PEC 206 THE TEACHER AND THE SCHOOL CURRICULUM

LESSON 1: UNDERSTANDING CURRICULUM

DEFINITION OF CURRICULUM

A clear understanding of what curriculum is, helps scholars and students in understanding the curriculum
as a dynamic field in education. Reid (2006) opined that people talk about, write about, legislate for,
teach courses on, and take credits in curriculum; hence, it is important to have a concrete explanation
of what curriculum is

Many books on curriculum present various images, characterizations, and definitions of the term
curriculum. To analyze or discuss all of these definitions would be a massive endeavor since there are
more than eleven hundred books written about curriculum (Schubert, 1980). Presented in this book are
just a few definitions provided by Saylor (1981), Beauchamp (1982), Schubert (1986), Eisner (1985),
Pinar (1995), Posner (1995), Marsh (2004), Oliva (2005), Glatthorn (2006), and Reid (2006), among
others.

1. Curriculum as a list of subjects. This definition suggests that curriculum is the "permanent" or
the traditional subjects offered in the school curriculum such as Mathematics, Language, Science,
Music, Arts, and others.
2. Curriculum as learning experiences. This definition includes students' curricular and co-
curricular activities and the learning experiences they encounter inside or outside the school. This
definition includes the hidden curriculum, or those things learned by the students as a result of
their experiences in the school with their peers, schoolmates, teachers, school staff, or the values
they learned from a school program. In short, it includes the school culture.
3. Curriculum as intended learning outcomes. This definition includes a list of learning
competencies or standards that students should learn in school.
4. Curriculum as planned learning experiences. This includes documents specifying contents,
objectives, or general ideas of what students should know in schools or in a specific discipline.
5. Curriculum as a discipline. Curriculum as a discipline has its own principles, theories, and
practices.
6. Curriculum as content or subject matter. This definition views curriculum as a series of topics
under each subject area.

It is important that curriculum workers have a common understanding of what curriculum is. Their
personal definition of curriculum defines the curriculum product that they will produce. Many curriculum
projects fail, and much curriculum research appear vague because of an unclear understanding of the field
of curriculum. Besides this, only few people are experts in curriculum studies, especially in the
Philippines, who may be consulted regarding these projects and research.

DIFFERENT TYPES OF CURRICULUM

Different Types of Curriculum Several curriculum scholars (see Glatthorn, Boschee, and Whitehead,
2006; Print, 1993; Tanner and Tanner, 2007) cited nine types of curriculum in their books depending on
how curriculum is used in various institutions.

1. Ideal or Recommended Curriculum. This refers to what scholars propose as the most
appropriate curriculum for the learners. For example, different professional organizations or
various programs of study in different universities may propose curriculum innovations or
alternative curriculum content as a result of their research.

Ideal or recommended curriculum may also develop as an alternative response to various

curricular problems and issues. Glatthorn, Boschee, and Whitehead (2006) noted several
influences that seem to play the key roles in shaping the recommended curriculum. These
influences are the professional associations, individuals, and societal trends.

Curriculum standards recommended by professional organizations are examples of ideal or

recommended curriculum. Many of these various curriculum standards are recommended by
professional organizations as alternative to the current contents of the curriculum. Standards are
products of their latest research on the nature of the different disciplines and the developments in
various academic fields.

2. Intended, Official, or Written Curriculum. This refers to the official curriculum embodied in
approved state curriculum guides (Glatthorn, Boschee, and Whitehead, 2006). It is the curriculum
prescribed by the government. In the Philippine context, these are the prescribed courses from
different government agencies: the Department of Education (DepEd), the Commission on
Higher Education (CHED), and the Technical Education and Skills Development Authority
(TESDA). Examples of this type of curriculum are:
 The Kindergarten Curriculum Standards
 The K-12 Curriculum
 CHED Curriculum for General Education (Memorandum Order No. 20 Series of 2013)
 TESDA Modules and Competencies

3. Implemented Curriculum. This type of curriculum refers to the actual implementation of the
curriculum or what teachers in the school teach. In many cases, teachers modify and improve
their curriculum based on the needs of the students or whenever there are new ideas in various
disciplines that are important to teach to the students. Academic freedom among faculty members
in college may also influence how professors plan and implement their courses.

4. Achieved Curriculum or Learned Curriculum. This refers to the result of the curriculum or
what students actually learned in school (Print, 1993). The achieved curriculum reveals whether
the students learned and whether the schools are successful in attaining their curriculum goals and
objectives.
 5. Tested Curriculum. This is a set of learning that is assessed in teacher-made classroom tests,
curriculum-referenced tests, and in standardized tests. (Glatthorn, Boschee, and Whitehead,
2006).

6. Entitlement Curriculum. It refers to what the people or the general society believed the learners
should expect to learn in the educational system for them to become good members of the
society.

7. Supported Curriculum. This refers to the curriculum that is reflected on and shaped by the
resources allocated to support or deliver the official curriculum. (Glatthorn, Boschee, and
Whitehead, 2006). Tangible and intangible

8. Null or Censored Curriculum. This refers to various curriculum contents or topics that must not
be taught to the students. (Tanner & Tanner, 2007)

9. Hidden Curriculum. This refers to various skills, knowledge, and attitudes that students learn in
school as a result of their interaction with other students, staff, and faculty members. Although
the hidden curriculum is not actually taught in formal classroom learning, it is also true that the
hidden curriculum can be a product of the students' schooling. The hidden curriculum is very
powerful in developing the school culture (Print, 1993).

CURRICULUM FOUNDATIONS

Curriculum development scholars like Tyler (1949), Taba (1962), Eisner (1985), Saylor, Alexander, and
Lewis (1981), Print (1993), Sowell (1996), and Tanner and Tanner (2007) generally identified three
categories of sources for curriculum foundations: (1) studies of learners and learning theory
(psychology); (2) studies of life (sociology and anthropology); and (3) studies of the nature and
value of knowledge (philosophy). These curriculum sources or foundations influenced curriculum
developers in framing different curriculum conceptions and in developing curriculum.

1. Psychology as a discipline deals about understanding human behavior; hence, it is important in

curriculum development. According to Print (1993), psychology can provide information in five
important areas:
 Educational objectives
 Student characteristics
 Learning processes
  Teaching methods
 Evaluation procedures

2. Meanwhile, studies about the society and culture-sociology and anthropology, respectively-
affect all curriculum processes. Sowell (1996) pointed out that knowledge about the society and
its culture is important in selecting the content of the curriculum. It provides a clear
understanding of the context in which the curriculum is developed. Studies about the society and
culture help curriculum workers in understanding several social and educational issues that affect
curriculum processes and education in general.

3. On the other hand, philosophy as a foundation helps curriculum workers in understanding the
nature of knowledge and what subjects or topics are worthwhile. This is very important in
making decisions about the contents of the curriculum. Ornstein and Hunkins (1993) mentioned
that philosophy provides curriculum workers with a framework or base for organizing schools
and classrooms. It also provides educators with a framework for broad issues and tasks, such as
determining the goals of education, the content and its organization, and the teaching and
learning processes.

CURRICULUM CONCEPTIONS

Curriculum workers have different ideas about curriculum matters and curriculum development
processes. They have different points of view about curriculum concerns, goals of what a curriculum
should accomplish, and how a curriculum should be designed or constructed. These explain the presence
of various curriculum orientations or conceptions. McNeil (2006), Eisner (1985), and Print (1993)
identified six curriculum conceptions:

 Academic Rationalist Conception - considered as the oldest among the curriculum conceptions.
It stresses the importance of different bodies of knowledge, known as disciplines or subject areas,
as the focus of the curriculum.
 Cognitive Processes Conception - seeks to develop a repertoire of cognitive skills that are
applicable to a wide range of intellectual problems. The subject matters are instruments or tools
for developing these cognitive skills that are lasting in the lives of individuals.
 Humanistic Conception - stresses the idea that curriculum or education is an instrument for
developing the full potential of individuals. It seeks to help individuals discover and develop their
unique identities. It stresses that curriculum should focus on the needs and interests of
individuals.
 Social Reconstructionist Conception - views the school or schooling as an agency for social
change. Hence, it stresses that curriculum should respond to the different needs, issues, problems,
and demands of the society.
 Technological Conception - is preoccupied with the development of means to achieve
curriculum or educational goals. It views schooling as a complex system that can be analyzed into
its constituent components.
  Eclectic Conception - is where curriculum workers find themselves aligning their ideas with two
or more curriculum conceptions.

Hence, this curriculum conception reiterates the realities in curriculum development that each of the
curriculum conceptions is to be considered and is influential to a certain extent' in designing the
curriculum.

Elements of a Curriculum

In general, a curriculum has four important elements. These elements must be present in all curriculum
documents or before a document can be called curriculum. These four elements are curriculum intent,
content, learning experiences, and evaluation.

Figure 1. Curriculum Elements

 Curriculum Intent - is the term used by Print (1993) to mean the direction that curriculum
developers wish to take as a result of participating in the curriculum. It includes the aims, goals,
and objectives found in any curriculum documents.
o Aims - are the broad statements of social or educational expectations. Aims include what is
hoped to be achieved by the entire curriculum.
o Goals - are statements more specific than aims. Goals are general statements of what concepts,
skills, and values should be learned in the curriculum.
o Objectives- are specific learning outcomes. Objectives include what specific concepts, skills, and
values should be learned by the students. Usually, objectives are used in making decisions or
planning about instruction.
 Content - These topics are based on the curriculum intents. Contents may include values,
concepts, or skills that are important for the learners to learn.

 Learning Experiences - include all instructional strategies that are useful for the implementation
of the curriculum. These may appear in the form of activities, strategies, methods, or approaches
that are useful in implementing the curriculum or in teaching the content.

 Evaluation - includes the different ways and tools used for evaluating whether or not the
curriculum intents were realized. Evaluation tools are also used to evaluate the performance of
the learners after they have undergone the curriculum. Hilda Taba (1962) observed that all
curricula, no matter what design they have, are composed of certain elements:
A curriculum usually contains a statement of aims and specific objectives. It indicates some selection and
organization of content. It either implies or manifests certain patterns of learning and teaching, whether
because the objectives demand them or because the content organization requires them.

It includes a program of evaluation of the outcomes.

Understanding especially the teachers different in designing elements curriculum of curriculum and in
analyzing will help the curriculum different workers curriculum materials that are offered to schools and
students

Lesson 2: Curriculum Planning

2.1 Curriculum Sources and Influences

2.1 Curriculum Sources and Influences 

Tyler (1949) identified three major sources of curriculum: subject matter, society, and learners.
Accordingly, these curriculum sources need to be considered and examined to identify the four elements
of curriculum: goals, content, learning experiences, and evaluation. It is important to understand the
nature of the subject matter in order to provide knowledge and skills that are essential to the nature of the
discipline. This also helps in selecting and designing curriculum contents. 

Likewise, it is important to have a clear understanding of the nature of society in developing a curriculum.
This provides a more comprehensive idea of the needs, demands, and problems of the society, and the
available resources that can be utilized in the development and implementation of the curriculum (Tyler,
1949). In short, society, as one of the curriculum sources, provides information about the context in which
the curriculum will be used. This is important to make the curriculum more relevant and responsive. 

Understanding the nature of the learners is also important in curriculum development. Understanding the
learners includes knowing their needs, nature, and interests, learning styles, and thinking styles. It also
includes knowing the various issues and problems about them, The learners are the direct subjects of the
school curriculum. Hence, making the learners as one of the curriculum sources is important in selecting
the learning experiences for the curriculum (Tyler, 1949).
Tyler (1949)

2.1.1 Society as a Source of Curriculum 

Society is an important source of curriculum. Teachers need to understand the cultural, socio-economic,
and political conditions of the people. Understanding the context is important in developing a relevant
and responsive curriculum (Tyler, 1949; Nicholls & Nicholls, 1978). It is useful in selecting curriculum
goals and objectives, content, and learning experiences (Taba, 1962; Stark & Lattuca, 1997; Oliva,
2005). 

There are many changes in the society that need to be considered in the curriculum. Science and
technology continue to influence our everyday life as new science findings, new technology, and new
information come in almost every single minute of a day. The new world of economy also has its own
issues and demands. For example, 21st century skills and new forms of knowledge should be developed
in the curriculum in order to develop a world-class workforce. 

In addition, the society is becoming multilingual and multicultural. Developing cultural understanding
and socio-cultural consciousness among the learners is becoming a necessity. Other pressing social issues
like climate change, security problems, diseases, poverty, and many others also affect the everyday life of
people. 

Educators and schools face the challenge whether they will simply respond to the needs and demands of
the society or have education through its curriculum in order to develop or create the kind of society that
everyone wishes to have. There is a need to put a balance between pursuing the utopian goals of
education and its practical or economic goals.
 

2.1.2 Learners as Source of Curriculum 

Knowledge about the learners is one of the major sources of the curriculum. Although the curriculum
content is set by the Department of Education (DepEd), Commission on Higher Education (CHED), or
the Technical Education Skills Development Authority (TESDA), educators and curriculum developers
have tried to align the curriculum to the needs and nature of the students. This process is done when
faculty members plan their individual syllabi, unit plans, and lesson plans as an interpretation of the
intended curriculum. 

As students come from different provinces, they have different cultures, languages, learning styles, needs,
and types and levels of motivation. The students are also different in terms of socio-economic status and
educational backgrounds (public or private). For these, the students, as one major source of curriculum,
are supported by several curriculum scholars and are well-represented in their curriculum development
models (Taba, 1962; Wheeler, 1967; Walker, 1972; Skilbeck, 1976; Nicholls, 1978; Print, 1993; Stark &
Lattuca, 1997; Oliva, 2005).

2.1.3 Discipline or Subject Matter as Source of Curriculum 

Tyler (1949) identified the nature of the discipline or subject matter as one of the main sources of
curriculum. Different subjects are unique in terms of design and content. There are specific skills and
contents that should be emphasized in each of the disciplines. In some cases, there are similarities in
skills, concepts, and strands in different subjects that may be possible points for integration. 

Understanding the nature of the discipline or subject matter requires educators to closely analyze the
contents prescribed by the Department of Education especially the K-12 Curriculum. The curriculum
framework, curriculum goals, descriptions, standards, and competencies in different subjects will help
educators understand what should be taught and how to teach the different subjects. 

The Commission on Higher Education also prescribes guidelines in different courses. Several curricular
innovations and changes set by the government were considered and strictly followed in designing the
official curriculum of a particular school, college, or university. The curricular requirements that include
course title, course credit, and course descriptions are based on the CHED Memorandum Orders (CMOs)
which CHED issued for different courses. For example CMO No. 20 Series of 2013 included the general
education program for all undergraduate courses or programs in the Philippines. 

Technical Education Skills Development Authority (TESDA) also prescribes different contents of the
modules offered for each particular subject for vocational or technical courses. The skills that should be
learned including the materials needed and the time that is required for training are clearly specified in
each module

2.2 Curriculum Influences

2.2 Curriculum Influences 

Aside from the major curriculum sources, Stark and Lattuca (1997) identified three major factors that
influence curriculum development: external, internal, and organizational influences (see Figure 2). Stark
and Lattuca used the term curriculum influences to refer to these three factors that are very influential in
curriculum development. According to them, these curriculum influences affect the whole academic plan
that incorporates a total blueprint for action, including the purposes, activities, and ways of measuring
success.

Figure 2. Factors Affecting Academic Planning (Stark & Lattuca, 1997)

Understanding the different curriculum influences is useful in knowing the different factors that are
needed to be considered in developing a curriculum. It provides the sources of data and information for
developing curriculum. Knowing these curriculum influences is useful in making the curriculum more
relevant and responsive to the educational system of the Philippines. 

A research on curriculum influences conducted by Pawilen (2011) shows the results of the Focus Group
Discussion (FGD) with the faculty members and administrators who identified several curriculum
influences that they always consider whenever they plan, design, develop, revise, and evaluate the
curriculum. These identified curriculum influences are shown in Table I. They affect curriculum
processes in the school level.

Table 1. Curriculum Influences

Student/Learners

College Philosophy, Vision and Mission

 K-12 Basic Education Curriculum

Admission, and Retention Policies, and School Rules

Faculty members

School administrators

Requirements from government agencies

Licensure examinations (for Higher Education)

Accreditation standards

Market demands and Student Services

Alumni and funding sources

Media and Information and Communication Technologies (ICT)

Church and church-related agencies (for religious schools)

School facilities and other resources

Other disciplines or courses and programs offered by the school

2.2.1 Students 

The students are considered as the most influential among the different curriculum influences especially
in designing the implemented curriculum. Learners have different interests, needs, talents, abilities,
learning styles, and thinking preferences. All these are important in course planning. Teachers believe that
the students could learn more if their interest and learning styles are considered when planning their
courses. Many students want a variety of learning experiences in their classes and practical application of
their lessons in real-life situations. 

They came from different families with different cultures, religious affiliations, beliefs, language, and
socio-economic status. When teachers plan their courses, they always keep these in mind. They recognize
that their previous experiences with the students, including the students' performance in class, are sources
of valuable information about the students' capabilities. Many teachers observe during their classes that
students' backgrounds, especially their demographic characteristics, influence their attitude and
performance toward learning. Thus, students bring with them their culture in the school. 

For college, the academic background of the students is influential in curriculum planning. As students
took up their basic education in either public or private schools in their provinces, their academic skills
and learning habits differ from those of the city. For instance, some students have poor communication
skills because of poor background in English education in their basic education.

 
2.2.2 School's Vision, Mission, and Core Values 

The school vision, mission, and core values are very influential factors in developing the curriculum.
They are the fundamental bases in developing the four elements of curriculum goals and objectives,
content, learning experiences, and evaluation. These three factors are included in all the lesson plans or
course syllabi to ensure that the core values of the institution are included in the syllabi. 

The vision, mission, and core values of the school are also reflected in the planned, implemented, and
hidden curriculum of the school. All faculty members are required to reflect this type of education in their
teaching, lesson plans, and in the syllabus. The vision, mission, and core values of the school are
reflections of what the institution can contribute to the society and to the development of individuals.
Students and alumni are expected to possess the core values of their schools.

2.2.3 Admission and Retention Policies 

The third influential factor is the admission and retention policies. These policies set the standard of what
kind of students are admitted and what are the things they need to do as students of the institution until
they graduate. This is an important part of the intended and implemented curriculum. School rules are set
to give order and provide smooth implementation of the curriculum. Rules also develop the hidden
curriculum of the school.

2.2.4 Faculty Members 

The influence of faculty members is also considered important. Faculty members bring with them their
educational background, experiences, expertise, and personal, professional, and political views on the
institution. They also have different interests, teaching styles, and philosophies, which influence the way
they plan, develop, and implement the curriculum. 

In basic education, teachers take the role of a second parent to their students. Many students believe in
what they say and teach. They are not only seen as models of high ethical life-students and other people
also see them as intellectuals in various subject areas. 

In the college level, teachers are seen as experts in their fields. They are expected to know more about
their subjects. The academic freedom enjoyed by faculty members also allows them to modify and plan
their syllabi based on their expertise and researches. The behaviors of the faculty members also influence
the hidden curriculum in college. Sometimes their students take their professional and personal views on
certain issues seriously as a principle. 

Teachers, as recognized by Stark and Latucca (1997), are a major influence in curriculum development.
They are the key implementers of the curriculum. The success of any curriculum and instruction highly
depends on them. They need to be empowered to make curricular and instructional innovations in their
own schools. Teachers are expected to be experts in the content of the subjects they teach. They should
also be experts in pedagogy.
 

2.2.5 School Administrators and Board of Trustees 

The influence of school officials and the school bureaucracy in curriculum processes were recognized by
several curriculum scholars like Wiles and Bondi (2006), and Stark and Latucca (1997), among others.
School administrators, including the board of trustees, play an important role in providing curriculum
leadership in schools, colleges, and universities. Apart from setting and approving rules for the school,
they administer the planning, implementation, and evaluation of the curriculum. The administrators then
serve as the curriculum and instructional leaders. They provide administrative and leadership support for
the implementation of the curriculum. Their abilities and skills as curriculum leaders and managers are
essential in curriculum development, implementation, and evaluation (Wiles & Bondi, 2006). Oliva
(2005) considered them as part of the entire team of curriculum workers in an institution. The academic
preparation and previous experiences of the administrators can also be noted to influence the development
of the curriculum.

2.2.6 Accrediting Agencies 

Accrediting agencies are equally influential in basic education and in higher education. Like the DepEd
and CHED, the accrediting agencies set the necessary standards for curriculum, instruction, faculty, and
facilities, and influence how the curricular programs are governed. Accrediting agencies determine the
quality of the courses being offered in an institution. As such, many schools especially private schools try
their best to improve the governance and implementation of their various curricular and co-curricular
programs. 

Some accrediting agencies in the Philippines are the Association of Christian Schools, Colleges, and
Universities Accrediting Agency Incorporation (ACSCU-AAI), Philippine Accrediting Association of
Schools, Colleges, and Universities (PAASCU), and the Accrediting Agency for Chartered Colleges and
Universities in the Philippines (AACCUP). These accrediting bodies are in charge of evaluating the
quality of education for each member institution based on criteria set by the accrediting agency.

2.2.7 Government Policies and Agencies 

The respondents identified government policies and agencies as most influential in curriculum planning
and development. In basic education, the Department of Education issues Department Orders (DOs) and
memoranda that serve as guide for all public and private schools in the country. The Department of
Education also prescribes the official curriculum for basic education and issues the guidelines for
operations for private schools. 

For tertiary education, the CHED, through its series of memorandum orders, prescribes the minimum
general education and professional courses, course credits, and course descriptions to be taken by the
students. The CHED also prescribes the faculty qualifications, facilities, and other requirements for the
implementation and administration of the courses.
 

2.2.8 Market Demands (General) 

Market demands or the needs of the society are very influential in planning and developing curriculum. It
is imperative that students are prepared in terms of knowledge, values, and skills to meet the needs and
demands of different institutions in the society. For example, graduates are expected to develop or possess
21st century skills. They are expected to be technologically literate. They are also expected to develop
various literacies including functional literacy. Schools are expected to develop graduates that can be
assets and good citizens of the society.

2.2.9 Alumni 

The alumni are also considered as one of the external influences on curriculum development. The alumni
are very helpful in terms of donating money to support programs for students, faculty scholarships,
professorial chairs, facilities, and financing students' activities. Besides financial help, their comments or
their evaluation feedback based on their previous experiences as students are very useful information for
improving the implemented curriculum of the school. The alumni are the living testimony of the
curriculum or the quality of education offered by a particular school.

2.2.10 Media and Information and Communications Technologies (ICT) 

Media and Information and Communications Technologies (ICT) are two of the external curriculum
influences. The presence of technology, especially the Internet, enables students and teachers to access
almost all the information they need for teaching and learning. This allows students and faculty members
to access online journals, papers, and other information from the Internet to be used for teaching and
learning. Technology connects the school to the global community. 

In as much as ICT is changing the landscape of schooling, it is also changing how the courses are planned
and implemented, especially how the content of the curriculum will be put together. Although it is
expensive to have full ICT integration in schools, school administrators try their best to achieve this goal.
Computers, LCD projectors, Internet facilities, and other forms of technology are made available for
instructional purposes in the school.

2.2.11 The Church and Church-related Agencies 

For religious schools, the different religious orders and the church play an important role in school. Many
religious institutions serve as extension programs or mission programs of the churches and religious
orders that established them. The schools also offer institutional requirements such as Bible subjects,
theology, and Christian Living subjects. These subjects are required to all students. Religious schools also
offer retreats, chapel services, and other religious activities to their students.
 

2.2.12 School Facilities and Other Resources 

School facilities and other resources are very important in the implementation of ne curriculum. The
respondents explained that school facilities like classrooms, libraries, laboratories, ICT equipment,
dormitories, school clinics, counseling office, canteen, chapel for sectarian schools, and laboratories are
very useful in providing quality education, especially in implementing the curriculum.

2.2.13 Student Services 

The last among the influences are the existing student services or existing student support system
institutionalized by the schools. Among these services are the following:

Campus Ministry - helps in the spiritual nourishment of the students in sectarian schools

Guidance and Counseling Services - provides professional help to students with various personal and
psychological concerns

Health Services - responds to various health-related concerns of the students through a clinic with full-
time health workers

Financial Assistance and Scholarships - provides financial assistance to deserving students

Student Affairs Office - guides the students in organizing activities and provides all forms of support for
academic and personal development of the students in the school 

These curriculum influences and sources are very important in curriculum development. Responding to
these curriculum sources and influences helps curriculum workers and developers in planning,
developing, and implementing a relevant and responsive curriculum for different learners and schools.
They help everyone involved in and affected by a curriculum understand the context in which one is
developed. Moreover, when evaluating a curriculum, these curriculum sources and influences are the ones
that are looked into and reviewed.
 Lesson 3: Curriculum Design
3.1 Definition of Curriculum Design

Curriculum design refers to the arrangement of the elements of a curriculum. These four elements
are intent (aims, goals, and objectives); subject matter or content; learning experiences; and
evaluation. In many books, curriculum design is used interchangeably with curriculum organization.
Posner (1997) provided an enlightening idea on how to differentiate these two related terms in
curriculum as he classified the activity of arranging curriculum elements or contents into two.
According to him, there is a macro and a micro level of organizing curriculum contents

The macro level deals with arranging or organizing the total curriculum from the philosophy down to
the contents of different subjects(p-down approach) . The micro level on the other hand, deals with
organizing the content of a specific subject or discipline . The macro level of arranging the elements
and contents of the curriculum can be referred to as function of curriculum design while the micro
level is a function of curriculum organization. However, it is important to note that curriculum
 organization is based on the curriculum design. Curriculum design provides a philosophical way of
organizing the contents and elements for the curriculum

3.2 Different Curriculum Designs

Print (1988) classified the different curriculum designs in four groups. According to him, all
curriculum designs can be classified as subject-centered, learner-centered, problem-centered, or core
learning designs:

1. Subject-centered Designs. Majority of the curricula used in schools are arranged or organized in terms
of subjects. Thus, the subject-centered design is the most popular among the four types of curriculum
designs. The subject-centered design is classified into three specific designs.

a. Subject Design. The curriculum is organized in terms of subjects like Mathematics, Science,

Filipino, English, and other subjects. Most of these subjects are offered in the elementary level.
The subjects are organized in a fragmented manner(hiwalay-hiwalay tine-take ang mga subjects).
Connections between and among these subjects are not emphasized in the subject design. Instead,
the nature of the subject is highlighted in this design to provide students with a general
knowledge of each subject.

Math            Science         Filipino           English

 b. Academic Disciplines Design. Like the subject design, this type of design organizes the curriculum in
terms of disciplines like Algebra, Physics,  Chemistry, Literature, Economics, Philippine History, and
other disciplines. This type of design is mostly used in high school or in college. The contents are highly
specialized particularly in the college level.

Biology           Algebra           Earth Science        Economics

 c. Integrated Design. This curriculum design is based on the principle that learners learn in an
integrated manner(pinasukan ang subject na science sa Filipino). Thus, this type of curriculum
design tries to merge two or more related subjects. Basically, there are three types of integration:

 c.1 Interdisciplinary - includes the merging of two related disciplines or subjects. An

example is the integration of Science and Health. Educators believe these two are naturally
integrated. One needs science knowledge in order to understand health concepts.

 c.2 Multidisciplinary or broad fields - includes the integration of three or more related
disciplines. An example is the Social Studies curriculum. This subject integrates civics,
history, culture, and economics.

 c.3. Core - requires that all subjects or disciplines in the school curriculum be put together
using a single theme. Usually, this type of integrated curriculum design is used in preschool
where subjects are combined using curriculum themes.

 
2. Learner-centered Designs. Learner-centered designs focus on the needs, nature, and interests of the
learners in the curriculum. The aim of these designs is to develop the potentials and abilities of the
learners and making the curriculum relevant and responsive to them.

a. Activity/Experience Design. This concentrates on activities that are meaningful and

interesting to the learners. In doing these activities learners will develop various skills like
process skills, communication skills, problem solving, critical thinking, and creativity that are
important for the learners.

b. Humanistic Design. The curriculum is composed of topics and learning experiences that focus
on the holistic development of an individual. It also addresses the needs and nature of the
learners. The goal of this design is the development of a well-rounded individual.(first aid,

3. Problem-centered Designs. These curriculum designs focus on understanding and finding solutions to

individual and social issues and problems. They require students to use their skills and knowledge of
different subjects and disciplines as they engage themselves in meaningful learning of various social and
individual problems like poverty, climate change, peace and order or terrorism, diseases, traffic, and
economic recession, among others.

a. Thematic Design. This design suggests the thematic approach to integration. Almost all models
advocate this approach. The only thing that is different is the main focus of the theme. Some models give
emphasis on human activities as the themes of study while others use different topics that are interesting
to students. Themes can either be concepts, guided questions, activities, or standards and skills but the
purposes and goals are all intended to provide an education that is holistic, meaningful, and relevant to the
life of the learner.

b. Problem Design. The learners are exposed to different lessons in problem solving involving real-life
problems. By doing problem-solving activities, the learners are exposed to some practical situations or
issues that are important to them and to their community.

4. Core Learning Designs. These curriculum designs focus on learning a set of common subjects,
disciplines, courses, skills, or knowledge that is necessary for students to master. It aims to provide a
uniform type of education based on a certain philosophy or educational theory. The core curriculum
began in the early part of the 20th century in the United States as an experiment on liberal higher
education and it remains vibrant until now. The central theme of this curriculum design is not just to
provide common learning to students. It also aims to provide an education that is transformative and
relevant to all types of learners. Furthermore, it aims to develop a habit of mind or cultivate the critical
and creative thinking of students that they can employ in their everyday life.

a. Core Design. This is a set of common subjects, disciplines, or courses that are required for students to
study before they graduate or move to a different level.

b. National Core Curriculum Design. This is a set of subjects or courses that are required to be taught to
all students across the country. The national core curriculum is prescribed by the state through the
Department of Education or the Commission on Higher Education. Examples of national core curriculum
 designs are the General Education Curriculum for undergraduate courses and the K-12 Curriculum for
basic education.

Curriculum Designs Summary Map

3.3 Things to Consider in Designing Curriculum

There are two major forces considered in designing curriculum. These are the horizontal
and vertical organizations.
 Horizontal Organization - is often referred to as the scope and horizontal integration that is concerned with the arrangement of
curriculum components at any point in time (Print, 1993). For example, it asks about the relationship between Geography, History,
Economics, and Civics in elementary Social Studies curriculum. It focuses on establishing relationships and integration among subject areas
in elementary or secondary curriculum.
 Vertical Organization - focuses on the spiral progression of curriculum contents. For example,
what skills, concepts, and values should be taught in Science from Grade I to Grade VI. It
focuses on the distribution of curriculum contents from kindergarten to Grade 12 (K-12). Looking
at the spiral progression of curriculum content enables teachers to focus on developing
students' mastery of the content by examining prerequisite knowledge and skills in learning
different subjects.


3.4 Sequencing Curriculum Content

Sequencing curriculum content is essential in curriculum design. Sequence is
defined as the order in which contents are presented to the learners (Print, 1993).
Traditionally, contents are sequenced based on the nature of the subjects and
disciplines they belong. They are also organized according to a specific curriculum
design principle or philosophy.
 Print (1993) identified the following design principles that are most commonly
used to sequence the curriculum contents:
 Simple to Complex - this is traditionally applied to disciplines like Math, Language, Science, or Music.
The topics are arranged in a progressive spiral sequence.
 Prerequisite Learning - this principle is followed in subjects and courses that largely
consist of laws and principles like Geometry, Algebra, and Physics. To understand the
laws and principles, students should learn the basic prerequisite knowledge and
concepts. (Hindi ka makakapagtake ng MNCPE 2 kung di mo pa natae ang MNCPE1)
 Chronology - this design principle suggests sequencing of content according to
chronology of events. History is an example.
 Whole-to-Part Learning - this is a deductive approach to designing contents. One must
see the big picture of ideas to understand the specific concepts and skills.
 Increasing Abstraction - content can be sequenced according to the idea or principle
that a student can learn most effectively if the concept or skill is related or relevant to
own personal experiences.