COAL EXPLORATION III

GEOPHYSICAL EXPLORATION

Prof(Dr)Uday Kumar
Ex- Head, University Department of Geology
Ranchi University, Ranchi
kumaruday10@gmail.com
Paper:PGGLGE309B1 Unit :IV
Geophysics in Coal Exploration
• Geophysical methods of exploration measures the physical properties of the subsurface material
in response to natural or machine generated energy along with the anomalies in those properties.
• The technique used in the exploration programme are normally those that give broad scale
information on a large area at relatively low cost.
• These include airborne magnetometer investigation, regional gravity surveys and broad scale
seismic studies, used to delineate the sedimentary and structural framework of the area involved.
• Together with the result of fields mapping, the data from these techniques can be used to draw up
the most appropriate drilling programme to further test the value of the deposits.
• Geophysical techniques can be applied for identification of sub-surface structure, strata sequence,
coal seam in-crop, occurrences of intrusions, etc.
• During mining activities it is of great help in identification of geological fractures, particularly in
longwall mining method.
• Even in the abandoned areas especially in water filled zones, it helps in designing of future mining
activities .
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF ROCKS
Lithology Density (wet) Seismic Magnetic susceptibility Electrical resistivity

(g cm−3) velociy (×10 SI units) ( m)

Range Average (km s−1 ) Range Average Range
Sandstone 1.61–2.76 2.35 3.6 0–20 0.4 1–6.4 × 108
Shale 1.77–3.20 2.40 2.8 0.01–15 0.6 20–2 × 103
Limestone 1.93–2.90 2.55 5.5 0–3 0.3 50–1 × 107
Lignite 1.10–1.25 1.19 9–200

Bituminous Coal 1.20–1.80 1.32 1.8–2.8 – 0.02 0.6–1 × 105

Anthracite 1.34–1.80 1.50 1.8–2.8 – 0.02 1 × 10−3 –2 × 105
Acid Igneous rock 2.30–3.11 2.61 4.0–5.5 0–80 8.0 4.5 × 103 (wet granite)
1.3 × 106 (dry granite)
Basic Igneous rock 2.09–3.17 2.79 4.0–7.0 0.5–100 25.0 20–5 × 107 (dolerite)

Metamorphic rock 2.40–3.10 2.74 5.0–7.0 0–70 4.2 20–1 × 104 (schist)
BASIS FOR USE OF PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF
ROCKS in GEOPHYSICAL INVESTIGATIONS
• Physical properties of coal and its associated rocks show marked
variations.
• Density difference between coal and associated sedimentary rocks
like sandstone and shale is quite distinct.
• Similarly seismic wave velocities between them are also markedly
distinct.
• Similar is the case with magnetic susceptibility and electrical
resistivity too.
Geophysical Techniques in Coal Exploration
• Geophysical methods are now utilised in coal mining around the
world. The range of applications in both surface and underground
mining is extensive.
• Applications include coal seam mapping and geological fault
detection, lithological mapping, geotechnical evaluation, assessment
of the rock mass response to mining, detection of voids, location of
trapped miners and guidance of drills and mining equipment.
• The range of techniques that can be employed is also extensive and
includes geophysical borehole logging, the potential field methods,
seismic reflection (2D and 3D), resistivity, electromagnetics and
microseismic monitoring using active and passive sources.
Seismic Reflection Survey
• Seismic reflection studies involve the input of shock wave energy into the ground ,by blast of
detonator in borehole or striking on ground by shock hammers or creating vibrations, the reflection
of that energy from an appropriate interface and recording of the reflected waves on suitably located
receiver called Geophones.
• A Distance of Geophones vs Time of arrival of seismic waves Curve help in identification as well as
depth of the reflecting surface of the subsurface lithounit.This method clearly differentiate a coal
seam from the overlying sandstone layer.
• High Resolution Seismic Survey (HRSS) is very useful in detailed coal exploration specially for mapping
of underground geological features like faults, fold, wash-outs, rolls,dips, channel sands, layer of coal
seams and others. This is the only method capable of indicating a subsurface fault throw of the order
of a few centimeters at depth of a few hundred meters.
• High Resolution Shallow Seismic Survey (HRSSS)is widely used to identify such features in
underground mines.
• Along with Surface Resistivity and Seismic Refraction survey it is very useful for coal seam incrop
delineation, overburden estimation and locating ground water region at a shallow depth.
• These inexpensive surveys help in reducing the number of exploratory borehole to be drilled in virgin
areas.
Seismic Reflection Survey Technique
Devices for Seismic Wave Generation
Vibroseis: Seismic wave generator by Accelarated Weight Drop device for
vibration Seismic wave generation
Integrated Seismic Vibroseis System
Time-Distance Curve to Identify Reflection
Interfaces
Coal Seam Marked by Reflection Interfaces
Seismic Profiling and Deciphered Structure

Seismic Profile Deciphered Subsurface Structure

X X
Glacial boulder clay

Clay
Lignite
Weathered basalt
Clay

Shallow seismic reflection survey Interpretation of seismic section clearly showing

interbedded lignite and underlying basalt
Fault and Coal Seams in 3D Reflection Images
1.The 3 D seismic reflection log
help in identification of coal seams
and associated structural features
like Faults.

2.Seimic Logs help in coal Seam

correlation in the same way as
lithology obtained from core
drilling.

3D view: tracing the main fault across profiles REFL-1 and REFL-5 after fault
correlation to the existing workings and drilling information.
3 D SEISMIC TOMOGRAPHY

3D seismic surveys allow display not only of colour seismic sections but also colour time and horizontal
slices ,thereby helping to detect the areas without coal, old coal workings and especially coal seam
faults A fault is seen in section
3D and 4D Seismic Reflection Survey
• These three-dimensional seismic surveys display not only colour seismic
sections but also horizontal slices ,thereby helping to detect the areas
without coal, old coal workings and especially coal seam faults.
• In addition to three-dimensional seismic reflection surveys, the use of
time-lapse seismic surveys referred to as four-dimensional seismic(4 D ),
is increasing in order to determine underground mining subsidence
(Goulty, 2008) and gas migration, and to identify geological conditions
pertaining to hydrocarbon reservoirs and the suitability for sequestration
of atmospheric CO2 in deeper coal seams to combat global warming.
Gravity Methods
• The irregular distribution of rock masses of different densities in the crust gives
rise to local and regional variation i.e. higher (Positive anomaly) or
lower(Negative anamoly) with respect to the calculated earth’s gravitational field
of the specific place. The marked density differences between coal and
associated coal-bearing sediments help in their identification.
• Areas with an anomalously high gravitational field generally have large masses of
relatively dense material close to the ground surface.
• A low gravitational field, on the other hand is commonly associated with an
accumulation of less dense material, such as a thick succession of sedimentary
strata.
• The magnitude and form of the anomaly in each case is a function of the shape,
orientation and depth of the feature concerned, together with contrast in density
between the different materials involved.
• The results of a gravity survey are usually supplemented by additional geological
data such as density determinations on rock samples and field mapping data.
• Gravity survey helps in identification of Depth of Rock Column and Depth of
Basement Rock in a Sedimentary Basin.
 GRAVITY METER

Gravity Meter or Gravimeter are

basically a spring balance carrying a
constant mass.Variation in the weight
of mass due to variation in gravity
causes the length of the spring to vary
which results in changes in amount of
gravity.
Drone Operated Magnetometer
Magnetic Methods
• The strength of magnetic polarization depends principally on the magnetic
susceptibility of the material concerned, which in turn largely related to the
abundance of specific components such as magnetite or ilmenite, among the
mineral present.
• Most sedimentary rocks have low magnetic susceptibilities.
• The susceptibility of crystalline basement rocks tends to be somewhat higher,
while mafic and ultramafic igneous bodies usually exhibit particularly high
susceptibility values.
• Magnetic methods are based on mapping out these anomalies, using ground
based or aerial equipment to measure either the total intensity or the vertical
component of the field at point across the study area.
• It helps in identification and delineation of intrusives(e.g. Lamprophyre or
Dolerite dykes intrusives in Godwana Sedimentaries).Also Metamorphic
boundaries in and around sedimentary basin are confirmed by this method.
Total magnetic field profile and geological
cross-section
62 000

61 500

61 000

60500
Lignite W7

Lignite W6

0 100 200 300 400

Distance (m)
Electrical Resistivity
• The resistance of the rock strata to electric currents depends partly on the
minerals involved and partly on the fluids present in the rock’s pore spaces.
• Under laboratory conditions, sub-bituminous and bituminous coals are highly
resistive.
• Shales,limestones and sandstones generally have lower resistivities, and such
contrasts form the basis for the application of electrical resistivity techniques to
coal exploration.
• Two types of electrical resistivity surveys, namely Electrical Resistivity Profiling
[EPR] and Vertical Electrical Soundings [VES], are conducted .
• The, EPR, has been found useful for delineation of seam in-crop, demarcation of
sedimentary- metamorphic boundaries and delineation of faults.
• The VES method is being used for basement studies and to locate ground water
resources in order to obtain hydro-geological inputs. It is of great help in
deciphering he depth of water saturated horizons.
Electromagnetic (Magneto Telluric) methods
• This method is focused on inferring the Earth’s subsurface electrical conductivity from
measurements of natural geomagnetic and geoelectric field variation at the Earth's
surface. Electromagnetic methods of geophysical exploration are based on the
production of a time varying electromagnetic fields by an alternating or pulsed electric
current in a suitably laid out the conductor at the ground surface or in the air above.
• Magnetic bodies existing below the surface of the earth contribute to the magnetic field
of the earth. This contribution is directly proportional to the same power of the depth of
its occurrence. The magnetic susceptibility is the controlling physical property in this
method.
• Investigation depth ranges from 300 m below ground by recording higher frequencies
down to 10,000 m or deeper with long-period soundings.
• By the study of magnetic anomalies with magnetometers, the anomalus objectives are
located.
• MT is mainly used as a complement to the primary technique of Seismic
Reflection method.
Geophysical Logging of Drilled Boreholes
• Geophysical borehole logging can play an important role in the digital mining age as it can help to
establish reliable geological and geotechnical models required for safe and productive mining
operations.
• The geophysical well logging techniques provide detailed records of lithological units encountered
in the boreholes, thus identifying the coal seams and thickness of each horizon correlation is
useful; in coal exploration or related formation, which continues to be present in section
separated by large horizontal distance .
• Geophysical well logs can be used to identify coal beds unique physical properties including low
density, low natural radioactivity, high resistance and resistivity
• Core drilling is expensive and in many cases the core cannot be fully recovered. In such cases,
geophysical logging could be an alternative way to provide the required information from non-
cored boreholes. The geophysical logging usually less costly per meters than fully cored holes, a
greater number of them can be drilled for an equivalent total cost
• Geophysical well logging can provide information on the existence, continuity, thickness, and
correlation of shallow to deep buried coal seams and unknown coal seams areas that have not yet
been fully explored.
GEOPHYSICAL MOBILE WELL LOGGER

Multi parametric
well logging PROBE
includes resistivity,
natural gamma,
density,neutron,
sonic and caliper
logs.
Subsurface Borehole Logging Probe
Density Logs
• Density logging is based on the response of the strata around the hole to
incident gamma rays, derived from a well shielded source, such as Caesium
137, incorporated in the Sonde.
• Depending on the energy level used, this radiation can have one or more
of the following effects as it encounters the nuclei of the atoms in beds
concerned.
• a. Photoelectric effect: At relatively low energy levels, the gamma ray
photons are completely absorbed, causing electrons (beta particles) to be
ejected in the process.
• b. Compton Recoil effect : At higher energy levels, the gamma rays may be
partly backscattered and processed in a different direction at lower energy.
An electron is also ejected in the process.
• c. Pair Production effect :At still higher energy levels, the incident gamma
ray is annihilated and an electron position pair is produced
Long Spaced Density log response to coal
Sandstone

Shale

Coal

Limestone

Inferior
coal

Shale

Salt

Anhydrite
Gamma – Ray Logging
• The most abundant elements with radioactive isotope are potassium,
which is found in mica, feldspar and some clay minerals.
• Strata with major proportions of these minerals, such as shales have
significantly higher levels of natural radioactivity than potassium poor
strata, such as quartz sandstone and coal.
• In Gamma ray logging, a Sonde containing a sensitive scintillation counter
is passed slowly up the hole, recording the natural radioactivity of the
surrounding beds. The apparatus is calibrated against a standard source
prior to use.
• Coal seams are distinguished by having very low gamma values. Shaly
coals give a somewhat high level of activity, however , and may be
indistinguishable on the gamma log alone, from sandstone or other strata.
• Mafic igneous intrusive rocks within coaliferous sedimentary also give
low gamma ray values, but potassium rich felsic rocks give a much stronger.
Black, partly marine shale commonly exhibit very high level of gamma ray
activity if small amount of uranium or thorium are present.
Gamma Ray Log and Density
Log correlation of rock units
with their Litholog
Neutron Logging
• Neutron passing through a rock body are slowed or even captured by the
atomic nuclei in their path. Neutron logging is based on measuring the
reduction in energy of these particles in different rock types, or the gamma
radiation emitted from the strata as a result of neutron capture.
• The sonde consists of a neutron source, coupled with either a neutron counter
(for neutron-neutron logging) or a gamma ray detector (neutron –gamma
logging).
• Atomic nuclei of low mass, such as those of hydrogen, produced the greatest
energy loss in bombarding neutron. In slowing them down they also provide
more opportunity for neutron capture by other elements.
• Most of the hydrogen in sedimentary sequences occurs as water in pores or as
part of the clay minerals and the neutron log is commonly used to identify
rock types on the basis of their porosity.
Resistivity logging
• Coal possesses high resistivity, but in boreholes coal is difficult to distinguish from
many rock types. Single point resistance log and self potential logs have been
superseded by the gamma ray log due to the latter’s reliability in a variety of
borehole conditions .
• Focused resistivity logs are designed to direct most of their energy through the
mud cake and as far into the surrounding rocks as possible.
• They are less affected by the mud cake or bore fluid, they give more accurate
representation of the resistivity of the strata than the conventional resistivity
techniques
• Its application include (i) indications of lithology, (ii) facies and electro-facies
analysis, (iii)Strata correlation, (iv) determination of shale porosity, (v)
indications of compaction, and the investigation of source rocks.
• Resistivity logs can distinguish coal that is burnt close to an intrusion, or is
oxidized due to weathering.
Caliper Log
• Caliper log is a well logging tool that provides a continuous measurement
of the size and shape of a borehole along its depth
• The caliper tool measures the variation in borehole diameter as it is
withdrawn from the bottom of the hole, using two or more articulated
arms that push against the borehole wall.
• Each arm is typically connected to a potentiometer which causes the
resistance to change as the diameter of the borehole changes, creating a
varying electrical signal that represents the changing shape of the
borehole.
• This variation in output is translated into changes of diameter after a
simple calibration and the caliper log is printed as a continuous series of
values of hole diameter with depth.
Caliper Logger
Correlation of geophysical
logs with litholog

Geophysical Logs:
Caliper,Short Normal
Resistivity,SP,Natural
Gamma,Density
Coal Seam
Correlation by
Well Log Data
Vista in Geophysical Logging for Coal
Exploration
• Well log correlation is the process of determining a particular coal seam in
different bore holes as well as their depth of occurrence and thickness in them.
• Correlation of well logs is an important step in geophysical and geological
interpretation in order to develop geologic models for the sedimentary basin.
• Further information on the lithology of the strata and the characteristics of the
coal can be obtained by combining data from several different types of logs. For
example, sonic and density logs can be combined for interpretation of coal rank
• The combination of gamma ray and density logs with lithological logs from
boreholes is used for correlation within coal deposits.
• More sophisticated geophysical logging techniques can provide the additional
information like assessment of geotechnical properties of formations especially
the rock strength, the measurement of stratigraphic dip of formations for use in
the determination of geologic structures etc.
 THANKS
In case of any query communicate me through email.

kumaruday10@gmail.com