at certain
year depends on climatic conditions, the per- periods of the year. Indicative occupancy fac-
tinent regulations determining the fishing tors of the landing quays may be in the range n
period, local conditions, and repair and 0.4 to 0.7, depending on vessel size. A rough
maintenance requirements. Category III or IV way of calculating the number of un-loading
vessels usually need two months annually for berths is to consider that about 15% of the
such work, while smaller vessels take up a sig- number of vessels using the port should be able
nificant portion of their overall time for repairs to find a free unloading berth at any time. The
and maintenance. These percentages may vary functions in the third to fifth columns in Table
according to region; thus the allocation of over- 1.17 require additional berthing facilities since
such functions are normally conducted in
locations other than those housing the unload-
Table 1.15 Typical dimensions of fishing vessels ing operations. Consequently, to calculate the
Vessel Length Draft Beam number of these positions, it is necessary to
Category (m) (m) (m) determine occupancy factors n just as in the
Ia 7 1.0 3.5
unloading sector. Table 1.18 lists several values
Ib 7–10 1.0–1.5 3.5–4.0 of factor n for the various vessel categories and
II 10–20 1.5–2.5 4.0–6.0 port functions. The factor n 1.0 in the fourth
IIIa 20–30 2.5–3.5 6.0–7.0 column reflects the fact that the said ‘‘func-
IIIb 30–60 3.5–5.0 7–10 tion’’ actually is the idle time of an obligatory
IV 60–170 5.0–8.5 10–24 stay in port.
Fishing vessels usually are secured along-side
or in a tight arrangement stern to shore along
straight docks. There are ports with a sawlike
arrangement of unloading docks (e.g., Esbjerg in
Table 1.16 Indicative duration of fishing cycle
Denmark), to increase the number of vessels
Unloading and Duration being served. In the case of a simple straight
Vessel Days Provisioning of Cycle dock, the requirements for the water area
Category at Sea (days) (days) relevant to the mooring type shown in Fig-ure
I 1 1 2 1.28 can be accepted. Depending on the vessel
II 6 4 10 category and its function, two (or more) rows of
III 35 5 40 vessels moored side by side could be considered.
IV 45–100 8 50–110 For reasons of safety, this increase
 1.4 PORT PLANNING AT THE TERMINAL LEVEL 61
Table 1.17 Allocation of fishing vessel time (days per year)

Unloading of Bunkering / Idle Time and

Days Catch and Provisioning Small-Scale Major Repairs Number of
Vessel at Loading of and Associated Repairs and and Fishing Cycles
Category Sea Provisions Idle Time Maintenance Maintenance per Year
I 140 70 75 75 5 140
II 170 85 30 70 10 28
IIIa 250 20 15 65 15 7
IIIb 250 20 15 60 20 7

Table 1.18 Indicative occupancy factors

Unloading of Catch Bunkering / Provisioning Idle Time and Major Repairs

Vessel and Loading and Associated Small-Scale Repairs and
Category of Provisions Idle Time and Maintenance Maintenance
I 0.7 0.7 1.0 0.8
II 0.6 0.6 1.0 0.7
IIIa 0.5 0.5 1.0 0.6
IIIb 0.4 0.4 1.0 0.5
IV 0.4 0.4 1.0 0.5

Figure 1.28 Mooring types of fishing vessels.

in number of vessel mooring places should not ily fuel, water, and ice. The quantities of fuel
exceed a factor of about 50%. Table 1.19 gives and water required are estimated on the basis of
indicative values of the hold capacity of fishing the capacity of the respective tanks of the
vessels. vessel. Some indicative values of the latter are
Fishing vessel provisioning involves primar- given in Table 1.20.
62 PORT PLANNING

Table 1.19 Net capacity of fishing vessels port is fully developed, its land installations in-
Hold clude the auction shed, the central building
Vessel Length Capacity Dead-Weight with cleaning and sorting areas, an exhibition
Category (m) (m3) Tonnage area and auction room, a packing room with
Ia 7 1.5 0.8 ice, refrigerators for overnight or longer storage
Ib 7–10 4.5 2.5 of the catch, deep-freeze stores, salted or dried
II 10–20 25 15 fish stores, weighing rooms, packaging mate-
IIIa 20–30 85 55 rial stores, and auxiliary installations (offices
IIIb 30–60 400 250 for administration, sellers, buyers, etc.). De-
IV 60–170 500–3500 300–2200 pending on the particular situation, the cold
display for auctioning may be replaced by a
display of the catch in ambient conditions
Table 1.20 Vessel tank capacities (PIANC, 1998).
The dimensions of an auction shed depend
Vessel Length Fuel Water mainly on whether the display of the fish relies
Category (m) (tons) (tons) on a sample or on the totality of the catch. In the
Ia 7 0.3 0.2 latter case, the building is located adjacent to
Ib 7–10 0.8 0.5 the unloading zone of the dock, whereas in the
II 10–20 10 5 former, it could be located farther inward of the
IIIa 20–30 50 12a port, at the same time being smaller than in the
IIIb 30–60 300 20a preceding case. Some basic criteria of the
a Additional seawater supply. individual functions taking place under roof are
listed below, to assist in the preliminary de-sign
of a shed with full view of the catch:

Category III and IV vessels usually have • Washing and sorting 15–30 tons / m2
their own refrigeration installations and do not annually
require stocking of ice. Vessels of the other cat- • Exhibit and sale 1–15 tons / m2
egories need about 3 tons of ice on average per annually
day during the fishing season. Unloading of the • Weighing and 7–15 tons / m2
catch is effected in a manner related to packing arrangement annually
type, hence by size of vessel. Usually, the ves- • Storage in freezer Capacity for 2–3
sel’s own lifting gear, 3- and 6-ton mobile days’ production
cranes, and corresponding forklifts suffice for • Packaging plant 6–12 tons / m2
the unloading and forwarding of catch to the annually
cleaning sheds. Unloading by conveyor belts • Access corridor 8–16 tons / m2
applies to catch packaged in boxes or crates. annually
Given the tendency for improved packing of the • Auxiliary May be installed in a
merchandise during the voyage, particularly in installations mezzanine or on
the larger fishing vessels, the use of con-veyor the ground floor,
belts is becoming increasingly popular. requiring 15 to
20% of the overall
1.4.5.3 Land Installations. As stated in building
Section 1.1, the land installations of a fishing
port are diverse and differ from those of ports The typical overall building width ranges
for other commercial purposes. When a fishing from 40 to 80 m. Frequently, a separate shed
 REFERENCES AND RECOMMENDED READING 63

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Surrey, U.K.
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European Comission, Brussels, Belgium.
conducted through floor grilles to a suitable
treatment installation prior to final disposal. The European Commission, DG Environment, 2001. As-
floor should slope around 1:75 to facilitate sessment of Plans and Projects Significantly Af-
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Guidance on the Provisions of Article 6(3) and
Repair and maintenance work may be pro- Article 6(4) of the Habitats Directive 92/43/66,
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‘‘Symmetry’’ Publ., Athens, Greece.
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64 PORT PLANNING

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