NPTEL – Chemical – Mass Transfer Operation 1

MODULE 6
HUMIDIFICATION AND AIR CONDITIONING

LECTURE NO. 1

6.1 Basic concepts

Humidification is the process of constituting the water-vapor content in a gas.
The reverse of the operation is called dehumidification. Both are important for
many industrial operations such as air conditioning, gas cooling, controlled drying
of wet solids, comfort heating etc. When a gas is brought in contact with a pure
liquid in which it is essentially insoluble, interphase mass and heat transfer takes
place [1-3].

Four major applications of humidification operations are as follows:

a) Humidification of gases for controlled drying of wet solids
b) Dehumidification and cooling of gas in air conditioning
c) Gas cooling with the help of water
d) Cooling of liquid (e.g. water) before reuse

6.1.1 Terminologies and definitions

Three most important quantities, namely, ‘temperature’, ‘humidity’ and
‘enthalpy’, are essential terminologies in dealing humidification.
1) Dry-bulb temperature: It is true temperature of air measured (or, any non-
condensable and condensable mixture) by a thermometer whose bulb is dry.
2) Wet-bulb temperature: It is the steady-state temperature attained by a small
amount of evaporating water in a manner such that the sensible heat
transferred from the air to the liquid is equal to the latent heat required for
evaporation.

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3) Relative humidity: It is the ratio of partial pressure of water vapor (pA) in air
at a given temperature to the vapor pressure of water ( p A0 ) at the same
temperature.
pA
%relative humidity  100 (6.1)
p A0
“Relative humidity does not ‘explicitly’ give the moisture content of a gas, but
gives the ‘degree of saturation’ of the gas at a given temperature.
4) Absolute humidity (simply humidity): It is the direct measurement of
moisture content in a gas. The mass of water vapor per unit mass of dry gas
is called absolute humidity, Y/.
 p A  18.02
Y/   (6.2)
 P  p A  28.97
It is occasionally called ‘Grosvenor humidity’ after the name of the inventor.
5) Percent humidity or percent saturation: It is the relation between absolute
humidity to that of saturation humidity at the same temperature and pressure.
Y/
% Humidity  100 (6.3)
YS/

where, Y/ is absolute humidity of sample of air and YS/ is humidity at same

temperature and pressure if saturated with water vapor.

 p Av  18.02
Y  
/

v 
(6.4)
 P  p A  28.97
S

and vapor pressure of water can be calculated by Antoine Equation:

3984.923
ln p Av  11.96481  where, pressure is in bar and temperature is in K.
(T  39.97)
6) Dew point: Dew point is a temperature at which a vapor-gas mixture must be
cooled (at constant humidity) to become saturated. The dew point of a
saturated gas equals the gas temperature. If a vapor-gas mixture is gradually
cooled at a constant pressure, the temperature at which it just becomes
saturated is also called its dew point.

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7) Humid volume: The humid volume, H, is defined as the volume of unit
mass of dry air with accompanying water vapor at a given temperature and
pressure.
 1 1   T  273  3
H      22.4   G  m /kg dry air (6.5)
 28.97 18.02   273 
assuming ideal gas behavior. TG is gas temperature in ºC.
8) Humid heat: The humid heat, cH, is the heat energy required to raise the
temperature of unit mass of dry air with the accompanying water vapor by one
(1) degree. cH  1.005  1.88Y / kJ/(kg dry air)(K); first part of right hand side is
heat capacity of dry air in kJ/kg.K and second part is heat capacity of water
vapor in kJ/kg.K.
9) Enthalpy: The enthalpy of a vapor-gas mixture is the sum of the relative
enthalpies of gas and vapor content.
H /  cH (TG  T0 )  Y / 0  (1.005  1.88Y / )(TG  T0 )  2500Y / kJ/kg (6.6)

where λ0 is latent heat of vaporization of water, 2500 kJ/Kg.

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MODULE 6
HUMIDIFICATION AND AIR CONDITIONING

LECTURE NO. 2

6.12 Adiabatic saturation temperature:

Humidification chamber
Insulated wall

Air out at Air in at

/
TG, Y/
T , Ys
as
Water spray

Make-up
water at Tas
Water at Tas
Pump

Figure 6.1: Schematic representation of adiabatic saturation of air

The schematic of the adiabatic saturation of air by water is shown in Figure 3.1.
The air stream attains thermal equilibrium with water at temperature Tas and also
gets saturated with water vapor at that temperature before it leaves. A small
quantity of water at the temperature Tas is fed to the humidification chamber
continuously in order to compensate for the vaporization loss of water. The
chamber operates adiabatically, wall is well-insulated. The temperature Tas
attained by air (same as water) is called “adiabatic saturation temperature,
Tas”.

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Enthalpy of inlet air, H i/  cH (TG  Tas )  sY / (6.7)

Enthalpy of exit air, H o/  cH (Tas  Tas )  sYs/  sYs/ (6.8)

At steady state, H i/  H o/ ;

Hence,
cH (TG  Tas )  sY /  sYs/ (6.9)

s
(TG  Tas )  (Ys/  Y / ) (6.10)
cH

6.1.3 Wet bulb temperature

When evaporation of water occurs?
If the vapor pressure of water is higher than the partial pressure of water vapor in
the ambient air, evaporation occurs. The latent heat for evaporation will be
supplied by (i) surrounding air and (ii) water drop itself.
Now, consider a drop of water at the tip of thin wire. As temperature of water
drop decreases with time, vapor pressure decreases causing a reduction in
partial pressure driving force. Temperature driving force for heat transfer from
ambient air to water increases. If sufficient time is allowed, a steady state
temperature will be attained by drop. This is wet bulb temperature.

Factors that have influence on wet-bulb temperature

(i) Dry bulb temperature of air TG
(ii) Humidity, Y/
(iii) Air velocity
(iv) Shape of the thermometer bulb

The combination of a dry-bulb and wet-bulb thermometer is called a

“psychrometer”.

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Determination of relationship between wet-bulb and dry-bulb temperature

Heat flux, q=hG(TG-Tw) (6.11)
Molar flux, NA=kG(pw-pA) (6.12)
Since, heat flux is sufficient to meet requirement of latent heat of vaporization at
steady state.
Hence, hG (TG  Tw )  w M wkG ( pw  pA )  wKY/ (Yw/  Y / ) (6.13)

w(Yw/  Y / )
(TG  Tw )  (6.14)
 hG 
 / 
 KY 
hG hG
/
 cH ;  1 Lewis relation
KY cH KY/
For any system,
hG
 1.231Sc 0.56 kJ/kg.K
KY/

w(Yw/  Y / )
Now Equation (6.14) becomes, (TG  Tw )  (6.15)
cH
Equations (6.10) and (6.15) are identical and Tas=Tw.
Adiabatic saturation temperature and wet-bulb temperature are nearly
equal for air-water system.
(TG-Tw) is called wet-bulb depression.

6.2 The Psychrometric chart construction and its use

Seven important quantities, namely, dry-bulb temperature, wet-bulb temperature,
relative humidity, absolute humidity, dew point, enthalpy and specific volume, are
all inter-related. The psychrometric chart characterizes this interdependence. If
any two of these quantities are known, the other five quantities can be readily
obtained from the Psychrometric chart. The Psychrometric chart can be obtained
from the link: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychrometrics.
The interdependency of these seven properties is presented in Figure 6.2. If TG is
the dry-bulb temperature of air and Y/ is its humidity, its state is denoted by point
„a‟. It falls on the constant humidity line, A%. The adiabatic saturation line through

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„a‟ is „ab‟. „c‟ point indicates its humidity, Y/. The adiabatic saturation temperature,
Tas is obtained by drawing the vertical line through „b‟. For air-water system, wet-
bulb temperature Tw is practically same as Tas. The humidity of the adiabatically
saturated air is given by the point „e‟. The dew point Td is given by the point „d‟
that can be reached by moving horizontally from the point „a‟ to 100% humidity
line and then moving vertically down to the temperature axis. The humid volume
of saturated air at TG corresponds to the point „f‟ and that of dry air at TG is given
by point „g‟. The point „m‟ gives the humid volume if the humidity is Y/ and it is
reached by interpolation between „g‟ and „f‟. Enthalpy of a sample of air can also
be obtained from humidity chart.

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How to use this chart?

Figure 6.2: Determination of properties from the psychrometric chart.

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MODULE 6
HUMIDIFICATION AND AIR CONDITIONING

LECTURE NO. 3

6.3 Humidification and dehumidification operations and design

calculations
Humidification operations: In this operation, water transfers from liquid phase
to gas phase. Hence, moisture content of air increases. Air with particular
moisture content is useful for drying of a solid under controlled condition.

Dehumidification operations: It is the reverse phenomena of humidification. A

portion of water vapor from moist warm air is condensed by contacting cold water
in air conditioning.

6.4 Cooling tower principle and operation

A cooling tower is a special type of heat exchanger in which the warm water and
the air are brought in direct contact for ‘evaporative cooling’. It provides a very
good contact of air and water in terms of the contact area and mass transfer co-
efficient of water vapor while keeping air pressure drop low.
Enthalpy of air is lower than enthalpy of water. Sensible heat and latent heat
transfer take place from water drop to surrounding air. Schematic of heat transfer
from water drop to surrounding air is presented in Figure 6.3.

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Heat transfer Heat transfer

Interfacial film
Water drop at Air temperature at
temperature Tw Tw

Heat transfer Heat transfer

Figure 6.3: Schematic of heat transfer from water drop to surrounding air.

Thus, cooling is accomplished by sensible heat transfer from water to air and
evaporation of a small portion of water. A generalized cooling tower system is
shown in Figure 6.4. The hot water which is coming from heat exchanger is
sprayed at the top of the cooling tower. Air enters through the louvers at the two
opposite walls of the cooling tower. During cooling process of water, around 2%
water is evaporated. Make water is used to compensate the water loss due to
evaporation. Blowdown is there to drain a part of water containing solid deposit.
The exit cold water from the cooling tower is used in the heat exchanger or other
unit operation.

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Water cooling tower Humid air Hot water

Heat
exchanger

Air Air

Make-up Cold water

water

Pump
Blowdown

Figure 6.4: Generalized cooling tower system.

Factors govern the operation of cooling tower

i. The dry-bulb and wet-bulb temperatures of air
ii. Temperature of warm water
iii. The efficiency of contact between air and water in terms of volumetric mass
transfer coefficient ( k y/ a )

iv. Contact time between air and water

v. The uniformity of the distribution of the phases within the tower
vi. Air pressure drop
vii. Desired temperature of cooled water

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6.5 Types of equipment

Classification of Cooling Towers

Based on air draft Based on air flow pattern

Atmospheric Natural draft Mechanical draft Cross-flow Counter-flow

Induced draft Forced draft

(A) Atmospheric Towers

It is a big rectangular chamber with two opposite ‘louvered’ walls. Tower is
packed with a suitable ‘tower fill’. Atmospheric air enters the tower through
louvers driven by its own velocity. Direction and velocity of wind greatly influence
its performance. Figure 6.5 shows the schematic of the atmospheric cooling
tower.

Hot air out

Hot water in
Louvers
Air in
Air in

Louvers
Cold water out

Figure 6.5: Schematic of atmospheric cooling tower.

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(B) Natural Draft Towers

A natural draft cooling tower has a large reinforced concrete shell of hyperbolic
shape (also called ‘hyperbolic tower’). Natural flow of air occurs through the
tower; hence it is called natural draft (refer Figure 6.6).
Factors responsible for creating natural draft
(a) A rise in temperature and humidity of air in the column reduces its density
(b) Wind velocity at the tower bottom
Fan is used to enhance the air flow rate in fan assisted natural draft tower. The
typical diameter of tower is 150 m and capacity is 5,00,000 gallon/minute.

Hot air out

Concrete shell wall

Drift eliminator
Hot water in
Packing material
Air in
Air in
Cold water out

Figure 6.6: Schematic of natural draft tower.

Why hyperbolic shape?

(i) More packing materials can be placed at the bottom
(ii) The entering air gets smoothly directed towards the centre
(iii) Greater structural strength and stability

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MODULE 6
HUMIDIFICATION AND AIR CONDITIONING

LECTURE NO. 4

(A) Mechanical Draft Towers: forced draft towers and induced draft
towers
Fans are used to move air through the tower in mechanical draft cooling towers.
Two types of mechanical draft towers are there, namely, forced draft tower and
induced draft tower.
Forced draft towers: It can be seen from Figure 6.7 that it has one or more fans
located at the tower bottom to push air into tower.
Advantages:
(a) A part of the velocity head of air thrown by the blower is converted to
pressure head on entering into the tower. It makes energy efficient than
induced draft.
(b) Less susceptible to vibrations as fans are installed near the ground.

Disadvantages:
(a) Air flow through the packing may not be uniform
(b) Some of the warm and humid air may be recirculated back. Recirculation
rate becomes low if the wind velocity is high. It is not popular except for
small capacities.

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Hot warm air out

Drift eliminator
Hot water in

Packing

Air in

Fan Cold water out

Figure 6.7: Schematic of forced draft towers.

Induced draft towers: One or more fans are installed at the top of the tower.
Depending on the air inlet and flow pattern, induced draft towers are of two types,
cross-flow and counter flow towers.

Major advantages of countercurrent induced draft cooling tower

(a) Relatively dry air contacts the coldest water at the bottom of the cooling
tower
(b) Humid air is in contact with the warm water and hence maximum average
driving force prevails for both heat and mass transfer.

Disadvantage of induced draft towers compared to forced draft towers

It consumes more horse power.
Cross-flow induced draft cooling tower requires less motor horse power than
countercurrent induced draft cooling towers.

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(B) Cross-current and counter-current

Cross-flow induced draft cooling tower supplies horizontal air flow along the
packed height and requires less motor horse power than the counter-flow type.
Additional ‘cells’ may be added to raise the capacity. The schematic of induced
draft counter-flow and cross-flow cooling towers are presented in Figure 6.8 and
Figure 6.9, respectively.

Hot warm air

out

ID Fan

Drift eliminator
Hot water in

Louver
s
Air in

Cold water out

Figure 6.8: Schematic of mechanical draft counter-flow tower.

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Hot warm air out

Drift eliminator
ID Fan
Hot water in Hot water in

Packing Air in
Air in

Louvers

Cold water out

Figure 6.9: Schematic of mechanical draft cross-flow tower.

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MODULE 6
HUMIDIFICATION AND AIR CONDITIONING

LECTURE NO. 5

6.6 Design calculations of cooling tower

Primarily we need to calculate,
(i) tower cross-section required to take the given load of warm water
(ii) height of the packing required to achieve the desired cooling

Basic assumptions for the design of cooling tower are as follows:

(i) the rate of vaporization of water is much less than the rate of water
input to the tower (about 1% loss of feed water)
(ii) evaporative or adiabatic cooling of water occurs in the tower
The enthalpy balance of cooling tower is shown in Figure 6.10.

Gs, TG2 L, TL2,

Y2/ , H 2/ HL2

Gs, TG+dTG L,
Y/+dY/, TL+dTL,
H/+dH/ HL1+dHL
Envelope II Envelope I
dz

Gs, TG L, TL
Y/, H/ HL

Gs, TG1 L, TL1,

Y1/ , H1/ HL1

Figure 6.10: Enthalpy balance diagram of water cooling tower

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Let, L is the constant water flow rate (kg/m2s) and Gs is the air rate (kg dry
air/m2s). Across a differential thickness dz of the bed, temperature of water is
decreased by dTL and the enthalpy of air is increased by dH/.
Hence, change in enthalpy of water=L.cWL.dTL
and, change in enthalpy of air =Gs.dH/
Differential enthalpy balance over dz is L.cWL.dTL=Gs.dH/ (6.16)
Enthalpy balance over envelope I,
LcWL (TL  TL1 )  Gs ( H /  H1/ ) (6.17)

This is the operating line for air-water contact.

Enthalpy balance over entire tower (envelope II)
LcWL (TL 2  TL1 )  Gs ( H 2/  H1/ ) (6.18)

The equilibrium curve for air-water system on TL-H/ plane is the plot of enthalpy
of saturated air versus liquid temperature at equilibrium.
Rate of transfer of water vapor to air in the differential volume is
Gs dY /  kY/ a(Yi /  Y / ) (6.19)

The decrease in temperature of air for sensible heat transfer to water is

 Gs cH dTG  hG a dz(TG  Ti ) (6.19)

Differentiation of Equation (6.6) and multiplication with Gs gives

Gs dH /  Gs cH dTG  Gs dY / 0 (6.20)

 hG a dz(TG  Ti )  kY/ a dz (Yi /  Y / )0

h 
 kY/ a dz  G/ (Ti  TG )  (Yi /  Y / )0  (6.21)
 kY 

 kY/ a dz{c H (Ti  TG )  (Yi /  Y / )0 } (6.22)

 kY/ a dz{c H (Ti  T0 )  c H (T0  TG )  Yi / 0  Y / 0 } (6.23)

 kY/ a dz{c H (Ti  T0 )  Yi / 0  [c H (TG  T0 )  Y / 0 ]} (6.24)

 kY/ a dz ( H i/  H / ) (6.25)

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The height (z) of the packing in the cooling tower is obtained by

H 2/ z
dH / kY/ a kY/ a
 ( H i/  H / )  Gs 0 dz  Gs z (6.26)
H1/

Number of gas-enthalpy transfer units

H 2/
dH /
N tG   ( H i/  H / ) (6.27)
H1/

Height of gas-enthalpy transfer units

Gs
H tG  (6.28)
kY/ a
Hence, height of cooling tower (packing section), z
z=HtG.NtG (6.29)
Volumetric mass or enthalpy transfer coefficient ( kY/ a ) should be known.
Then HtG can be estimated from given mass flow rate.
There is no direct relation available between enthalpy of bulk gas H/ and that of
H i/ . So, integral cannot be evaluated analytically. For numerical or graphical

evaluation of the integral, we have to know the values H i/ (interfacial enthalpy) for

a set of values of H/.

Let, hLā is volumetric heat transfer coefficient on the water side,
Gs dH /  LcWLdTL  hL a(TL  TLi ) (6.30)

kY/ a dz( H i/  H / )  hL a dz(TLi  TL ) (6.31)

( H i/  H / ) h
  L/ (6.32)
(TLi  TL ) kY
A point (TL, H/) on the operating line meets the equilibrium line at the point (TLi,
H i/ ).

Substituting Gs dH /  LcWLdTL in Equation (6.25) we have,

LcWL dTL  kY/ a dz ( H i/  H / )

and

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TL 0 z
dTL kY/ a kY/ a

TLi
( H i/  H / ) LcWL 0
 dz 
LcWL
z (6.33)

Equation (6.33) is called ‘Merkel Equation’.

A simplified design equation based on overall enthalpy transfer coefficient:

If overall enthalpy transfer coefficient KY/ is used, differential mass balance
equation becomes
Gs dH /  K Y/ a dz ( H * /  H / ) (6.34)
Here, H*/ is the enthalpy of saturated air at TL (bulk liquid temperature).
H 2/ z
dH / KY/ a KY/ a
 ( H */  H / ) Gs 0
 dz 
Gs
z (6.35)
H1/

This is overall enthalpy transfer units (NtoG).

Expression of overall enthalpy transfer coefficient in terms of individual

coefficients:
q  kY/ ( H i/  H / )  hL (TL  TLi )  K Y/ ( H * /  H / ) (6.36)

( H * /  H / )  ( H * /  H i/ )  ( H i/  H / )

q ( H * /  H i/ ) q
 q 
K Y/ hL (TL  TLi ) kY/

1 ( H * /  H i/ ) 1
  / (6.37)
K Y/ (TL  TLi ) kY
Equation (6.33) (Merkel Equation) is also expressed as:
T
KY/ a V L0
dTL
  (6.38)
L TLi
(Hi  H / )
/

The left hand side of the equation is called “tower characteristic” where, V is
active cooling volume/plan area.

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MODULE 6
HUMIDIFICATION AND AIR CONDITIONING

LECTURE NO. 6

Key points in the design of cooling tower:

(I) An increase or decrease in wet-bulb temperature of entering water (mainly
due to atmospheric condition) cannot change tower characteristic
 KY/ a V 
  .
 L 
(II) An increase in ‘cooling range’ can not change tower characteristic
 KY/ a V 
  . It increases ‘approach’ only.
 L 
 KY/ a V 
(III) A change in L/G can change tower characteristic   .
 L 
Fill height (FH) depends on tower characteristic, L/G and correlated by the
following equation:
n
KY/ a V L
 C  FH   
L G
where, C and n are constants and solely dependent on tower fill.

Step-by-step design procedure of cooling tower

1. Specify the inlet and outlet temperatures and flow rate of warm water.
2. Select the design value of dry-bulb and wet-bulb temperatures of air (at
the proposed geographical location).
3. Draw the ‘equilibrium line curve’ i.e., saturation humidity curve [H/ vs T].
The enthalpy data are calculated using vapor pressure equation for water

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and physical properties of air and water vapor

[ H /  1.005  1.88Y / (TG  T0 )  2500Y / kJ/kg]. T0 is 25ºC.

4. Locate the lower terminal of the operating line, ‘B’ on TL-H plane by the
point (TL1, H1/ ). This point indicates the condition at the bottom of the
tower.
5. Draw a tangent to the equilibrium line through the point ‘B’. The slope of
the tangent gives the ratio of the liquid and minimum gas flow rate. Hence,
minimum air rate is calculated. Actual air rate taken is usually 1.25 to 1.5
times the minimum [not required if air rate is given].
6. The upper terminal of the operating line is located by the point ‘A’ (TL2, H 2/
). It is the point where the operating line of the slope determined in step 5
meets the vertical line through TL2. It can also be located by calculating the
top end enthalpy H 2/ from Equation (6.18) as LcWL (TL 2  TL1 )  Gs ( H 2/  H1/ ) .
H 2/
dH /
7. Evaluate the integral in Equation (6.27) N tG  / ( H i/  H / ) , number of gas-
H1

phase enthalpy transfer units and calculate height gas-phase enthalpy

Gs
transfer units, HtG as H tG  /
. kY/ a and hL a are required. A set of
kY a

hL a
parallel lines (tie lines) of slope  is drawn between the operating line
kY/ a

and equilibrium line. H/ and H i/ are taken from terminals. Integral is

TL 0
dTL Lc
calculated numerically or graphically. [ N tG   (H
TLi iH )
/ /
and H tG  / WL ].
kY a

8. If the overall enthalpy transfer coefficient KY/ is known and used, ‘tie lines’
are vertical. For a given value of H/, value of H*/ is given by the point on
the equilibrium line vertically above it. The integral of Equation
H 2/
dH /
 ( H */  H / )  NtoG gives the number of overall transfer units.
H1/

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Gs Lc
9. The height of a transfer unit H t 0G  /
or H t 0G  /WL is calculated.
KY a KY a
The packed height is the product of height of transfer unit and number of transfer
units.

Approach: It is the difference between cooling water temperature leaving

cooling tower and wet-bulb temperature of inlet air which is approach to wet bulb
temperature (ºF), (TL1-Tas). For getting small approach, cooling tower height must
be increased. To achieve zero (0) approach theoretically, infinite packing height
is needed.

Range: ‘Cooling range’ or purely ‘range’ is the difference in the inlet hot
water and outlet cooled water temperature (ºF) (TL2-TL1).

Approach to wet bulb Cooling range(ºF) Packed height

temperature (ºF) (TL1-Tas) (TL2-TL1) (ft)
15-20 25-35 15-20
10-15 25-35 25-30
5-10 25-35 35-40

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MODULE 6
HUMIDIFICATION AND AIR CONDITIONING

LECTURE NO. 7

6.7 Evaporation loss of water in cooling tower:

Blowdown: During the cooling process of hot water in cooling tower, around 2%
water evaporates [1-3]. In the long run, it increases the solid content in the
circulating water. Some dust particles also come from the environment and mix
with circulating water. But the solid content of the cooled water must be kept
under a certain limit to avoid scaling or fouling on the heat exchange equipment.
A part of the circulating water is drained from the bottom of the cooling tower to
discard the deposited solids from the cooling tower. This is called blowdown. The
losses due to blowdown, evaporation, drift and leakage are compensated by
adding make-up water.

Water balance in cooling tower

M=B+D+E (6.38)
where, M is make-up water rate; B is blowdown rate; D is drift leakage loss rate;
E is evaporation loss.
Solid balance
M×C1=(B+D) ×C2+E×0 (6.39)
E  D  (r  1)
B (6.40)
(r  1)
where, r=C2/C1; C1 is dissolved solid concentration in the make-up water; C2 is
dissolved solid concentration in the circulating water.

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Evaporation loss is estimated by a thumb rule as:

E=water flow rate (L)×range(ºF)×0.00085 gallon/min

The other design characteristics are pump horsepower, fan horsepower, source
of make-up water and drift eliminators.

Nomenclature
a contact area/tower volume, m2/m3 L Water flow rate, kg/m2s
cwL Heat capacity of liquid (water), kJ/kg.K V active cooling volume/plan
area, m3/m2
Gs Air rate, kg dry air/m2s Y/ Humidity, kg moisture/kg
dry air
hG Heat transfer coefficient of air film, Yw/ Saturation humidity,
kJ/m2.s.K kg moisture/kg dry air
hL Heat transfer coefficient of liquid z Cooling tower height, m
(water), kJ/m2.s.K
kG Mass transfer co-efficient of moisture λw Latent heat of vaporization
transport, kg/m2.s (pA) of water, kJ/kg
KY/ Overall mass transfer co-efficient, H Humid volume, m3/kg dry
air
kg/m3.s

References
1. Treybal, R. E., “ Mass-Transfer Operations”, 3rd Eddition, McGraw-Hill,
1981
2. Geankoplis, C.J., “Transport Processes and Separation Process
Principles”. 4th Edition, Prentice-Hall of India, New Delhi, 2005.
3. Dutta, B.K., “Principles of Mass transfer and Separation Processes”.
Prentice-Hall of India, New Delhi, 2007.

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HUMIDIFICATION PROBLEM

Example Problem 6.1: A cooling tower is to be designed to cool water from

450C to 300C by countercurrent contact with air of dry bulb temperature 30 0C and
wet bulb temperature of 250C. The water rate is 5500 kg/m2.h and the air rate is
1.25 times the minimum. Determine the tower height if the individual gas-phase
mass transfer coefficient (kY/ā) is 5743.5 kg/m3h (ΔY/). The volumetric water side
heat transfer coefficient is given by hLā=0.059L0.51Gs, in Kcal/m3hK, where L and
Gs are mass flow rates of water and air (dry basis).
Antoine Equation: ln PAV (bar)=11.96481-3984.923/(T-39.724).

Solution 6.1:
TG1=30ºC
Tw=Tas=25ºC
Y1/  0.019 [From psychrometric chart]

H1/  (1.005  1.88  0.019)  30  2500  0.019kJ/kg

=78.7 kJ/kg
TL1=30ºC
Locate point Q(TL1, H 1/ ) (Lower terminal of operating line) at Q(30, 78.7) on TL-H/
plane.

Generation of Equilibrium curve

(i) Calculate pv from Antoine Equation: ln PAV (bar)=11.96481-3984.923/(T-
39.724).
pv 18.02
(ii) Y/  
( P  p ) 28.97
v

(iii)  
H /  (1.005  1.88  Y / )  (TG  T0 )  2500  Y / ; Here, reference temperature,

T0 is 0ºC.

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lnPv
T (Antoine pv Y' H'
(ºC) Equation) (bar) (kg moist/kg dry air) kJ/kg dry air
21 -3.694517 0.024859 0.0156487 60.84463
23 -3.572406 0.028088 0.0177391 68.22991
25 -3.452184 0.031676 0.0200784 76.26473
27 -3.333809 0.035657 0.0226937 85.02109
29 -3.217237 0.040066 0.025615 94.57904
31 -3.102429 0.04494 0.028876 105.0278
33 -2.989343 0.05032 0.0325139 116.4669
35 -2.877943 0.05625 0.0365707 129.0081
37 -2.76819 0.062776 0.0410932 142.7765
39 -2.660049 0.069945 0.0461344 157.9135
41 -2.553483 0.07781 0.0517539 174.5789
43 -2.448459 0.086427 0.0580195 192.9541
45 -2.344944 0.095853 0.0650086 213.2463
47 -2.242905 0.10615 0.0728098 235.6928

Draw a tangent to the equilibrium line through Q. Slope of the tangent is 8.78.
L  cWL
Gs ,min 
slope
5500  4.187

8.78
=2623 kg/h.m2
Actual air rate =Gs,min×1.25
=2623×1.25 kg/h.m2
=
3279 kg/h.m2
Slope of the operating line
5500  4.187
Slope   7.02
3279
L cWL (TL 2  TL1 )  Gs( H 2/  H 2/ )

5500  4.187(45  30)  3279( H 2/  78.7)

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H 2/  184 kJ/kg

Now, locate point P (TL2, H 2/ ) (Upper terminal of the operating line) at P (45, 184)
on TL-H/ plane.

We have,
hLā=0.059L0.51Gs
=0.059(5500)0.51(3279) kcal/m3h.K
=15637.9 kcal/m3hK=15637.9 ×4.187 kJ/m3h.K
=65,475.9 kJ/m3hK
hL a 65475.9
Slope of tie line=  /
  11.4
kY a 5743.5

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Equilibrium line
250 Operating line
240
230
220
210
200
190
180
170 '
P(TL2,H2)
H (KJ/kg)

160
150
140
130
'

120
110
100
90
80
70 '
60
Q (TL1,H1)
Approach Range
50
22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40 42 44 46 48 50
Tas TL1 TL2
0
TG, TL ( C)

A set of tie lines of this slope is drawn from several points on the operating line.
These tie lines meet the equilibrium line at (TLi, H i/ ). Hence, the points (H/, H i/ )

1
are obtained. The values of are plotted against TL and the integral
(H  H / )
i
/

TL 0
dTL
N tG   (H
TLi i
/
 H/)
is evaluated graphically.

TL 30 32.5 35 37.5 40 42.5 45

H/ 78.7 96.4 112.8 130.3 148.8 165.3 184
TLi 28.7 31.4 33.9 36.6 39 41.4 43.7
H i/ 93.0 107.5 123.2 139.9 158.4 177 198.8

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1
(H  H / )
/ 0.070 0.090 0.096 0.104 0.104 0.085 0.068
i

0.10

0.08

1
( H i/  H / ) 0.06

0.04

0.02

0.00
30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45
0
TL ( C)

NtG=Area under the curve= (184-78.7)×0.088=9.27

Gs
H tG  =(3279/5743.5)m=0.56 m
kY/ a
Tower height= 9.27×0.56 m=5.19 m (Ans.)

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MODULE 6
HUMIDIFICATION AND AIR CONDITIONING

LECTURE NO. 8
Example Problem 6.2: It is planned to cool water from 43.30C to 29.40C in a
packed countercurrent water-cooling tower using entering air at 29.40C with a
wet bulb temperature of 23.90C. The water flow is 9764.9 kg/h.m2 and the air flow
is 6835.4 kg/h.m2. The overall mass transfer coefficient is KY/a=2500 kg/m3h
(ΔY/). Calculate (a) minimum air rate that can be used and (b) tower height
needed if air flow of 6835.4 kg/h.m2 is used.
Given: Height of transfer unit, HtoG=Gs/KY/a. Tie lines are vertical.
Enthalpies of saturated air-water vapor (Base temperature: 00C)

Temperature H/(kJ/kg H */ (kJ/kg Temperature H/(kJ/kg H */ (kJ/kg

(0C) dry air) dry air) (0C) dry air) dry air)
15.6 43.68 37.8 122.4 148.2
26.7 84.0 40.6 139.4 172.1
29.4 71.7 97.2 43.3 154.8 197.2
32.2 88.4 112.1 46.1 224.5
35.0 105.4 128.9 60.0 461.5

Solution 6.2:
Y1/ =0.0165 kg/kg dry air [From Psychrometric chart]

H1/ =71.7 kJ/kg

H 2/ =154.8 kJ/kg

From Graph, at Gs, min, H 2/ =197 kJ/kg at 43.30C

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(a) Gs, min=4546.4 kg/h.m2.

240
Equilibrium line
220
Operating line
200

180

160
'
P(TL2,H2)
'
H

140

120

100

80
'
60
Q (TL1,H1)
Approach Range
Tas 25 30 35 40 45 50
TL1 TG, TL TL2

TL H/ H */ 1/[ H */ -H/]
29.4 71.7 97.2 0.039216
32.2 88.4 112.1 0.042194
35 105.4 128.9 0.042553
37.8 122.4 148.2 0.03876
40.6 139.4 172.1 0.030581
43.3 154.8 197.2 0.023585

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0.05

0.04

0.03
1
( H */  H / )
0.02

0.01

0.00
30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43
0
TL ( C)

NtoG=Area under the curve= (154.8-71.7)×0.036148=3.004

HtoG=2.734 m

(b)Tower height= 2.734×3.004 m=8.213 m (Ans.)

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Example Problem 6.3: A cooling tower of 50 m2 cross-sectional area is required

to cool the warm water from 420C to 290C at a rate of 425250 kg/h. The ambient
air at 320C has a wet-bulb temperature of 220C and air rate (moist) is 6000
kg/h.m2. The overall mass transfer coefficient, KY/ a =740.375 kg/m3h (ΔY/) where

a is specific interfacial area of air-water contact. Determine (a) the minimum air
rate and (b) overall gas-phase enthalpy transfer units. (c) Keeping other
conditions unchanged, if the wet-bulb temperature is changed to 25.50C, what
will the cold water temperature?
3984.923
Given: Antoine Equation: ln PAV (bar )  11.96481  , temperature in K.
(T  39.724)
Total pressure is 1 atm.

Solution 6.3:

240
Equilibrium line
220
Operating line
200

180

160
'
'

P(TL2,H2)
H

140

120

100

80
'
60 Q (TL1,H1)
Approach Range
Tas 25 30 35 40 TL2 45 50
TL1
TG, TL

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NPTEL – Chemical – Mass Transfer Operation 1

TG1=32ºC, Tw1=22ºC, From psychrometric chart, Y1/  0.013 kg / kg dry air

H1/  65.44 kJ / kg
(a) Draw tangent to equilibrium curve from point Q.
Slope of the operating line for minimum air rate:
LcwL
S  9.37
Gsmin
L=425250/50 kg/h.m2=8505 kg/h.m2
cwL=4.187 kJ/kgºC
Gsmin=3800.47 kg/h.m2
Gs=6000/(1+0.013) kg/h.m2 =5923 kg/h.m2
Slope of the operating line for actual air rate:
LcwL 8505  4.187
S   6.006
Gs 5923

Draw operating line with slope 6.006 through point Q. TL2=42ºC. Locate point P.
(Get H 2/ from graph).
or,
LcwL (TL 2  TL1 )  Gs( H 2/  H1/ )

8505  4.187(42  29)  5923( H 2/  65.5)

H 2/  143.6 kJ / kg
Gs 5923
H toG  /
 m8m
KY a 740.375
H 1/
dH /
NtoG   ( H */  H / )
 2.82
H 2/

Height of the cooling tower=8×2.82 m=22.56 m

(b) Overall gas-phase enthalpy transfer unit (NtoG)=2.82
(c) TL1 is unknown. Height of the cooling tower is same, i.e., 22.56 m. Slope of
the operating line is as before, i.e., 6.006. TL1 should be greater than 29ºC.
Assume TL1 as 32ºC.
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Get height of the cooling tower.

If height is 22.56 m, 32ºC is the answer. Otherwise guess another TL1.
Or,
TG1=32ºC, Tw1=25.5ºC, From psychrometric chart, Y1/  0.017 kg / kg dry air

H1/  75.682 KJ / kg

LcwL (TL 2  TL1 )  Gs( H 2/  H1/ )

6000
8505  4.187(42  TL1 )  (143.6  65.5)
(1  0.017)
TL1=30.8ºC

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MODULE 6
HUMIDIFICATION AND AIR CONDITIONING

LECTURE NO. 9

EXAMPLE PROBLRMS ON DEHUMIDIFICATION

Example Problem 6.4: Moist warm air is to be cooled and dehumidified to a wet-
bulb temperature of 30ºC using water of 25ºC in a dehumidification column. The
air enters the tower with a dry-bulb temperature of 85ºC and wet-bulb
temperature of 45ºC at 4800 kg/m2h rate. The overall gas phase mass transfer
coefficient is estimated to be 2150 kg/ m3h. The flow rate of water is 1.4 times the
minimum. Calculate height of the tower.

Solution 6.4:

Gs=4507.04 kg/m2.h
Y2/  0.027
H 2/  98 kJ / kg Ls=8439.27 kg/h.m2
TL2=25ºC

Dehumidification
tower

Gs=4507.04 kg/m2.h
TG1=85ºC Ls=8439.27 kg/h.m2
TL1=39.29ºC
Y1/  0.065
H1/  210 kJ / kg

Given,
TG1=85ºC; TW1=45ºC

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From psychrometric chart, Y1/  0.065 kg moisture/kg dry air and H1/  210 kJ/kg
dry air.
or, Y/=0.047 and
H1/  (1.005  1.88  0.047)  85  2500  0.047kJ/kg
=210.4 kJ/kg
Wet-bulb temperature of outlet air is 30ºC. Y2/  0.027 kg moisture/kg dry air and

H 2/  98 kJ/kg.
We have, inlet water temperature, TL2=25ºC
Locate top point Q(TL2, H 2/ ) (lower terminal of operating line) at Q(25, 98) on TL-
H/ plane.
The enthalpy of feed moist air at the bottom point P (upper terminal) of the
dehumidification tower is 210 kJ/kg. But the temperature of the exit water is
unknown.

Calculation of minimum water rate:

The equilibrium line is convexed downward. The “pinch point” is obtained by
drawing the horizontal line through H1/  210 kJ/kg to meet equilibrium line at P/.
Points Q and P/ are joined. Line QP/ is the operating line for minimum water flow
rate.
The water temperature at P/ is TL1,max=45ºC (TW1).
G1
Gs 
(1  Y1/ )

4800
Gs 
(1  0.065)
= 4507.04 kg/h.m2
Now, the minimum water rate Ls,min can be obtained from the following enthalpy
balance equation:
Gs ( H1/  H 2/ )  Ls ,min (TL1,max  TL 2 )CwL

4507.04×(210-98)=Ls,min(45-25)×4.187
Ls,min=6028.05 kg/h.m2

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Actual water flow rate=1.4×Gs,min=1.4×6028.05 kg/h.m2=8439.27 kg/h.m2

Outlet temperature of water TL1 is obtained from Equationas follows:
4507.04×(210-98)=8439.27×(TL1-25)×4.187
TL1=39.29ºC
Moisture removed from air=water condensed per hour
 Gs(Y1/  Y2/ )
=4507.04×(0.065-0.027) kg/h.m2.
=171.27 kg/h.m2.

240
' / '
220 P(TL1,H1) P (TL1, max,H1)

200
Equilibrium line
180
Operating line
160
'
H

140

120
'
Q (TL2,H2)
100

80

60

Tas22.5 25.0 27.5 30.0 32.5 35.0 37.5 40.0 42.5 45.0
0 0
TL2=25 C TG, TL TL1=39.29 C

TL H/ H */ 1/[H/- H */ ]
25 98 75 0.043
27.7 117 85 0.031
30 136.9 98 0.026

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32.5 155.4 110 0.022

35 176 130 0.022
37.5 195.3 145 0.020
39.29 210 156 0.019

0.05

0.04

0.03
1
[ H /  H */ ]

0.02

0.01

0.00
25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39
0
TL ( C)

Gs 4507.04
H toG  /
 m  2.096 m
KY a 2150
H1/
dH /
N toG   ( H /  H*/ )  (210  98)  0.026  2.912
H 2/

Height of dehumidification tower, Z=HtoG×NtoG=2.096×2.912 m=6.104 m.

The Psychrometric chart can be obtained from the link:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychrometrics

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