Discrete Mathematics for

Computer Science
Department of Computer Science

Lecturer: Nazeef Ul Haq

Reference Book: Discrete Mathematics and its applications BY

Kenneth H. Rosen – 8th edition

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 1.5 Rules of Inference
◼◼An argument: is a list of statements called premises
(or assumptions or hypotheses) followed by a
statement called the conclusion.
◼◼ Some forms of argument (“valid”) never lead from
correct statements to an incorrect conclusion. Some
other forms of argument (“fallacies”) can lead from
true statements to an incorrect conclusion.
◼◼ A logical argument consists of a list of (possibly
compound) propositions called premises/hypotheses
and a single proposition called the conclusion.
◼◼ Logical rules of inference: methods that depend on
logic alone for deriving a new statement from a set of
other statements. (Templates for constructing valid
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 Valid Arguments (I)
◼◼ Example: A logical argument
If I dance all night, then I get tired.
I danced all night.
Therefore I got tired.
◼◼ Logical representation of underlying variables:
p: I dance all night. q: I get tired.
◼◼ Logical analysis of argument:
p→q premise 1
p premise 2
q conclusion

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 Valid Arguments (II)
◼◼ A form of logical argument is valid if
whenever every premise is true, the
conclusion is also true. A form of argument
that is not valid is called a fallacy.

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 Inference Rules: General Form
◼◼ An Inference Rule is
◼◼A pattern establishing that if we know that
a set of premise statements of certain
forms are all true, then we can validly
deduce that a certain related conclusion
statement is true.

premise 1
premise 2
···
 conclusion “” means “therefore”
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 Inference Rules & Implication
◼◼ Each valid logical inference rule corresponds to
an implication that is a tautology.
premise 1
premise 2 Inference rule
···
 conclusion

◼◼ Corresponding tautology:
((premise 1)  (premise 2)  ) → conclusion

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 Modus Ponens
◼◼ p Rule of Modus ponens “the mode of
p→q (a.k.a. law of detachment) affirming”
q
◼◼ (p  (p →q)) → q is a tautology

p q p→q p  (p → q) (p  (p → q)) → q
T T T T T
T F F F T
F T T F T
F F T F T

◼◼ Notice that the first row is the only one where

premises are all true
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 Modus Ponens: Example
p → q : “If it snows today
If then we will go skiing” assumed TRUE
p : “It is snowing today”
Then q : “We will go skiing” is TRUE

p → q : “If n is divisible by 3
assumed
If then n2 is divisible by 3” TRUE
p : “n is divisible by 3”
Then q : “n2 is divisible by 3” is TRUE

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 Modus Tollens
◼◼ q Rule of Modus tollens
p→q
“the mode of denying”
p
◼◼ (q  (p →q)) → p is a tautology

◼◼ Example
p → q : “If this jewel is really a diamond
If then it will scratch glass” assumed
TRUE
q : “The jewel doesn’t scratch glass”
Then  p : “The jewel is not a diamond” is TRUE

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 More Inference Rules

◼◼ p Rule of Addition
pq Tautology: p → (p  q)

◼◼ pq Rule of Simplification

p Tautology: (p  q) → p

◼◼ p
q Rule of Conjunction
pq Tautology: [(p)  (q)] → p  q

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 Examples
◼◼ State which rule of inference is the basis of
the following arguments:
◼◼ It is below freezing now. Therefore, it is either
below freezing or raining now.
◼◼ It is below freezing and raining now. Therefore, it
is below freezing now.
◼◼ p: It is below freezing now.
q: It is raining now.
◼◼ p → (p  q) (rule of addition)
◼◼ (p  q) → p (rule of simplification)
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 Hypothetical Syllogism
◼◼ p→q Rule of Hypothetical syllogism
q→r Tautology:
p → r [(p → q)  (q → r)] → (p → r)
Example: State the rule of inference used in
◼◼

the argument: p
q
“If it rains today, then we will not have a q
barbecue today. If we do not have a barbecue
today, then we will have a barbecue tomorrow.r
Therefore, if it rains today, then we will have a
barbecue tomorrow.” p
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 Disjunctive Syllogism
◼◼ pq Rule of Disjunctive syllogism
p
q Tautology: [(p  q)  (p)] → q

◼◼ Example
◼◼Ed’s wallet is in his back pocket or it is on

his desk. (p  q) p q
◼◼Ed’s wallet is not in his back pocket. (p)

◼◼Therefore, Ed’s wallet is on his desk. (q)

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 Resolution
◼◼ pq Rule of Resolution
p  r Tautology:
qr [(p  q)  (p  r)] → (q  r)

◼◼ When q = r:
[(p  q)  (p  q)] → q
◼◼ When r = F:
[(p  q)  (p)] → q (Disjunctive syllogism)

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 Resolution: Example
pq
p  r
q r
◼◼ Example: Use resolution to show that the
hypotheses “Jasmine is skiing or it is not
r p
snowing” and “It is snowing or Bart is playing
p q
hockey” imply that “Jasmine is skiing or Bart
r q
is playing hockey”

(p  q)  (p  r) → (q  r)
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 Rules of Inference-- Summary

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 Formal Proofs

◼◼ A formal proof of a conclusion C, given

premises p1, p2,…, pn consists of a sequence
of steps, each of which applies some
inference rule to premises or previously-
proven statements to yield a new true
statement (the conclusion).

◼◼ A proof demonstrates that if the premises

are true, then the conclusion is true.

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 Formal Proof Example
◼◼ Suppose we have the following premises:
“It is not sunny and it is cold.”
“We will swim only if it is sunny.”
“If we do not swim, then we will canoe.”
“If we canoe, then we will be home by
sunset.”

◼◼ Given these premises, prove the conclusion

“We will be home by sunset” using
inference rules.
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 Proof Example cont.
◼◼ Step 1: Identify the propositions (Let us adopt
the following abbreviations)
◼◼ sunny = “It is sunny”; cold = “It is cold”;
swim = “We will swim”; canoe = “We will
canoe”; sunset = “We will be home by
sunset”.
◼◼ Step 2: Identify the argument. (Build the
argument form)
sunny  cold It is not sunny and it is cold.
swim → sunny We will swim only if it is sunny.
swim → canoe If we do not swim, then we will canoe.
canoe → sunset If we canoe, then we will be home by sunset.

 sunset We will be home by sunset.

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 Proof Example cont.
◼◼ Step 3: Verify the reasoning using the rules
of inference sunny  cold
swim → sunny
swim → canoe
Step Proved by canoe → sunset
1. sunny  cold Premise #1.  sunset

2. sunny Simplification of 1.
3. swim → sunny Premise #2.
4. swim Modus tollens on 2 and 3.
5. swim → canoe Premise #3.
6. canoe Modus ponens on 4 and 5.
7. canoe → sunset Premise #4.
8. sunset Modus ponens on 6 and 7.
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 Common Fallacies
◼◼ A fallacy is an inference rule or other proof
method that is not logically valid.
◼◼A fallacy may yield a false conclusion!

◼◼ Fallacy of affirming the conclusion:

◼◼“p → q is true, and q is true, so p must be
true.” (No, because F → T is true.)
◼◼ Example

◼◼ If David Cameron (DC) is president of the US,

then he is at least 40 years old. (p → q)
◼◼ DC is at least 40 years old. (q)

◼◼ Therefore, DC is president of the US. (p)

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 Common Fallacies (cont’d)
◼◼ Fallacy of denying the hypothesis:
◼◼“p → q is true, and p is false, so q must be

false.” (No, again because F → T is true.)

◼◼ Example
◼◼If a person does arithmetic well then his/her

checkbook will balance. (p → q)

◼◼I cannot do arithmetic well. (p)

◼◼Therefore my checkbook does not balance.

(q)

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 Inference Rules for Quantifiers
◼◼ x P(x)
P(c) (substitute any specific member c in the domain)

◼◼ P(c) (for an arbitrary element c of the domain)

x P(x)

◼◼ x P(x)
P(c) (substitute an element c for which P(c) is true)

◼◼ P(c) (for some element c in the domain)

x P(x)
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 Example
◼◼ Every man has two legs. John Smith is a man.
Therefore, John Smith has two legs.
◼◼ Proof

◼◼ Define the predicates:

◼◼M(x): x is a man

◼◼L(x): x has two legs

◼◼J: John Smith, a member of the universe

◼◼ The argument becomes

1. x [M(x) → L(x)]
2. M(J)
 L(J)
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 x (M(x) → L(x))
Example cont. M(J)
 L(J)
◼◼ The proof is
1. x [M(x) → L(x)] Premise 1
2. M(J) → L(J) U. I. from (1)
3. M(J) Premise 2
4. L(J) Modus Ponens from (2) and (3)

◼◼ Note: Using the rules of inference requires

lots of practice.
◼◼Try example problems in the textbook.

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 Another example
◼◼ Correct or incorrect: “At least one of the
20 students in the class is intelligent.
John is a student of this class.
Therefore, John is intelligent.”
◼◼ First: Separate premises from conclusion
◼◼ Premises:
1. At least one of the 20 students in the
class is intelligent.
2. John is a student of this class.

◼◼ Conclusion: John is intelligent.

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 Answer
◼◼ Next, translate the example in logic notation.
◼◼ Premise 1: At least one of the 20 students in the
class is intelligent.
Let the domain = all people
C(x) = “x is in the class”
I(x) = “x is intelligent”
Then Premise 1 says: x(C(x)  I(x))
◼◼ Premise 2: John is a student of this class.
Then Premise 2 says: C(John) x (C(x)  I(x))
◼◼ And the Conclusion says: I(John)
C(John)
 I(John)
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 x (C(x)  I(x))
C(John)
Answer (cont’d)  I(John)

◼◼ No, the argument is invalid; we can disprove it

with a counter-example, as follows:
◼◼ Consider a case where there is only one intelligent
student A in the class, and A  John.
◼◼ Then by existential instantiation of the premise

x (C(x)  I(x)), C(A)  I(A) is true,

◼◼ But the conclusion I(John) is false, since A is

the only intelligent student in the class, and

John  A.
◼◼ Therefore, the premises do not imply the

conclusion.
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 More Proof Examples
◼◼ Is this argument correct or incorrect?
◼◼“All TAs compose easy quizzes.

Mike is a TA.
Therefore, Mike composes easy quizzes.”
◼◼ First, separate the premises from conclusion:
◼◼Premise 1: All TAs compose easy quizzes.

◼◼Premise 2: Mike is a TA.

◼◼ Conclusion: Mike composes easy quizzes.

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 Answer
◼◼ Next, re-render the example in logic notation.
◼◼ Premise 1: All TAs compose easy quizzes.
◼◼Let the domain = all people

◼◼Let T(x) = “x is a TA”

◼◼Let E(x) = “x composes easy quizzes”

◼◼Then Premise 1 says: x(T(x) → E(x))

◼◼ Premise 2: Mike is a TA.

◼◼Let M = Mike

◼◼Then Premise 2 says: T(M)

x (T(x) → E(x))
T(M)
◼◼ And the Conclusion says: E(M)  E(M)
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 The Proof in Gory Detail
◼◼ The argument is correct, because it can be reduced
to a sequence of applications of valid inference
rules, as follows: x (T(x) → E(x))
T(M)
 E(M)

◼◼Statement How obtained

1. x(T(x) → E(x)) (Premise #1)
2.T(M) → E(M) (Universal Instantiation)
3.T(M) (Premise #2)
4.E(M) (Modus Ponens from #2 and #3)
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 Applications of Logic

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 Applications of Logic

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 Applications of Logic

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 Applications of Logic

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 Applications of Logic
◼◼ Construct circuit for the Boolean expression (P∧Q) ∨ ~R

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