Republic of the Philippines

CENTRAL BICOL STATE UNIVERSITY OF AGRICULTURE

Impig, Sipocot, Camarines Sur 4408
Website: www.cbsua.edu.ph
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Lesson 3: Issues on Human Development

1. Introduction

Developmental psychology is a scientific approach which aims to explain growth,

change and consistency throughout the lifespan. Developmental psychology looks at
how thinking, feeling and behavior change throughout a person’s life. The three goals of
Developmental psychology are to describe, explain and to optimize development
(Baltes, Reese, & Lipsitt, 1980) There have been a lot of issues that confronts human
development throughout the years. The nurture and nature controversy have been the
subject of many debates in the past. Now other emerging issues have also been the
subject of many developmental psychologist and students such as, is it experience or
later? Continuity or discontinuity? These are just but some of the underlying questions
that have been the issue of many but still continues to bother some although some
developmental psychologist have presented relevant answers on the matter. In this
lesson we will try to look at those issues and find our own answers as we learned more
about human development from the experts as well as the factors affecting
development.

2. Pre-competency checklist (Formative Assessment/Diagnostic)

a. Is development due more to genetic or environment?
b. Do early childhood experiences have the greatest impact on development
or are later events equally important?
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3. Learning Resources
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/wmopen-
lifespandevelopment/chapter/human-development/

4. Explore

Issues Human Development

What aspects of ourselves change and develop as we journey through life? We

move through significant physical, cognitive, and psychosocial changes throughout our
lives—do these changes happen in a systematic way, and to everyone? How much is
due to genetics and how much is due to environmental influences and experiences
(both within our personal control and beyond)? Is there just one course of development
or are there many different courses of development? In this module, we’ll examine
these questions and learn about the major stages of development and what kind of
developmental tasks and transitions we might expect along the way.

Defining Human Development

Figure 1. Human development encompasses the physical, cognitive, and psychosocial changes that occur
throughout a lifetime.

Human development refers to the physical, cognitive, and psychosocial

development of humans throughout the lifespan. What types of development are
involved in each of these three domains, or areas, of life? Physical development
involves growth and changes in the body and brain, the senses, motor skills, and health
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and wellness. Cognitive development involves learning, attention, memory, language,

thinking, reasoning, and creativity. Psychosocial development involves emotions,
personality, and social relationships.

Physical Domain

Many of us are familiar with the height and weight charts that pediatricians
consult to estimate if babies, children, and teens are growing within normative ranges of
physical development. We may also be aware of changes in children’s fine and gross
motor skills, as well as their increasing coordination, particularly in terms of playing
sports. But we may not realize that physical development also involves brain
development, which not only enables childhood motor coordination but also greater
coordination between emotions and planning in adulthood, as our brains are not done
developing in infancy or childhood. Physical development also includes puberty, sexual
health, fertility, menopause, changes in our senses, and primary versus secondary
aging. Healthy habits with nutrition and exercise are also important at every age and
stage across the lifespan.

Cognitive Domain

If we watch and listen to infants and toddlers, we can’t help but wonder how they
learn so much so fast, particularly when it comes to language development. Then as we
compare young children to those in middle childhood, there appear to be huge
differences in their ability to think logically about the concrete world around them.
Cognitive development includes mental processes, thinking, learning, and
understanding, and it doesn’t stop in childhood. Adolescents develop the ability to think
logically about the abstract world (and may like to debate matters with adults as they
exercise their new cognitive skills!). Moral reasoning develops further, as does practical
intelligence—wisdom may develop with experience over time. Memory abilities and
different forms of intelligence tend to change with age. Brain development and the
brain’s ability to change and compensate for losses is significant to cognitive functions
across the lifespan, too.
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Psychosocial Domain

Development in this domain involves what’s going on both psychologically and

socially. Early on, the focus is on infants and caregivers, as temperament and
attachment are significant. As the social world expands and the child grows
psychologically, different types of play and interactions with other children and teachers
become important. Psychosocial development involves emotions, personality, self-
esteem, and relationships. Peers become more important for adolescents, who are
exploring new roles and forming their own identities. Dating, romance, cohabitation,
marriage, having children, and finding work or a career are all parts of the transition into
adulthood. Psychosocial development continues across adulthood with similar (and
some different) developmental issues of family, friends, parenting, romance, divorce,
remarriage, blended families, caregiving for elders, becoming grandparents and great
grandparents, retirement, new careers, coping with losses, and death and dying.

As you may have already noticed, physical, cognitive, and psychosocial

development are often interrelated, as with the example of brain development. We will
be examining human development in these three domains in detail throughout the
modules in this course, as we learn about infancy/toddlerhood, early childhood, middle
childhood, adolescence, young adulthood, middle adulthood, and late adulthood
development, as well as death and dying.

Who Studies Human Development and Why?

Many academic disciplines contribute to the study of development and this type
of course is offered in some schools as psychology (particularly as developmental
psychology); in other schools, it is taught under sociology, human development, or
family studies. This multidisciplinary course is made up of contributions from
researchers in the areas of health care, anthropology, nutrition, child development,
biology, gerontology, psychology, and sociology, among others. Consequently, the
stories provided are rich and well-rounded and the theories and findings can be part of a
collaborative effort to understand human lives.

The main goals of those involved in studying human development are to describe
and explain changes. Throughout this course, we will describe observations during
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development, then examine how theories provide explanations for why these changes
occur. For example, you may observe two-year-old children to be particularly
temperamental, and researchers offer theories to explain why that is. We’ll learn a lot
more about theories, especially developmental theories, in the next module.

Key Issues in Human Development

There are many different theoretical approaches regarding human development.

As we evaluate them in this course, recall that human development focuses on how
people change, and the approaches address the nature of change in different ways:
• Is the change smooth or uneven (continuous versus discontinuous)?

• Is this pattern of change the same for everyone, or are there different
patterns of change (one course of development versus many courses)?
• How do genetics and environment interact to influence development
(nature versus nurture)?

Is Development Continuous or Discontinuous?

Continuous development views development as a cumulative process,

gradually improving on existing skills (Figure 2). With this type of development, there is
a gradual change. Consider, for example, a child’s physical growth: adding inches to
their height year by year. In contrast, theorists who view development
as discontinuous believe that development takes place in unique stages and that it
occurs at specific times or ages. With this type of development, the change is more
sudden, such as an infant’s ability to demonstrate awareness of object permanence
(which is a cognitive skill that develops toward the end of infancy, according to Piaget’s
cognitive theory—more on that theory in the next module).
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Figure 2. The concept of continuous development can be visualized as a smooth slope of progression,
whereas discontinuous development sees growth in more discrete stages.

Is There One Course of Development or Many?

Is development essentially the same, or universal, for all children (i.e., there is
one course of development) or does development follow a different course for each
child, depending on the child’s specific genetics and environment (i.e., there are many
courses of development)? Do people across the world share more similarities or more
differences in their development? How much do culture and genetics influence a child’s
behavior?

Stage theories hold that the sequence of development is universal. For example,
in cross-cultural studies of language development, children from around the world reach
language milestones in a similar sequence (Gleitman & Newport, 1995). Infants in all
cultures coo before they babble. They begin babbling at about the same age and utter
their first word around 12 months old. Yet we live in diverse contexts that have a unique
effect on each of us. For example, researchers once believed that motor development
followed one course for all children regardless of culture. However, childcare practices
vary by culture, and different practices have been found to accelerate or inhibit the
achievement of developmental milestones such as sitting, crawling, and walking
(Karasik, Adolph, Tamis-LeMonda, & Bornstein, 2010).
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For instance, let’s look at the Aché society in Paraguay. They spend a significant
amount of time foraging in forests. While foraging, Aché mothers carry their young
children, rarely putting them down in order to protect them from getting hurt in the forest.
Consequently, their children walk much later: They walk around 23–25 months old, in
comparison to infants in Western cultures who begin to walk around 12 months old.
However, as Aché children become older, they are allowed more freedom to move
about, and by about age 9, their motor skills surpass those of U.S. children of the same
age: Aché children are able to climb trees up to 25 feet tall and use machetes to chop
their way through the forest (Kaplan & Dove, 1987). As you can see, our development is
influenced by multiple contexts, so the timing of basic motor functions may vary across
cultures. However, the functions are present in all societies.

Figure 3. All children across the world love to play. Whether in (a) Florida or (b) South Africa, children enjoy
exploring sand, sunshine, and the sea. (credit a: modification of work by “Visit St. Pete/Clearwater”/Flickr;
credit b: modification of work by “stringer_bel”/Flickr)

How Do Nature and Nurture Influence Development?

Are we who we are because of nature (biology and genetics), or are we who we
are because of nurture (our environment and culture)? This longstanding question is
known in psychology as the nature versus nurture debate. It seeks to understand how
our personalities and traits are the product of our genetic makeup and biological factors,
and how they are shaped by our environment, including our parents, peers, and culture.
For instance, why do biological children sometimes act like their parents—is it because
of genetics or because of early childhood environment and what the child has learned
from their parents? What about children who are adopted—are they more like their
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biological families or more like their adoptive families? And how can siblings from the
same family be so different?

We are all born with specific genetic traits inherited from our parents, such as
eye color, height, and certain personality traits. Beyond our basic genotype, however,
there is a deep interaction between our genes and our environment. Our unique
experiences in our environment influence whether and how particular traits are
expressed, and at the same time, our genes influence how we interact with our
environment (Diamond, 2009; Lobo, 2008). There is a reciprocal interaction between
nature and nurture as they both shape who we become, but the debate continues as to
the relative contributions of each.

Periods of Human Development

Think about the lifespan and make a list of what you would consider the basic
periods of development. How many periods or stages are on your list? Perhaps you
have three: childhood, adulthood, and old age. Or maybe four: infancy, childhood,
adolescence, and adulthood. Developmentalists often break the lifespan into eight
stages:
1. Prenatal Development
2. Infancy and Toddlerhood
3. Early Childhood
4. Middle Childhood
5. Adolescence
6. Early Adulthood
7. Middle Adulthood
8. Late Adulthood

In addition, the topic of “Death and Dying” is usually addressed after late
adulthood since overall, the likelihood of dying increases in later life (though individual
and group variations exist). Death and dying will be the topic of our last module, though
it is not necessarily a stage of development that occurs at a particular age.
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The list of the periods of development reflects unique aspects of the various
stages of childhood and adulthood that will be explored in this book, including physical,
cognitive, and psychosocial changes. So while both an 8-month-old and an 8-year-old
are considered children, they have very different motor abilities, cognitive skills, and
social relationships. Their nutritional needs are different, and their primary psychological
concerns are also distinctive. The same is true of an 18-year-old and an 80-year-old,
both considered adults. We will discover the distinctions between being 28 or 48 as
well. But first, here is a brief overview of the stages.

Prenatal Development

Figure 4. An embryo at 8 weeks of development.

Conception occurs and development begins. There are three stages of prenatal
development: germinal, embryonic, and fetal periods. All of the major structures of the
body are forming and the health of the mother is of primary concern. There are various
approaches to labor, delivery, and childbirth, with potential complications of pregnancy
and delivery, as well as risks and complications with newborns, but also advances in
tests, technology, and medicine. The influences of nature (e.g., genetics) and nurture
(e.g., nutrition and teratogens, which are environmental factors during pregnancy that
can lead to birth defects) are evident. Evolutionary psychology, along with studies of
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twins and adoptions, help us understand the interplay of factors and the relative
influences of nature and nurture on human development.

Infancy and Toddlerhood

Figure 5. Major development happens during the first two years of life, as evidenced by this newborn baby
and his toddler brother.

The first year and a half to two years of life are ones of dramatic growth and
change. A newborn, with many involuntary reflexes and a keen sense of hearing
but poor vision, is transformed into a walking, talking toddler within a relatively short
period of time. Caregivers similarly transform their roles from those who manage
feeding and sleep schedules to constantly moving guides and safety inspectors for
mobile, energetic children. Brain development happens at a remarkable rate, as does
physical growth and language development. Infants have their own temperaments and
approaches to play. Interactions with primary caregivers (and others) undergo changes
influenced by possible separation anxiety and the development of attachment styles.
Social and cultural issues center around breastfeeding or formula-feeding, sleeping in
cribs or in the bed with parents, toilet training, and whether or not to get vaccinations.
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Early Childhood

Figure 6. Early childhood, or the preschool years, around ages 2-6, is filled with incredible amounts of
growth and change.

Early childhood is also referred to as the preschool years, consisting of the years
that follow toddlerhood and precede formal schooling, roughly from around ages 2 to 5
or 6. As a preschooler, the child is busy learning language (with amazing growth in
vocabulary), is gaining a sense of self and greater independence, and is beginning to
learn the workings of the physical world. This knowledge does not come quickly,
however, and preschoolers may initially have interesting conceptions of size, time,
space and distance, such as demonstrating how long something will take by holding out
their two index fingers several inches apart. A toddler’s fierce determination to do
something may give way to a four-year-old’s sense of guilt for doing something that
brings the disapproval of others.
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Middle Childhood

Figure 7. Middle childhood spans most of what is traditionally primary school, or the ages between 6-11.

The ages of 6-11 comprise middle childhood and much of what children
experience at this age is connected to their involvement in the early grades of school.
Now the world becomes one of learning and testing new academic skills and assessing
one’s abilities and accomplishments by making comparisons between self and
others. Schools participate in this process by comparing students and making these
comparisons public through team sports, test scores, and other forms of
recognition. The brain reaches its adult size around age seven, but it continues to
develop. Growth rates slow down and children are able to refine their motor skills at this
point in life. Children also begin to learn about social relationships beyond the family
through interaction with friends and fellow students; same-sex friendships are
particularly salient during this period.
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Adolescence

Figure 8. Adolescence, or the age roughly between 12-18, is marked by puberty and sexual maturation,
accompanied by major socioemotional changes.

Adolescence is a period of dramatic physical change marked by an overall

physical growth spurt and sexual maturation, known as puberty; timing may vary by
gender, cohort, and culture. It is also a time of cognitive change as the adolescent
begins to think of new possibilities and to consider abstract concepts such as love, fear,
and freedom. Ironically, adolescents have a sense of invincibility that puts them at
greater risk of dying from accidents or contracting sexually transmitted infections that
can have lifelong consequences. Research on brain development helps us understand
teen risk-taking and impulsive behavior. A major developmental task during
adolescence involves establishing one’s own identity. Teens typically struggle to
become more independent from their parents. Peers become more important, as teens
strive for a sense of belonging and acceptance; mixed-sex peer groups become more
common. New roles and responsibilities are explored, which may involve dating, driving,
taking on a part-time job, and planning for future academics.
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Early Adulthood

Figure 9. Early adulthood, roughly ages 20-40, may be split into yet another category of “emerging
adulthood,” as there are often profound differences between younger adults and those in their late 30s.

Late teens, twenties, and thirties are often thought of as early adulthood
(students who are in their mid to late 30s may love to hear that they are young
adults!). It is a time when we are at our physiological peak but are most at risk for
involvement in violent crimes and substance abuse. It is a time of focusing on the future
and putting a lot of energy into making choices that will help one earn the status of a full
adult in the eyes of others. Love and work are the primary concerns at this stage of
life. In recent decades, it has been noted (in the U.S. and other developed countries)
that young adults are taking longer to “grow up.” They are waiting longer to move out of
their parents’ homes, finish their formal education, take on work/careers, get married,
and have children. One psychologist, Jeffrey Arnett, has proposed that there is a new
stage of development after adolescence and before early adulthood, called “emerging
adulthood,” from 18 to 25 (or even 29) when individuals are still exploring their identities
and don’t quite feel like adults yet. Cohort, culture, time in history, the economy, and
socioeconomic status may be key factors in when youth take on adult roles.
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Middle Adulthood

Figure 10. Middle adulthood spans the years between ages 40-65.

The late thirties (or age 40) through the mid-60s are referred to as middle
adulthood. This is a period in which physiological aging that began earlier becomes
more noticeable and a period at which many people are at their peak of productivity in
love and work. It may be a period of gaining expertise in certain fields and being able to
understand problems and find solutions with greater efficiency than before. It can also
be a time of becoming more realistic about possibilities in life; of recognizing the
difference between what is possible and what is likely. Referred to as the sandwich
generation, middle-aged adults may be in the middle of taking care of their children and
also taking care of their aging parents. While caring about others and the future, middle-
aged adults may also be questioning their own mortality, goals, and commitments,
though not necessarily experiencing a “mid-life crisis.”
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Late Adulthood

Figure 11. Late adulthood is generally viewed as age 65 and older, but there are incredible variations in
health and lifestyle between the “young old” and the “oldest old,” who may be well into their 100s.

This period of the lifespan, late adulthood, has increased in the last 100 years,
particularly in industrialized countries, as average life expectancy has increased. Late
adulthood covers a wide age range with a lot of variation, so it is helpful to divide it into
categories such as the “young old” (65-74 years old), “old old” (75-84 years old), and
“oldest old” (85+ years old). The young old are similar to middle-aged adults; possibly
still working, married, relatively healthy, and active. The old old have some health
problems and challenges with daily living activities; the oldest old are often frail and in
need of long term care. However, many factors are involved and a better way to
appreciate the diversity of older adults is to go beyond chronological age and examine
whether a person is experiencing optimal aging (like the gentleman pictured in Figure 8
who is in very good health for his age and continues to have an active, stimulating
life), normal aging (in which the changes are similar to most of those of the same age),
or impaired aging (referring to someone who has more physical challenge and disease
than others of the same age).
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Death and Dying

Figure 12. How people think about death, approach death, and cope with death vary depending on many
factors. Photo Courtesy Robert Paul Young

The study of death and dying is seldom given the amount of coverage it
deserves. Of course, there is a certain discomfort in thinking about death, but there is
also a certain confidence and acceptance that can come from studying death and
dying. Factors such as age, religion, and culture play important roles in attitudes and
approaches to death and dying. There are different types of death: physiological,
psychological, and social. The most common causes of death vary with age, gender,
race, culture, and time in history. Dying and grieving are processes and may share
certain stages of reactions to loss. There are interesting examples of cultural variations
in death rituals, mourning, and grief. The concept of a “good death” is described as
including personal choices and the involvement of loved ones throughout the process.
Palliative care is an approach to maintain dying individuals’ comfort level, and hospice is
a movement and practice that involves professional and volunteer care and loved ones.
Controversy surrounds euthanasia (helping a person fulfill their wish to die)—active and
passive types, as well as physician-assisted suicide, and legality varies within the
United States.
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Factors Influencing Growth and Development

A. Genetics – certain hereditary factors influence on the body formation. Genetic

and chromosomal disorders also affect on growth and development of a baby.
Sometimes it is not possible to prevent the genetic factors but take necessary
care.

B. Nutritional – Nutritional deficiency considerably retards physical growth.

Malnourished mother produced babies that have certain problems. Over
nutrition may cause obesity. According to WHO lack of nutrition interfere with
maturation of the child’s brain and body.

C. Emotional and Cultural – Trauma from unstable family, insecurity, sibling

jealousy and loss of parents has effect on growth and development.

D. Intrauterine condition – maternal infections and diseases affect growth and

development

E. Growth potentials – the smaller the child at birth, the smaller he is to be in

subsequent years. The larger he is at birth, the larger he is to be in later years.

5. Discussion Board

Activity 3 Are you pro-nature or pro-nurture? Do you think you are what you are
today because of your hereditary endowment, or it is because of the environmental
factors? Why, Why not? Create a group with 5 members and present your
argument in 5 to 10 sentences. Choose a representative in your group to present
your output.

Reflection Cite the reciprocal impact of heredity and environment to growth and
development to your future learners.