ETE 505 Optical Fiber Communications

Dr. Feroz Ahmed

Professor
Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering
Independent University, Bangladesh
E-mail: fahmed@iub.edu.bd
 Course Outline
 Overview of Optical Fiber Communications
 Fibers and Transmission Characteristics
 Optical Sources and Transmitters
 Optical Detectors and Receivers
 Lightwave Systems and Optical Amplifiers
 Optical Components: Active and Passive
 Dispersion Management and Multichannel Lightwave
Systems (WDM/DWDM)
 Optical Solitons and Coherent Lightwave Systems
 Test Equipments for Optical Fiber Communications
 OFC Systems Simulation Using Matlab & Optiwave.
Dr. Feroz Ahmed, IUB ETE505 Optical Fiber Communications 2
 Optical sources
and transmitters

 Fundamental of light sources

 Absorption and emission of radiation, Emission and
absorption rates, population inversion, energy bands,
Intrinsic and extrinsic materials, P-N junction, carrier
recombination, semiconductor materials
 Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs)
 Double heterojunction, LED structures, characteristics:
Power and efficiency, spectrum, modulation response,
rate equations, transfer function, reliability issues
 Laser Diodes (LDs)
 Gain spectra, threshold, rate equations, light current
characteristics, modulation response, noise, RIN
 Optical Transmitters
Dr. Feroz Ahmed, IUB ETE505 Optical Fiber Communications 3
 Considerations with Optical Sources
 Suitable radiation pattern (beam width)
 Linearity (output power proportional to driving current)
 Ability to be directly modulated (fast response time)
 Adequate output power (at least 1 mw into the fiber)
 Narrow spectral width (or line width) to reduce material
dispersion
 Thermal stability
 Reliability (LED better than laser)
 Suitable physical dimensions
 Cost considerations
 Driving circuit considerations, (impedance matching
etc)
 High (quantum) efficiency

Dr. Feroz Ahmed, IUB ETE505 Optical Fiber Communications 4

 Semiconductor Light Sources
 A PN junction (that consists of direct band gap
semiconductor materials) acts as the active or
recombination region
 When the PN junction is forward biased, electrons and
holes recombine either radiatively (emitting photons) or
non-radiatively (emitting heat). This is simple LED
operation.
 In a LASER, the photon is further processed in a
resonance cavity to achieve a coherent, highly directional
optical beam with a narrow linewidth
Light Emission
 Basic LED operation: When an electron jumps from a higher
energy state (Ec) to a lower energy state (Ev) the difference
in energy Ec- Ev is released either
 as a photon of energy E = h (radiative recombination)
 as heat (non-radiative recombination)
Dr. Feroz Ahmed, IUB ETE505 Optical Fiber Communications 5
 Basic Concept
Absorption and Emission of Radiation

Dr. Feroz Ahmed, IUB ETE505 Optical Fiber Communications 6

 Emission and Absorption Rates
Rabs  BN1  ph Rspon  AN2 Rstim  BN2  ph
Rabs  Rspon  Rstim ph: photon energy density per unit frequency.,
A &B are Einstein’s coefficient, R is the rate of
BN1  ph  AN 2  BN 2  ph three transition process. N1 and N2 are the
atomic densities in the ground and the excited
states.
At thermal equilibrium, the ratio of N2/N1 is determined by Boltzmann
statistics.
 h   Eg  A/ B
N2
 exp    
  exp    ph
 h 
N1  B 
k T  B 
k T 
( B / B) exp   1
 k BT 
kB is the Boltzmann constant and T is the absolute temperature.
When the system in thermal equilibrium, the photon energy density is given
by Planck’s Blackbody Radiation Law
8 h 3 1 A 8 h 3
 ph   and B  B
c3  h  3
exp   1 B c
 k BT  These relations were first obtained by
Einstein. For this reason, A and B are called
Dr. Feroz Ahmed, IUB ETE505 Optical Fiber Communications 7
Einstein’s coefficients.
 Emission and Absorption Rates (Cont.)
Two important conclusions can be drawn from the above
equations:
1. Rspon can exceed both Rstim and Rabs considerably if
KBT>hν.Thermal source operate in this regime.
2. For radiation in the visible or near infrared region (hν~1 eV),
spontaneous emission always domibates over stimulated
emission in thermal equilibrium at room temperature
(KBT≈25 meV) because Rstim  exp(h / k BT )  1  1
1
Rspon
Thus, all laser must operate away from thermal equilibrium.
This is achieved by pumping lasers with an external
energy source.
Rstim can exceed Rabs only when N2>N1. This condition is
called population inversion and is never realized for
systems in thermal equilibrium. Population inversion is
Dr.prerequisite
Feroz Ahmed, IUB for laser
ETE505operation
Optical Fiber Communications 8
 Population Inversion

Energy (E) Energy (E)

E2 E2
exp( E / KT ) exp( E / KT )

E1 E1
Density of Density of
N2 N1 N1 N2
Atoms (N) Atoms (N)

Fig: Population in two energy level system. (a) Boltzman distribution for a system in
thermal equilibrium (b) a non equilibrium distribution showing population inversion

Dr. Feroz Ahmed, IUB ETE505 Optical Fiber Communications 9

 Population Inversion (Cont..)
The metastable level E1(Fig.a) exhibits a much longer lifetime than E2
which allows a large number of atoms to accumulate at E1. Over a period
the density of atoms in the metastable state N1 increases above those in
ground state N0 and a population inversion obtain between two levels.

E2 E3
Rapid decay Rapid decay
E1 E2 Lasing
Lasing
Pumping
1.15m
0.52  0.6m
E1
Pumping Rapid decay
E0 E0
Fig a. Three level system –ruby Fig b. Four-level system –He-Ne
(crystal) laser (gas) laser
A drawback with the three level system is that it generally requires very
high pump power because the terminal state of the laser transition is the
ground state. Hence, more than half the ground state atoms must be
pumped into the metastable state to achieve population inversion.
ETE505 Optical Fiber Communications 10
Dr. Feroz Ahmed, IUB
 Energy Bands

Bandgaps
Conduction band: Valence band:

Insulator Semiconductor Conductor

Large gap Small gap Overlap – no gap

Source: Redrawn from Dutton

Dr. Feroz Ahmed, IUB ETE505 Optical Fiber Communications 11

 Energy Bands (Cont.)
The conduction properties can be interpreted with the aid of
the energy band diagrams shown in the following Fig.

In a pure Gp. IV (such as Si: 4 electron in the outer shell) material,

equal number of holes and electrons exist at different energy
levels.
Dr. Feroz Ahmed, IUB ETE505 Optical Fiber Communications 12
 n-type material

Adding group V (such as P, As, Sb: 5 electrons in the outer shell) impurity will
create an n- type material
Donor impurities form energy level just below the conduction
band. Thermally excited electrons from the donor levels are
raised into the conduction band to create an excess of
negative charge carriers and the semiconductor is said to be
n-type with majority carriers being electrons.
Dr. Feroz Ahmed, IUB ETE505 Optical Fiber Communications 13
 p-type material

Adding group III impurity will create a p-type material

Intrinsic Material: A material containing no impurities is called intrinsic material
Extrinsic Material: The introduction of small quantities of chemical impurities in
to a crystal produces an extrinsic semiconductor.
Majority Carriers refer either to electron in n-type material or to holes in p-type
material
Minority carriers refer to holes in n-type material or to electrons in p-type
material.
Dr. Feroz Ahmed, IUB ETE505 Optical Fiber Communications 14
 PN Junctions
When a pn-junction is created,
the majority carriers diffuse
across it. As a result an electrical
field appears across the junction.
This field prevent further net
movement of charges. The
junction area now has no mobile
charges, since its electron and
holes are locked into a covalent
bond structure. This region is
called depletion region.

Fig. p-n junction: Electrons diffuse across boundary to fill holes. A built-in field and potential
results.
n p
Ec

Ef
Ev

Junction
Dr. Feroz Ahmed, IUB ETE505 Optical Fiber Communications 15
 PN Junctions (Cont.)
Reverse Biased This effectively
junctions: increase barrier
potential and prevent
any majority carriers
from flowing across
the junction.
However, minority
carriers can move
with the field across
the junction. The
Fig. Reverse biased p-n junction: The depletion region widens
minority carrier flow
and minority carriers can move freely with the field. This is small at normal
configuration used for photodetectors. temperature and
Emax + Er operating voltage.
n p
Ec

Ef Ev

Dr. Feroz Ahmed, IUB ETE505 Optical Fiber Communications 16

 PN Junctions (Cont.)
Biased junctions:
The magnitude of barrier
potential is reduced.
Conduction band
electron on the n side
and valance band holes
on the p side are,
thereby, allowed to
diffuse across the
junction. Once across,
they significantly
Fig. Forward biased p-n junction: The depletion region narrows, increase the minority
the barrier potential drops, and majority carriers can diffuse carrier concentration,
across the junction. This configuration used for light and excess carriers then
sources. Emax - Ef
recombine with the
p oppositely charged
n majority carriers.
Ec Recombination of excess
minority carriers in the
Ef
mechanism by which
optical radiation is
Ev
generated.
Dr. Feroz Ahmed, IUB ETE505 Optical Fiber Communications 17
 Carrier Recombination
Electron Filled Electron states
Electron
Energy Conduction
Conduction Energy
Band Band
Phonon
(crystal lattice
Electron vibrations)

Photon Photon
Hole Hole

Momentum or Momentum or
Valance Valance
wave vector wave vector
Band Band
Fig. Energy –momentum diagrams showing the type of transition: (a) direct
bandgap (b) indirect bandgap semiconductor.
GaAs = direct. Widely used as LED or ILD sources, sometimes with other elements added (Al, P).
Silicon = indirect.
Dr. Feroz Ahmed, IUB Not useful asETE505
light source.
Optical Fiber Communications 18
 Homojunction and Heterojunctions
The P-N junctions shown in the previous figures is called the homojunction,
since the same semiconductor material is used on both sides of the
junction. A problem with the homojunction is that electron-hole
recombination occurs over a relatively wide region (1-10μm) determined by
the diffusion length of electron and holes. Since the carriers are not
confined to immediate vicinity of the junction, it is difficult to realize high
carrier densities. This carrier –confinement problem can be solved by
sandwiching layer between the p-type and n-type layers such that the band
gap of the sandwiched layer is smaller than the layers surrounding it. The
middle layer may or may not be doped, depending on device design; its
role is to confine carriers injected inside it under forward bias.
Carrier confinement occurs as a result of bandgap discontinuity at the
junction between two semiconductors which have the same crystalline
structure but different bandgaps. Such junction are called heterojunctions,
and such device are called double- heterostructures (next slide). Since the
thickness of the sandwiched layer can be controlled externally, high carrier
densities can be realized at a given junction current.
1. Proposed in 1963 (Zhores I. Alferov-Noble prize in 2000)
2. Active region sandwiched between two cladding layers
3. Active layer has lower Eg and higher index n.
Dr. Feroz Ahmed, IUB ETE505 Optical Fiber Communications 19
 Heterojunctions
Desired properties:
High radiance - so adequate power coupled into fibre
Fast response time - so high data rates can be achieved
High quantum efficiency - ratio of photons produced to carriers injected

Structures

Fig. 4-8 Typical double

heterostructure (not to scale)
(a) x > y for optical and carrier
confinement
(b) energy level diagram
(c) index of refraction diagram
Dr. Feroz Ahmed, IUB ETE505 Optical Fiber Communications 20
 Common materials used to fabricate LEDs and ILDs.
Fabrication:
Different p and n layers are grown on a lightly doped crystal substrate
All layers must have the same lattice spacing to avoid internal stress
A technique of crystal growth by chemical reaction is used to grow this layer of semiconductor
material on the substrate. This type of growth is called “epitaxial; (epi=on, taxis=arrangement)”,
new atoms arranged on existing ones, atomic layer by atomic layer: liquid phase, vapour
phase, or molecular beam (MBE)
Dr. Feroz Ahmed, IUB ETE505 Optical Fiber Communications 21
III-V Semiconductors:
Direct Bandgap
Indirect Bandgap
Lattice constants and
bandgap energy/wavelength
for a variety of III-V
semiconductor compounds.

There are a number of empirical equations matching bandgap to lattice constant.

1) For AlxGa1-xAs, 0  x 0.47 (lattice matched to GaAs), bandgap in eV:
Eg ( x)  1.424  1.247 x
2) For In1-xGaxAsyP1-y, 0  y  1, x/y = 0.45 (lattice matched to InP), bandgap in eV:
Eg ( y)  1.35  0.72 y  0.12 y 2
Dr. Feroz Ahmed, IUB ETE505 Optical Fiber Communications 22
 Semiconductors - elements

Dr. Feroz Ahmed, IUB ETE505 Optical Fiber Communications 23

 Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs)

1. A forward bias p-n junction emits light through spontaneous

emission, a phenomenon referred to as electroluminescence.
2. In its simplest form, an LED is a forward biased p-n homojunction.
3. Radiative recombination of electron-hole pairs in the depletion
region generates light; some of it escapes from the device and can
be coupled into an optical fiber.
4. The emitting light is incoherent with a relatively wide spectral width
(30-40nm) and relatively large angular spread.
5. For fiber-optics, the LED should have a high radiance (light
intensity), fast response time and a high quantum efficiency
6. Emitted wavelength depends on bandgap energy:
Eg  h  hc / 

Dr. Feroz Ahmed, IUB ETE505 Optical Fiber Communications 24

 Advantages of LED
 Simple fabrication,
 low cost,
 reliable,
 low temperature dependent
 Robust
 Linear

Drawbacks of LED
• Low power
• Large spectral linewidth (30-40 nm)
• Large beam width (Little optical power coupled in to the fiber)
• Incoherency
• Low E/O conversion efficiency
• Small modulation bandwidth
Dr. Feroz Ahmed, IUB ETE505 Optical Fiber Communications 25
 LED Structures

Two basic types of LED:

Fig. Surface emitting LED (Burrus type - not to scale). Lambertian output from surface
(half angle = 120o.)

Fig. Edge emitting LED. Similar in geometry to a laser but output characteristics very
different. Here, incoherent and 120o x 30o. 26
 LED Structures (Cont..)
Superluminescent LEDs (SLDs):
A third device geometry which is already providing significant benefits
over both SLED and ELEDs for communication applications is the
SLD. This device type offers following advantages: (a) a high output
power (b) a directional output beam ( c) a narrow spectral linewidth.
# 60mW at 870nm in pulse mode;
Lambertian source:
I(q)=Iocosq
Divergence at
FWHM
LED Surface
60 Io
60

Intensity Distribution

Light from surface of LED is emitted in all directions. This results in an

intensity pattern as shown in the figure above.
Dr. Feroz Ahmed, IUB ETE505 Optical Fiber Communications 27
 LED Characteristics
In steady-state, the rate of electron-hole pairs recombination
= carrier injection rate, I (current)/ q (charge on an electron).
The rate of photon generation =ηintI /q

The internal optical power is given by:

Pint  int (h / q ) I
Emitted optical power: Pe   ext Pint   extint (h / q ) I
qc
1
Tf = Fresnel transmissivity
 ext  
4 0
T f (q )( 2 sin q )dq

Pe
tot    extint (h / qV0 )
Pelec
 Power conversion efficiency
Pelec  V0 I

Dr. Feroz Ahmed, IUB ETE505 Optical Fiber Communications 28

 LED Characteristics (cont.)
Optical output power:
Light Light
output output

Current Current
Fig. Light output power vs. electrical dc current

Light output T2
(mW) Light output T1 T3
10 SLED
(mW)
3 T1<T2…..<T6
T4
ELED 2
1.0 T5
1 T6
SLD

0Feroz20
Dr. 40
Ahmed, IUB
T(0C)Optical Fiber Communications
60 ETE505 0 50 100 150 I (mA)
29
 Spectrum
Relative Relative
intensity intensity
75nm , ELED
At FWHM,
Linewidth
25-40nm 125nm,SLED

λ, μm λ, μm
0.75 0.80 0.85 0.90 1.16 1.28 1.44

Relative Light Relative 0oC

intensity doped Heavily intensity 30oC
doped 60oC

λ, μm
λ, μm
1.2 1.3 1.4 0.83 0.85 0.87 0.89 0.91

Dr. Feroz Ahmed, IUB ETE505 Optical Fiber Communications 30

 Modulation response of LEDs
depends on carrier dynamics and is
limited by carrier lifetime.

Assume, Sinusoidal
modulation of
injected current
Rate of injected charge. Rate of spontaneous recombination.

1 1
H (m )  
1  (m c ) 2 2

 c =carrier lifetime=2-5ns for InGaAsP LEDs. The corresponding LED

31
modulation bandwidth is in ETE505
Dr. Feroz Ahmed, IUB Optical Fiber Communications
the range of 50-140MHz.
 Modulation Response (cont.)
Ratio of Electrical output to the input power in dB; 2
Pelect
 I out 
REdB  10 log10 out
elect
 10 log10  
P
in  in 
I
2
 I out  1 I out 1
   or ,   0.707
 I in  2 I in 2

Ratio of optical output to the input power in dB;

opt
Pout  I out
opt
Aeff 
ROdB  10 log10 opt  10 log10  opt 
Pin  I in Aeff 
 I out
opt
Aeff  1 I out 1
 opt  or ,   0.5
 I in Aeff  2 I in 2

Dr. Feroz Ahmed, IUB ETE505 Optical Fiber Communications 32

 Reliability Issues
Rapid degradation due to both the growth of dislocation and precipitate-
type defects in the active region giving rise to dark line defects (DLD) and
dark spot defects (DSD), respectively, under device aging.
The optical output power Pe(t) may be expressed as a function of the
operating time t, and is given by:

P(t )  Pout exp(  r t )

 r   0 exp( Ea / KT )
Pout=initial output power, βr=degradation rate, β0=proportionality constant,
Ea= activation energy, K=Boltzmann’s constant, T=absolute temperature

Example: An InGaAsP surface emitter has Ea=1eV, β0=1.84x107h-1. Estimate

the CW operating lifetime for the LED with a constant junction temperature
of 170C, if it is assumed that the device is no longer useful when its optical
output power has diminished to 0.67 of its original value.
Sol: βr=7.82x10-11h-1; P(t)/Pout=0.67 or, βrt=-ln0.67
Hence, t=5.1x10 9h
Dr. Feroz Ahmed, IUB ETE505 Optical Fiber Communications 33
 Note for LED’s Reliability Issues
Rapid degradation in LEDs is due to both the growth of dislocations and
precipitate-type defects in the active region giving rise to dark line defects
(DLDs) and dark spot defects (DSDs), respectively, under device ageing.
DLDs tend to be the dominant cause of rapid degradation in GaAs-based
LEDs. The growth of these defects does not depend upon substrate
orientation but on the injection current density, the temperature, and
impurity concentration in the active layer.

LEDs may be fabricated which are largely free from these defects and are
therefore subject to a slower long term degradation process. This
homogeneous degradation is thought to be due to recombination
enhanced point defect generation, or the migration of impurities into the
active region.

Ea=0.56 to 0.65 eV for GaAs/AlGaAs; This value suggest 106 to 107 h (100-
1000years) CW operation at room temperature for AlGaAs devices.

Dr. Feroz Ahmed, IUB ETE505 Optical Fiber Communications 34

Light Amplification by ‘Stimulated Emission’ of
Radiation (LASER)
 Laser:
 Stimulated emission
 Coherent light, linewidth
 Usually smaller linewidth than data rate v  110MHz

 Laser Diode
 Absorption: An atom in the ground state might absorb a photon
emitted by another atom, thus making a transition to an excited
state.
 Spontaneous Emission: random emission of a photon, which
enables the atom to relax to the ground state.
 Stimulated Emission: An atom in an excited state might be
stimulated to emit a photon by another incident photon.

Dr. Feroz Ahmed, IUB ETE505 Optical Fiber Communications 35

Dr. Feroz Ahmed, IUB ETE505 Optical Fiber Communications 36
 Optical Oscillator
In reality, a laser is an optical oscillator. A simple analogy can be made between the
laser and an electronic amplifier with feedback.

Gain, G

Feedback, F

This circuit will oscillate when the loop gain is greater than 1.

Dr. Feroz Ahmed, IUB ETE505 Optical Fiber Communications 37

Dr. Feroz Ahmed, IUB ETE505 Optical Fiber Communications 38
 k=nw/c

Dr. Feroz Ahmed, IUB ETE505 Optical Fiber Communications 39

 Propagation in laser cavity
Each resonant frequency (wavelength) represents 1 longitudinal or cavity mode of the laser.
Frequency spacing between successive modes (free spectral range, FSR)
c
 
2 Ln
2
Wavelength spacing between successive modes  
2Ln

 
In general, the gain coefficient for any laser is frequency (wavelength) dependent. As a
result, there may be a number of modes that fulfill the threshold and phase conditions in
a particular laser structure. Assume the gain coefficient is a gaussian function of
wavelength Central wavelength

 (  0 ) 
g ( )  g (0) exp  
 2 
2

Proportional to n2-n1
Dr. Feroz Ahmed, IUB Spectral width
ETE505 Optical Fiber Communications 40
Dr. Feroz Ahmed, IUB ETE505 Optical Fiber Communications 41
Dr. Feroz Ahmed, IUB ETE505 Optical Fiber Communications 42
Dr. Feroz Ahmed, IUB ETE505 Optical Fiber Communications 43
Dr. Feroz Ahmed, IUB ETE505 Optical Fiber Communications 44
 m Grating period, Λ (Lambda)

Dr. Feroz Ahmed, IUB ETE505 Optical Fiber Communications 45

 Single longitudinal mode lasers
Bragg condition

  

The partial reflections from each corrugation will interfere constructively at wavelengths
defined by the Bragg Equation.

2ne 
B  index
k
m

First order gratings (m = 1) provide the strongest coupling but second order gratings are
often used because they are easier to fabricate.
Dr. Feroz Ahmed, IUB ETE505 Optical Fiber Communications 46
 (For SLM operation)

Dr. Feroz Ahmed, IUB ETE505 Optical Fiber Communications 47

 Phase, Bragg
period (changing
through changing
refractive index)
and active region
controlling

Dr. Feroz Ahmed, IUB ETE505 Optical Fiber Communications 48

 Threshold current
~1mA or less

Dr. Feroz Ahmed, IUB ETE505 Optical Fiber Communications 49

 Lasing and Slope Efficiency

Fig. Optical power vs. Current

Dr. Feroz Ahmed, IUB ETE505 Optical Fiber Communications 50

 Lasing Modes

Gain coeff. profile

Cavity Loss

Fig. 4-21 Longitudinal modes

Laser output

51

Dr. Feroz Ahmed, IUB ETE505 Optical Fiber Communications
 Modulation of Optical Sources

 Optical sources can be modulated either directly or

externally.
 Direct modulation is done by superimposing the
modulating (message) signal on the driving current
 In external modulation case, the laser is driven by a
constant current and the modulation is at the fiber
separately

Dr. Feroz Ahmed, IUB ETE505 Optical Fiber Communications 52

 Modulation of LEDs and laser diodes :

Fig. 4-35 Sinusoidal modulation of LEDs and ILDs. Modulation should occur in linear part of
curve for analogue signals. For digital signals, laser should be biased near threshold.
Dr. Feroz Ahmed, IUB ETE505 Optical Fiber Communications 53
 Threshold Current Temperature Dependence

Light Light
Output 100C 600C Output 100C 300C 600C
7mW 7mW
NA=0.5 NA=0.5

0 100 200 (mA) 0 100 200 300 (mA)

Variation in threshold current with temperature for gain-guided

injection lasers: (a) AlGaAs device (b) InGaAsP device
Dr. Feroz Ahmed, IUB ETE505 Optical Fiber Communications 54
 Noises and mode hopping

Spectrum of laser at different times as

different longitudinal modes dominate.
Different modes have different
attenuation, different propagation
delays.

Reflection: Light reflected back into the laser couples with the laser modes. Leads to
mode partition noise and relative intensity noise (RIN). This is very
important at high modulation rates.(See Chapter 9, Section 9.2.3- G. Keiser)

e d c b a
Degradation of modal output for various
feedback levels: a) no feedback b) 0.041%
feedback c) 0.06% d)0.3% e)1.5%
Dr. Feroz Ahmed, IUB ETE505 Optical Fiber Communications 55
 Reliability Issues:
Lifetime of the device is usually determined in one of two ways.
1) Maintain constant optical output and vary current. Lifetime is defined as the point at
which the device can no longer supply a specified optical power at the maximum current
for CW operation.
2) Maintain a constant current and measure optical output power. Lifetime is determined
to be the point in time where the output power has decreased by 3 dB.

Three categories of optical source degradation:

a) internal damage (LEDs and LDs)
b) ohmic contact degradation (LEDs and LDs)
c) damage to facets (LDs)
Internal Damage
Caused by the migration or generation of crystal defects within the active region of the
device leading to decreased quantum efficiency and increased optical absorption.

Laser Facet Damage

Catastrophic failure: mechanical damage of facets that may be caused by high optical
power densities. Reduces mirror reflectivity and increases threshold/reduces
quantum efficiency.

Dr. Feroz Ahmed, IUB ETE505 Optical Fiber Communications 56

 Reliability issues, cont.

Fig. 4-40 Output power as a function of time for different operating temperatures

Deterioration of Ohmic Contacts

Thermal resistance of contact between light source and heat sink increases with time.
This leads to an increase in operating temperature which in turn causes the ohmic contacts
(electrodes) to become less conducting and generate more heat. For a given operating
current, the heated device will produce a smaller optical output.
Dr. Feroz Ahmed, IUB ETE505 Optical Fiber Communications 57
 Optical Transmitters

 The Transmitter can be of two types:

Laser 101011…
 Direct modulated (eff: frequency Chirp) Light 1=light on
 LED output
 LD Modulating 0=light off
signal (electrical)

Light
 Laser + External modulator (externally output
modulated) Laser
 Mach-Zender modulator (usually in
Lithium Niobate)
Modulating Modulator
 Electroabsorption modulator signal (electrical)

101011…
1=light on
0=light off
Dr. Feroz Ahmed, IUB ETE505 Optical Fiber Communications 58
 Optical Transmitters (Cont..)

 Use semiconductor lasers or LEDs as an optical source

 Semiconductor lasers offer many advantages: Compact
size, high efficiency, good reliability
 Emissive area compatible with fibers
 Electrical pumping at modest current levels
 Output can be modulated directly at high frequencies.
 Room-temperature operation first realized in 1970

Dr. Feroz Ahmed, IUB ETE505 Optical Fiber Communications 59

 Direct or butt
coupling

Lens-coupling

Dr. Feroz Ahmed, IUB ETE505 Optical Fiber Communications 60

 Transmitter Packaging
 The coupling range from <1% for a butt-coupled surface emitting
LED-SM fiber, to >90% for lens-coupled laser-SM fiber
 The laser transmitter package often includes a photo diode
monitoring the power for a feedback circuit maintaining constant
power. (this is due to the strong temperature dependence and
aging)
 In demanding applications the package also include:
 An optical isolator to prevent optical feedback in to the laser

 A thermo-electric cooler to maintain temperature (giving

maintained performance and high reliability)
 The average life-span required for transmitters in terrestrial
networks is about 10 years and about 100 years for undersea
system.
 The cost of transmitters is mainly dicted by the packaging and not by
the source itself.

Dr. Feroz Ahmed, IUB ETE505 Optical Fiber Communications 61

 Bandgap is decreased
when electric field is
applied. Thus
transparent
semiconductor layer
begins to absorb light
when its bandgap is
reduced electronically.

Dr. Feroz Ahmed, IUB ETE505 Optical Fiber Communications 62

 Notes for further study : Laser diode structures

Fig. 4-24 Buried heterostructures.

Dr. Feroz Ahmed, IUB ETE505 Optical Fiber Communications 63

Fig. 4-25 Methods of current confinement