NANOTECHNOLOGY

Top-bottom and bottom-top approach for nanomaterial, Nanomaterials-Synthesis by physical,

chemical, biological, mechanical method, Optical-electrical-magnetic-structural-mechanical
properties of nanomaterial, Applications of Nanotechnology.

Introduction
A nanometer (nm) is one billionth of a meter, or 10 -9 m (1nm =1x10-9 m). The typical nano
dimension starts from one nanometer to hundred nanometers (1nm-100nm).
Nanotechnology can be understood as a technology of design, fabrication and applications
of nanostructures and nanomaterials. Nanotechnology also includes fundamental understanding of
physical properties and phenomena of nanomaterials and nanostructures.
Nanotechnology is not only a simple continuation of miniaturization from micro meter scale
down to nanometer scale. It involves the creation of USEFUL/FUNCTIONAL materials, devices
and systems (of any useful size) through control/manipulation of matter on the nanometer length
scale and exploitation of novel phenomena and properties which arise because of the nanometer
length scale.
Nanotechnology can be defined as the design, characterization, production and application
of structures, devices and systems by controlling shape and size at the nanometer scale.
Nanomaterials:
Nanomaterials could be defined as those materials which have structured components with size less
than 100 nm at least in one dimension.
In general, they are classified into three categories: fullerenes, nanostructures and nonocomposites.
Shape of nanomaterials
Nanomaterials have extremely small size which having at least one dimension 100 nm or
less. Nanomaterials can be nanoscale in
One dimension (eg. Nano wires, nanotubes, quantum wires),
Two dimensions (eg. Nano films),
Three dimensions (eg. particles).
They can exist in single, fused, aggregated or agglomerated forms with spherical, tubular,
and irregular shapes. Common types of nanomaterials include nanotubes, dendrimers, quantum dots
and fullerenes.
Classification of nanomaterials:
1. Zero dimensional nanomaterials(OD): Nanoparticle which have nano dimension (1 – 100
nm) in all the three direction like fullerene.
2. One dimensional nanomaterials(1D): Nanosheet or layers which have nano scale (1 – 100
nm) in two dimensions where as other one dimension have macro scale (either m or
mm).
3. Two dimensional nanomaterials (2D): Carbon nanotubes which have nanoscale (1 – 100
nm) in one dimension whereas in two dimension it has macro scale (either m or mm).
4. Three dimensional nanomaterials(3D): Materials which have all three dimension in
macro scale (either m or mm) with coating / dispersion of nanoscale (1 – 100 nm).
 In case the confined size is of the order of below 10 nm then quantum effects will be dominated.
Nanomaterials are classified as

1. quantum wells,
2. quantum wires and
3. quantum dots.
In a three dimensional structure, if one dimension, say thickness, is of nanosize, then the structure is
called quantum well.
If two dimensions are of nanosize, then it is called a quantum wire and
if all the three dimensions are of nanosize, then it is called quantum dot.
The word quantum is associated with the structures because the properties exhibited by them are
described by quantum mechanics.
Properties of Nano materials:
Materials in the nanometer scale range exhibit remarkable specific properties, mainly due to
1. The surface to volume ratio will be high when the size of the material is reduced.
2. Low dimensional Scaling laws leads to quantum confinement effects or change in the energy
levels
The high surface to volume ratio results in the change in surface energy as the number of
surface atoms or ions becomes a significant fraction of the total number of atoms or ions in the
material. Since surface energy enhancement and energy level modification plays a significant role
on the property of any material, then their physical, chemical, thermal , electrical, optical, magnetic
and mechanical properties of materials changes significantly when their grain size reduced to
nanoscale.
For example
1. In general, crystal structures are unstable at elevated temperatures, but those are stable
at much lower temperatures when their gran size reduced to nanometer sizes.
2. ferroelectrics and ferromagnetic materials will lose their ferroelectricity and
ferromagnetism when the materials are shrunk to the nanometer scale.
3. Bulk semiconductors become insulators when the characteristic dimension is sufficiently
small (in a couple of nanometers).
The physical (melting point, conductivity, etc.), chemical properties (reactivity, flammability,
etc.) and the mechanical properties ( hardness, tensile strength, fatgue etc.,) can all change at the
nanoscale.
Physical properties:
When particle size is reduced, more surface sites will be created i.e surface to volume ratio
increases. This changes the surface pressure and results in a change in the interparticle spacing.
This is due to competition between the long range electrostatic forces d short range core-core
repulsion. The change in interatomic distance and variation of surface free energy combinedly
changes chemical potential i.e thermodynamic properties such as melting point.

Chemical properties:
The large surface -to -volume ratio and re-arrangement of electronic levels have a strong effect
on catalytic properties. Due to this one hydrogen storage ability significantly enhanced in metallic
nanoclusters. The number of absorbed atoms decreases with increasing cluster size. This shows
that small particles may be very useful in hydrogen storage devices in metals.
Electrical Properties:
In general, the resistance of a material is due to the scattering of conduction electrons with
vibrating atoms and impurities. The mean distance travelled between two successive collisions is
called mean free path or scattering length. Electrical properties change by changing their energy
levels when the dimension of solid becomes comparable to this quantity.
We know the energy of a particle inside a potential box as
n 2 2  2 1
En  E
2ma 2 a2
n  nx ,. y , z E ~ L 2

When L =1cm separation between consecutive energy levels can be shown to be of the order of
10-14 eV. But when L= 100 nm , separation between energy levels will be 10-4 eV. Therefore, in
nanoscale range, energy levels are discrete.
In case of the semiconductors, separation between the energy levels increases and are become
discrete. The density of states D(E) of conduction electrons is strongly affected by the
dimensionality of materials.
The change in electrical properties cannot be generalized. In nanoceramics and magnetic
nanocomposites, the electrical conductivity increases with reduction in particle size where as in
metals electrical conductivity decreases due to enhanced interface area (grain boundaries). Several
experiments shown that another electronic quantity ionization potential at small sizes are higher
than that for the bulk and show marked fluctuations as a function of size.
 Optical properties:
Nanomaterials have novel optical properties. Depending on the particle's size, different colours
can exhibit when they suspend in a host solution.As energy is related to wavelength (or colours),
this means that optical properties of the particles can be finely tuned depending on their size. Thus
we can tailor, the absorption or emission of specific wavelengths (colours) of light, linear and
nonlinear optical properties by tunning their size and their surface morphology.

Ex: Large electrochromic display devices((LCD) based on tungstic oxide gel .

Magnetic Properties:
When particles size reduced to nanolevel, the specific surface area increases and no of atoms
reside at the surface also increases. Therefore, coordination number (nearest neighbor atoms)
decreases.
The local magnetic moment is primarily depend on the local coordination number (nearest
neighbor atoms). Therefore, the magnetic moment increases towards atomic value. Due to this
only, nanoparticles of even nonmagnetic solids are found to be magnetic.

At nano scale, magnetoresistance, the coercivity and saturation magnetization values increases.
Nanoparticles of ferromagnetic materials show different behavior called superparamanetism.
Mechanical properties:
When the size is reduced, the interface area( grain boundary) within the material greatly increases,
which enhances its mechanical strength. For example, nanocrystalline nickel is as strong as
hardened steel.Because of the nanosize, many of their mechanical properties such as hardness and
elastic modulus, fracture toughness. scratch resistance, fatigue strength, and hardness are
modified.
The adhesion, ductility and superplasticity (Large deformation without fracture) properties are
found to increase in nanomaterials when compared to bulk materials.
Properties Examples
Mechanical Improved hardness and toughness of metals and alloys , ductility and superplasticity of ceramic
Electrical Increased electrical conductivity in ceramics and magnetic nanocomposities, increased electrical
resistance in metals
Magnetic Increased magnetic coercivity upto a critical grain size and superparamagnetic behaviour.

Optical Spectral shift of optical absorption and fluorescence properties, quantum efficiency of semiconductor
crystals.
Catalytic Better catalytic efficiency through higher surface to volume ratio

Biological Increased permeability through biological barriers, improved biocompatibility

Some Important physical and chemical properties of nanomaterials:

The main parameters of interest with respect to nanomaterials are:

Physical properties

 Size, shape, specific surface area, aspect ratio

 Agglomeration/aggregation state
 Melting point
 Size distribution
 Surface morphology/topography
 Structure, interatomic distance, including crystallinity and defect structure
Chemical properties

 Ionization potential
 Reactivity
 Structural formula/molecular structure
 Composition of nanomaterial (including degree of purity, known impurities or additives)

 Phase identity
 Solubility
 Surface chemistry (composition, charge, tension, reactive sites, physical structure,
photocatalytic properties, zeta potential)

 Hydrophilicity/lipophilicity
For biological safety evaluation, manufactured nanomaterials need to be dispersed in an
appropriate media. The interaction between these media and the nanomaterials can have a
profound influence on the behaviour of the suspension. Since dissolution kinetics is frequently
proportional to the surface area, nanomaterials are likely to dissolve much more rapidly than
 larger sized materials. This applies e.g. to silver nanoparticles which are increasingly used for
their release of silver ions as anti-bactericidal agents.

SYNTHESIS / FABRICATION OF NANOMATERIALS:

Top-down and bottom-up methods are two types of approaches used in nanofabrication.

A top down synthesis method implies that the nanostructures are synthesized by etching
out crystals planes (removing crystal planes) which are already present on the substrate. A
top-down approach can thus be viewed as an approach where the building blocks are
removed from the substrate to form the nanostructure.

1. TOP DOWN APPROACH

2. BOTTOM UP APPROACH

Top down fabrication of Nano structures

Top down process involves breaking a bulk material and modifying it into desired
shape product. The top- down approach to nano fabrication involves the creation of nano
structures from a large parent entity. The classical example is manufacturing of integrated
circuit using, lithography.
As name indicates it is from top (larger) -to – bottom (smaller), mechanisms and structures
are miniatures at a nano metric scale. Integrated circuit fabrication is an example for top down
nanotechnology. Now it has been grown to the level of fabricating nano electromechanical
systems (NEMS) where tiny mechanical components along with electronic circuits are embedded
to a tiny chip.
The process involves material wastage and is limited by the resolution of the tools
you can use, and by restricting the small sizes of the structures made by these techniques.
Top down approach involves following methods in nanofabrication.
(a) Mechanical grinding or Ball milling
(b) Lithography (photo lithography)
Bottom-up:
From bottom (smaller) to top (larger) i.e. start with atoms or molecules and build up to
nanostructures. It starts with a nano metric structure such as atoms, molecule, and through a process of
assembly or self-assembly we create a mechanism larger than that started. There is less wastage with
this technique is limited in how big the structures can be made.
A good example of this kind approach is found in nature; all cells use enzymes to produce DNA
by taking the component molecules and binding them together to make the final structure.

A bottom up synthesis method implies that the nanostructures are synthesized onto the
substrate by stacking atoms onto each other, which gives rise to crystal planes, crystal planes further
stack onto each other, resulting in the synthesis of the nanostructures. A bottom-up approach can
thus be viewed as an synthesis approach where the building blocks are added onto the substrate to
form the nanostructures. However, this is a laborious process which has yet to address the problems of
scaling up the technique for manufacture.
Ex: Chemical synthesis, self-assembly, and molecular fabrication are all examples of bottom –up
techniques.

The bottom-up approach is more advantageous than the top-down approach because the former has a
better chance of producing nanostructures with less defects, more homogenous chemical
composition, and better short- and long-range ordering. The advantage of top-down is the cost,
scalability and in general better uniformity of the product. Top-down typically provides better
physical control.

Difference between Top-down and Bottom-up approach in nanotechnology

1. Manufacturing process starts from larger structures in top-down approach where starting building
blocks are smaller than the final design in bottom-up approach

2. Bottom-up manufacturing can produce structures with perfect surfaces and edges (not wrinkly and
does not contain cavities etc.) though surfaces and edges resulted by top-down manufacturing are
not perfect as they are wrinkly or containing cavities.

3. Bottom-up approach manufacturing technologies are newer than top-down manufacturing and
expected to be an alternative for it in some applications (example: transistors).

4. Bottom-up approach products have a higher precision accuracy (more control over the material
dimensions) and therefore can manufacture smaller structures compared to top-down approach.
5. In top-down approach there is a certain amount of wasted material as some parts are removed
from the original structure contrast to bottom-up approach where no material part is removed.
PHYSICAL METHODS OF SYNTHESIS

Two methods

 Mechanical
1. High energy ball milling 2. Lithography
 Vapour phase
1. Physical vapour deposition
(a) Vacuum evaporation (b) Sputtering method
MECHANICAL GRINDING or HIGH ENERGY BALL MILLING : This method is a
typical example of top down method of synthesis of nanomaterials. The mechanical
grinding method is very popular, simple, inexpensive and extremely scaleable method
to synthesis all classes of naAnomaterials. This method is used to produce nanocrystalline
or amorphous materials.
Basic Principle: Small hard balls are allowed to rotate inside a container and then it
is made to fall on a solid with high force to crush the solid into nano crystal.

This method is used to produce nanocrystalline structures either from single phase powders or
dissimilar powders or amorphous materials. The schematic representation of the principle of
mechanical grinding is planetary ball or a tumbler mill as shown below.
Working :
Hardened steel or tungsten carbide balls are put in a container along with powder of particles
(50 m) of a desired material and maintained a inert gas atmosphere inside the container to avoid
contamination or impurities. The container is closed with tight lids. When the container is
rotating around the central axis, the material is forced to press against the walls. The milling
balls impart energy on collision and produce smaller grain size of nano particle.
One can use either refractory balls or steel balls depending on the mater ials to be
synthesized. When the balls rotate at a particular rpm, the necessary energy is transferred to the
powder which in turn reduces the powder of coarse grain sized structure to ultra-fine nano range
particles. The nano particles are produced due to the shear action as shown in the above figure.
Thus it is clear that nano particles produced depends on many factors such as rotational speed of
the balls, size of the balls, number of the balls, milling time, milling medium/atmosphere.
The selections of materials of the balls play an important role. Generally a harder material
will be selected to synthesize the softer materials. For example, α – zirconia and alumina
are widely used as a ball for synthesizing the nano materials in view of their high grinding
resistance values.

ADVANTAGES:
 Few mg to several kgs of nanoparticle can be synthesized in a short time.
•This technique can be operated at large scale.

DISADVANTAGES:

 Contamination of milling media.

Applications:
Ball milling method is useful in preparation of elemental and metal oxide nano crystals like Co, Cr, Al-Fe, Ag-Fe and
Fe.

•Variety of intermetallic compounds of Ni and Al can be formed.

•Ball milling method is useful in producing new type building materials, fire – proof materials,
glass ceramics, etc.
LITHOGRAPHY:
Lithography (means the carving or writing on a stone) is a selective process that allows the
patterning of a desired design on to the starting material that means, it is the technique used to
pattern the flat surface by removing some part of it or to organize some material on a suitable
substrate.
Lithography is one of the key technologies adopted in the field of advanced semiconductor
manufacturing. It plays an active role in the technology sectors like integrated circuit(IC) or very
large scale integration (VLSI), flat panel displays, optoelectric components and advanced
electronic packaging. Lithography is basically a top-down method. Thus using lithography
(better to say nanolithography) the atoms or molecules can be removed from the bulk materials
and hence, the nano structured patterns are obtained, this technique is extremely useful in
fabrication of modern electronic devices like cell phones and miniaturization of ATM
components, resistors etc. these components require very less power for operation, small
amounts of materials and low cost with faster performance and operation.

PHOTO LITHOGRAPHY: Technique for patterning the various surfaces and have the
capability for producing sub patterns up to 100 nm UV-light.
Photolithography Basic Steps
1. Start out a thin, silicon wafer: Si is a semiconductor that can either conduct or insulate
against electricity – ideal for our transistors on/off states.
2. Oxidize the silicon wafer by exposing it to extreme heat and gas: To form a thin coating
of silicon dioxide – an insulating layer.
3. Coat the wafer with a positive photo resist: a substance that becomes soluble when
exposed to UV light.
4. Soft bake: to partial evaporation of photo resist solvent to promote adhesion.
5. Alignment of mask and exposure: precise alignment of mask to wafer and exposure to
UV light. Positive photo resist becomes soluble under the effect of UV light. During the
process exposed area of the silicon dioxide gets the shape of the pattern (i.e. that is
originally present in the mask).
6. Development: using suitable solvent, insoluble (hardened) photo resist are removed.
7. Hard bake: final removal of the solvent.
8. Etch: using suitable chemicals (acids) so that the pattern of the circuit is etched in to the
silicon, removing the exposed silicon dioxide at the same time.
9. Photo resist removal: using suitable solvent, any traces of photo resist are removed, to
leave only specific pattern.
PHYSICAL VAPOUR DEPOSITION METHODS:
These methods have high potential applications in industry due to their large scale
production . In this method, one can control shape, size and thickness of nanostructures.
Most of the nano coatings can be done with this method for Electronic components.
Essentially this method involves vaporization of materials and bringing them to gaseous
phase atoms or molecules. The gaseous phase atoms or molecules form the clusters by
nucleation process and thus they are deposited on the desired surface. One can obtain single
layer film or multi-layer films of nanostructures . All processes are carried out in a vacuum
chamber so that the desired purity of end product can be obtained . Depending on the required
application, adequate vacuum is maintained in the sample chamber in order to melt the materials
to evaporate.

Any PVD process involves mainly four steps:

1.Evaporation
2.Transportation
3.Reaction
4.Deposition

Examples: Sputtering, Electric arc deposition method etc.,

Sputtering:
Here material of interest are evaporated and in gaseous phase of atoms or molecules are used to obtain
the nanostructures materials using sputtering technique.
Mechanism: Ar + target removal of atoms from surface deposition on the
substrate

The target held at the cathode while the

substrate is held at the anode after
attaining a suitable pressure in the
chamber the argon gas is passed in to the
chamber. Under this condition a suitable
voltage is applied and argon gas is
vaporized to ion which further hit the
target material and knocks out the surface
atoms. The knocked out surface atoms are
deposited on the substrate. The removal of
the atoms from the target is known as
erosion.

Sputtering steps:

Advantages

 Materials can be deposited with improved properties compared to the substrate material
 Almost any type of inorganic material can be used as well as some kinds of organic
materials
 The process is more environmentally friendly than processes such as electroplating

Disadvantages
 It is extremely difficult to coat undercuts and similar surface features
 High capital cost
 Some processes operate at high vacuums and temperatures requiring skilled operators
 Processes requiring large amounts of heat require appropriate cooling systems
 The rate of coating deposition is usually quite slow
 ELECTRIC ARC DEPOSITION

 Simplest and most useful methods

 Mass scale production of Fullerenes,
carbon nanotubes etc
 Consists of a water cooled vacuum
chamber and electrodes to strike an arc in
between them
 Gap between the electrodes is 1mm
 High current- 50 to 100 amperes
 Low voltage power supply- 12 to 15 volts
 Inert or reactive gas introduction is necessary- gas pressure is maintained in the vacuum
system
 When an arc is set up ,anode material evaporates.
 This is possible as long as the discharge can be maintained

CHEMICAL METHODS OF SYNTHESIS

i) Chemical vapour Deposition

ii.) Sol-gel Method, iii) Co-precipitation iv) decomposition method v) Spray Pyrolysis etc..

ADVANTAGES OF CHEMICAL METHODS

 Simple techniques
 Inexpensive instrumentation
 Low temperature (<350ºC) synthesis
 Precise doping of foreign atoms (ions) is possible during synthesis
 Precise variation of grain size is possible for nano application
 Variety of sizes and shapes are possible
 Self assembly or patterning is possible

CHEMICAL VAPOUR DEPOSITION METHOD: chemical vapour deposition

method(CVD) the atoms or molecules which are in the gaseous state are either allowed to react
homogeneously or heterogeneously to produce nanostructures material. This method is used to
synthesize high pure CNT.
A basic CVD process consists of the following steps:
 a predefined mix of reactant gases and
diluent inert gases are introduced at a specified
flow rate into the reaction chamber;
 the gas species move to the substrate;
  the reactants get adsorbed on the surface of the substrate;
 the reactants undergo chemical reactions with the substrate to form the film; and
 the gaseous by-products of the reactions are desorbed and evacuated from the
reaction chamber.

During the process of chemical vapor deposition, the reactant gases not only react
with the substrate material at the wafer surface (or very close to it), but also in gas phase in
the reactor's atmosphere. Reactions that take place at the substrate surface are known as
heterogeneous reactions, and are selectively occurring on the heated surface of the wafer
where they create good-quality films. Reactions that take place in the gas phase are known
as homogeneous reactions. Homogeneous reactions form gas phase aggregates of the
depositing material, which adhere to the surface poorly and at the same time form low-
density films with lots of defects. In short, heterogeneous reactions are much more
desirable than homogeneous reactions during chemical vapor deposition.

Sol-gel Method:
 A sol is a colloidal (the dispersed phase is so small that gravitational forces do not
exist; only Van der Waals forces and surface charges are present) or molecular
suspension of solid particles of ions in a solvent.
 A gel is a semi-rigid mass that forms when the solvent from the sol begins to
evaporate and the particles or ions left behind begin to join together in a continuous
network
Synthesis of sol-gel involves hydrolysis of precursors,
polycondensation to for m particles, gelation and cleaning/ drying process by various
routes . Precursors (starting chemicals) are to be chosen such that they have a tendency to
form gels. Typical precursors are metal alkoxides and metal chlorides. The sol evolves
then towards the formation of an inorganic network containing a liquid phase (gel). The
role of chelating agent or morphology director is to form a polymer networkwith control
the reaction rate and prevent aggregation. Ex: Citric acid, Poly ethelene glycol , H2O2 etc.,
 Rate of hydrolysis and polycondensation reactions are governed by various factors such
as
•pH
•Temperature
•Molar ratio of precursors and gelating agents
•Nature of morphology director or gelating agent
•Concentration of catalyst
•Process of drying or cleaning
The sol-gel process usually consists of 4 steps:
(1) The precursors are completely dissolved in a liquid to form a sol.
(2) pH will be adjusted with continuous heating and stirring . Critric acid or any gelating agent
or morphology agent will be added to obtain a state of a continuous network.
(3) The final heat treatments vapourizes the remaining organic or inorganic components and form an
amorphous or crystalline coating.
(4) The sol solution can be either deposited on a substrate to form a film (e.g. by dip-coating or spin-
coating), cast into a suitable container with the desired shape (e.g. to obtain a monolithic ceramics,
glasses, fibers, membranes, aerogels), or used to synthesize powders (e.g. microspheres,
nanospheres).

Advantages of Sol-Gel Technique:

1. Can produce thin bond-coating to provide excellent adhesion between the metallic
substrate and the top coat.
2. Can produce thick coating to provide corrosion protection performance.
3. Can easily shape materials into complex geometries in a gel state.
4. Can produce high purity products because the organo-metallic precursor of the desired
ceramic oxides can be mixed, dissolved in a specified solvent and hydrolyzed into a sol,
and subsequently a gel, the composition can be highly controllable.
5. Can have low temperature sintering capability, usually 200-600°C.
6. Can provide a simple, economic and effective method to produce high quality coatings.
 Example: SYNTHESIS OF GOLD NANOPARTICLE
A facile (simple) approach involves the reduction of hydrogen Tetrachloroaurate ,
[HAuCl4](Precursor) with trisodium citrate dehydrate, [Na3C6H5 O7.2H2 O](gelating agent), in
aqueous solutions at elevated temperatures. The citrate donates electrons to the gold ions
producing gold metal and then adsorbs on the surface of the particle preventing growth of large
particles. The charges on the citrate molecules help stabilize the gold nanoparticles by
electrostatic repulsion and prevent aggregation.
Au 3+ + 3e → Au
(Metallic gold in nm)
Overall reaction:

6Au3+ + C6H5 O73- + 15OH- → 6 Au + 6CO2 + 10H2 O

Procedure
Dilute solution of HAuCl4 is heated to boil at constant stirring using magnetic stir bar. After the
solution begins to boil, 1% solution of trisodium citrate dehydrate, is added continue to boil and stir
the solution. The gold nanoparticles will gradually form the citrate reduces the AuCl4 . Following
color changes observed during reaction which confirms formation of gold nano particle.

YELLOW COLOUR → COLOURLESS → PURPLE → WINE RED

Characterization:
Formation of gold nano particle can be confirmed using tool such as SEM (scanning electron
microscope), TEM (transmission electron microscope) and AFM (atomic force microscope).

APPLICATIONS:
1. These nanoparticles are used in biomedical nanotechnology for example in cancer
therapy.
2. These nanoparticles are used as a biosensor and catalyst.
3. They are used in water purification.

Biological synthesis methods (Green synthesis methods)

The drawbacks such as the involvement of toxic chemicals and the high-energy requirements of
production make the physical and chemical methods difficult to be widely implemented. An
alternative way of synthesising metallic or other toxic nanoparticles is by using living organisms
such as bacteria, fungi and plants. This “green” method of biological nanoparticle production is a
promising approach that allows synthesis in aqueous conditions, with low energy requirements and
low-costs.
Intracellular or extracellular synthesis, growth temperature, synthesis time, ease of extraction and
percentage synthesised versus percentage removed from sample ratio, all play an important role in
biological nanoparticle production.

These are mainly 3 types:

1. Use of microorganisms like fungi, yeats(eukaryotes) or
bacteria,actinomycetes(prokaryotes)
2. Use of plant extracts or enzymes
3. Use of templates like DNA, membranes, viruses and diatoms

I. Bacterial biosynthesis
This method focused heavily on „prokaryotes‟ as a means of synthesising metallic
nanoparticles. Due to their abundance in the environment and their ability to adapt to
extreme conditions, bacteria are a good choice for study. They are also fast growing,
inexpensive to cultivate and easy to manipulate. This is mainly extracellular type
method.Growth conditions such as temperature,oxygenation and incubation time can be
easily controlled. The cell wall may act as a capping agent for the nanoparticles, which
keeps them stable by preventing aggregation . By changing the pH of the growth medium
during incubation results in the production of nanoparticles of differing size and shape of
nanomaterials.

 The production of pure gold nanoparticles by the bacterium Delftia acidovoran. zero valent.
 Palladium (Pd) nanoparticles can be synthesised using bacteria found at Alpine sites heavily
contaminated with heavy metals.
 Many bacterial species were tested but only four were found to synthesise AgNPs:
Lactobacillus spp, Pediococcus pentosaceus, Enterococcus faecium and Lactococcus garvie.
 Low concentrations of metal ions (Au⁺,Ag⁺ etc) can be converted to metal nanoparticles by
Lactobacillus strain present in butter milk.
 Sulphate reducing bateria of the family Desulfobacteriaceae can form 2-5nm ZnS
nanoparticle.
 Klebsiella pneumoniae can be used to synthesize CdS nanoparticles.When [Cd(NO₃)₂] salt
is mixed in a solution containing bacteria and solution is shaken for about1 day at ~38ºC
,CdS nanoparticle in the size range ~5 to 200 nm can be formed.
Fungal and yeast system:
The use of fungi in producing metallic nanoparticles has received significant interest as they offer
certain advantages over the use of bacteria for the synthesis of nanoparticles. The ease of scaling up
and downstream processing, the economic feasibility and the presence of mycelia offering an increased
surface area, are important advantages to consider. Moreover fungi secrete significantly higher
amounts of proteins than bacteria, this would amplify the nanoparticle synthesis productivity.
 The fungus Fusarium oxysporum has been used in a large number of. studies attempting to create
metallic nanoparticles, especially those made of silver.
 The most important advance in the fungal synthesis of metal nanoparticles was that Fusarium
oxysporu produced these nanoparticles extracellularly.
 Fusarium oxysporum has also been shown to produce Cadmium sulphide (CdS), lead sulphide
(PbS), zinc sulphide (ZnS) and molybdenum sulphide (MoS) nanoparticles, when the appropriate
salt is added to the growth medium.
 Aspergillus fumigatus also used to synthesise extracellular silver nanoparticles in the size range
of 5-25 nm
 Magnetite (Fe3O4) is a common iron oxide that possesses magnetic properties and magnetite
NPs (MaNPs) have been shown to be produced by the pathogenic fungus F. oxysporum and the
endophytic fungus Verticillium sp.
 In this method, the reduction of the metal ions was due to the presence of functional groups
within the leaf extract such as amines, alcohols, ketones and carboxylic acids; as opposed to an
enzyme mediated process.
 The Magnolia leaf broth was found to be the best Ag+ reducer as it took only 11 minutes to
reduce 90% of the Ag+ present in the sample.
 Extracellular synthesis of AuNPs can be done using extracts from a lemongrass plant,
Cymbopogon flexuosus
APPLICATIONS OF NANOTECHNOLOGY:

I. Materials technology:

1. Yittrium-Samarium-Cobalt based Nanocrystalline magnetic materials are used in motors due to

very high coercivity
2. Nanocrystalline ceramics such as SiN, SiC are used in automotive applications widely due to
high strength ball bearings, springs etc.,
3. Nano-engineered membrances could potentially lead to more energy• efficient water
purification processes, notably in desalination by reverse osmosis.
4. Carbon nanostructure based nanocomposites are used for bulletproof cars, bulletproof
jackets for soldiers, tubless tyres etc.,
5. Nanocrystalline zirconium oxide (zirconia) is hard, wear resistant, bio-corrosion resistant and
bio-compatible. It therefore presents an attractive alternative material for implants.
Nanocrystalline silicon carbide is a candidate material for artificial heart valves primarily
because of its low weight, high strength and inertness.

ii) Information. Technology

1. Nanoscale-fabricated magnetic materials also have applications in high density data storage.
2. CNTs are being investigated for low voltage field-emission displays; their strength, sharpness,
conductivity and inertness make them potentially very efficient and long-lasting emitters.
3. Quantum electronic devices have started replacing bulky conventional devices.
4. Nano dimensional photonic crystals are used in chemlcal/optical computers.
5. Biosensitive nanoparticles are used for tagging of DNA and DNA chips.
 6. Controlled drug delivery is possible using nanotechnology. Diffusion of medicine through
nanoporous polymer reservoir as per the requirement is very useful in controlling the disease.
7. Nanocrystalline zinc selenide, zinc sulphide, cadmium sulphide and lead telluride synthesized
by sol-gel techniques are candidates for the next generation of light-emitting phosphors. they
will have huge market for large area, high brightness, flat-panel displays (as used in
television screens and computer monitors).

iii) Energy storage / Conversion

1. Addition of nanoparticulate ceria (cerium oxide) to diesel fuel improves fuel economy by
reducing the degradation of fuel consumption over time.
2. In fuel cells, the external surface properties and the pore structure affect performance. The
hydrogen used as the immediate fuel in cells is generated from hydrocarbons by
nanocatalytic reforming. Nano-engineered membranes intensify catalytic processes and enable
higher-efficiency, small scale fuel cells. Nanocrystalline materials synthesized by sol-gel
techniques are candidates for separator plates in batteries because of their foam-like
(aerogel) structure, which can hold considerably more energy than conventional ones.
3. Nickel-metal hydride batteries made of nanocrystalline nickel and metal hydrides require less
frequent recharging and last longer.
4. Since the hydrogen absorbing capacility increases with decrease of size of nanoparticles,
nanoparticles of Ni, Pd and Pt are useful in hydrogen storage devices.
5. Useful for magnetic refrigeration.
6. Metal nanoparticles are very useful in fabrication of ionic batteries.

iv)Nano solar cell: It is a kind of nanotechnology manipulation where solar energy is used to get
electrical energy with the objective of more efficiency as compared with kno wn photo voltaic cell.

Construction:

Here nanowires or Nano rods are embedded in a plastic which is then covered with aluminum
electrode. This Al electrode further connected to a gadget (cell phone, laptop or whatever). A glass is
arranged to trap solar energy.

Working of nanosolar cell:

 When light hits nanowires of the nanosolar cell, those photons of light with lots of energy can push an
electron out its orbital. The electron is then free to move through aluminium electrode
connecting the solar cell to the gadgets (cell phone, laptop or whatever). The electron can further wander
back to the nanowires to join an atom that has a positive charge.

Differences between nanosolar cell and photo voltaic cell:

Photovoltaic solar cell Nano solar cell

1. Manufacturing and 1. Manufacturing and

installation costs are very installation costs are much
high. cheaper
2. Less efficient in terms of 2. High efficient in terms of
conversion of solar energy conversion of solar energy
in to electrical energy. in to electrical energy.
3. Captures less solar 3. Captures more solar
spectrum. spectrum.
4. Generates comparatively 4. Generates comparatively
less electron per photon. more electron per photon.

NANOELECTRONICS APPLICATIONS
 High Capacity Memory (Tbit/in2)
 Field Emission Display (FED) Devices
 Nanotransistor – Nanocomputer
 Quantum Computing
 Quantum Dot Laser
 Spintronics – Nanomagnetics
 Photonics Crystal for Optical Communication
 MEMS Sensors and Actuators
 Molecular electronics: Fabrication of logic gates
from molecular switches using rotaxane molecules

APPLICATONS IN COMPUTER SCIENCE

Nanotechnology has a wide range of applications and has impacted the telecommunications
industry in several ways.

Wireless technology

The telecommunication enterprise will radically get changed into the brand new Nanotechnology.
Nanotechnology effect in operation of both cellular as well as core network, and by addition perfection in
security and the better effect on the sensor makes the nanotechnology the hugest from previous traditional
technologies [10] . Wireless technology industries have promised at the implementation of the intelligent
operations that allows to ensure that the computation and communication are to be had as desired. The
advent of intelligent and Nano technology concepts in the mobile devices will assist in embedding the
devices inside the human environments that can create a brand new platform on the way to permit the ever
present sensing, and computing. The Nano devices may be loaded to achieve some capabilities like self-
powering, sensible to the environment or smart interaction with other systems.
Internet of Things (IoT)

Technology Internet of Things (IoT) is the arrangement of physical articles or things introduced with
equipment, programming, sensors and network system to enable it to achieve more essential regard
and organization by exchanging data with the executive and other related objects. Nano Intelligent
Things, could be the accompanying possible thing that could hit within the near future. Nano bio chips
can be prepared for pass the data or information among themselves or to the machines or to the
general population and are self-learning by illustration affirmation, upgrading themselves by each time
they play out the mission. The nanotechnology with the internet of thing will provides a Nano size of
things able to communication together with the ability to interact with human or machines in a good
and efficient manner.

Body Area Network

Body area network devices now can be coordinated into dress or body. Much work has been finished
by many research groups on improvement of intelligent Nano materials and combination of
microelectronics into garments or implanted in the human body. Therapeutic devices such as
pacemakers, prosthesis, and stents are now becomes really used in medical. One case is a sensors
focused at congestive heart failure patients, these sensors may planted inside body and communicate to
each other by the way of interbody. The embedded sensors in a size like a grain of rice can be utilized
to measure many medical metrics inside the body such as measuring the flow rate of blood in the
arteries within the human body, a complex surgical, internal survey of vital parts of the body and
likewise be utilized for medication treatments for nerve or tissue incitement.

Mobile and wireless devices

Portable devices for calculation and sensing are becomes a key dreams of remote business to have
surrounding knowledge which they are constantly accessible and prepared to serve the client. These
devices can attached to human situations like home, office, open spots in conjunction with cell phones.
One of the key requirements for implanting devices into physical objects of the world requires that
devices able to adjust to their surroundings and turn into a part of the system of devices encompassing
them. Such example for that is like organic frameworks which develop and adjust to nature
independently.

Nano communication and networks

Nano machine is described as mechanical a device that relies on upon nanometer scale parts. the term of
nuclear machine is known as a mechanical device that plays out an accommodating limit using fragments
of nanometer scale and described sub nuclear structure able conveying, processing, information ,
detecting or potentially activation other system. Communication based on electromagnetic waves is the
most basic strategy to interconnect microelectronic devices and these waves can propagate with low loss
along wires or wirelessly. To establish a bidirectional wireless Nano communication, a radio frequency
systems should to be coordinated in the Nano machine which required a development in Nano scale
antennas for very high frequencies
 Quantum computing

By replacing current computers by more progressed and quick preparing quantum computers
innovation, the most exceptional innovation that will be in charge of adding new features and
means of processing and computing in an intelligent way . In quantum computers, the binary
rates in conventional computers are repeated by quantum bitsor qubits, which can be in a state of
0, 1 and superposition simultaneously.

Information storing and processing

For information processing and transmission, the development in electronic, optical and
optoelectronic components are expected to producing a fast and precise process communication
devices. The Photonic crystals will be potentially used for designing purely optical circuits as a
basis for future information processing based on light only. Nanotechnology concept in nanoscale
storage device that build on CMOS technology by using quantum dabs and carbon nanotubes will
achieves a great expectations for storing the large amount of data

Nano Sensors and Nano Devices

Nano sensors and nano devices are providing new solutions for many aspects such in environmental
and biological sensing that offers a high degree of detection sensitivity, and availability in static or
dynamic situation in many applications such as health, safety, and monitoring. Due to the increasing
in many applications of industrial facilities and its global distributi ons, there is an urgent needs to
develop new type of sensors and devices that are able to detect and identify rapidly the source of
pollutant, and other threat agents at any point. From other side taking deep concept, it‟s also
required to develop sensors and devices that are able to interact with other machines in
manufacturing areas, to detect many types of fluctuations during industrial process. Other important
application such in healthcare is also becomes an important area that required to develop a new
generation of nano sensors and nano devices with rapid response and high sensitivity in nano scale
areas may be inside the human body.

• Tiny nano-engineered ferroelectric crystals could realize of creating nonvolatile

random access memory (NVRAM).
Aerospace applications:
Lighter and stronger materials will be of immense use to aircraft manufacturers, leading to increased
performance. Spacecraft will also benefit, where weight is a major factor. Nanotechnology might thus
help to reduce the size of equipment and thereby decrease fuel-consumption required to get it
airborne. Hang gliders may be able to halve their weight while increasing their strength and
toughness through the use of nanotech materials. Nanotech is lowering the mass
of supercapacitors that will increasingly be used to give power to assistive electrical motors for
launching hang gliders off flatland to thermal-chasing altitudes.

Applications in medicine

Nanotechnology has a great and significant impact in the field of medicine. it is used for
diagnosis, tissue engineering and drug delivery. One of the biggest advantage of
nanotechnology is the fast surgical recovery and tissue re engineering.
Diagnosis

Nanotech chip can easily detect the disease in early stages and it can tell what
exact stage of fatal disease like cancer is going on by scanning the human body
cells. Its atomic functioning makes it more reliable than other technologies in the
market.

Drug delivery.

Transfer of drug to the specific cells of human body suing Nanoparticles is

another dynamic application of nanotechnology.differnt parts of body can be
treated individually by transmitting drug molecules to that part only without
interfering the whole body. Accurate quantity of live saving drugs can be
selected by viewing the reactions of the combined molecules with the help of
nanotech machines.

Tissue engineering

Nanotechnology also helps the surgeons and doctors for reproducing and repairing the
damaged tissues. Tissue engineering makes use of artificially developed cell, which is then
fertilized and powered by blood to produce new tissues or to repair existing ones.

 Fluids of nano particles

 Slow down ageing process No scar surgeries
 Artificial limbs
 Cancer and HIV
 Nano filters- capable of absorbing viruses
 Nano catalyst – improves efficiency of a reaction.
 Diagnosis tools
 Sensors for early detection and prevention

Nanogold shell can be used to kill cancer cell. To begin creation of gold nanoshell includes
following steps.
At first gold nanoparticle (10 – 15 nm) is coated to silica (glass, sio2) core and then this core is
coated (attached) with special amine. After the amines are attached to the core, the coated silica
particles are attached with gold nanoparticles(less than 2nm) to form gold – silica nanoshell
(roughly 15nm). This shell can best absorb infrared light (800 – 1050 nm) and
heated up. Finally antibodies are attached to the gold – silica nanoshell as shown in the figure.
When these nanoshells are injected into the body antibodies present in the nanoshell attaches to the
surface of the cancer cell. Now these nanoshells are illuminated with infrared light (as it is
mentioned earlier nano gold shell can absorb infrared wavelength) by absorbing infrared light gold
nanoshell heated up hence it destroys tumor cells.