Geothermal Energy

Table of Contents
• Resources
• Types of wells
• Methods of harnessing the energy
• Potential in India
 Resources of Geothermal Energy
• Geothermal energy is the heat that comes from the sub-surface of the earth.
It is contained in the rocks and fluids beneath the earth’s crust and can be
found as far down to the earth’s hot molten rock, magma.
• To produce power from geothermal energy, wells are dug a mile deep into
underground reservoirs to access the steam and hot water there, which can
then be used to drive turbines connected to electricity generators.
• Geothermal energy is used in over 20 countries. The United States is the
largest producer of geothermal energy in the world, and hosts the largest
geothermal field.
• Geothermal energy is a type of renewable energy which is generated within
the earth and can be used directly for heating or transformed into electricity.
• An advantage of geothermal energy over other renewable energy sources is
that it is available year-long (whereas solar and wind energy present higher
variability and intermittence) and can be found around the globe.
• However, for electricity generation, medium- to high-temperature
resources, which are usually close to volcanically active regions, are needed.
• Deploying geothermal energy has additional benefits, as it also contributes
to reduced global warming effects and public health risks resulting from the
use of conventional energy sources. Furthermore, the deployment of
geothermal energy helps reduce a country’s dependence on fossil fuels.
 Estimates of geothermal power
• Geothermal power has considerable potential for growth. The amount of
heat within 10 000 m of the earth's surface is estimated to contain 50 000
times more energy than all oil and gas resources worldwide.
• Moreover, there is a strong economic case for the deployment of
geothermal energy. The costs for electricity generation from geothermal
technologies are becoming increasingly competitive, and they are expected
to continue to drop through 2050.
• For a depth of 3 km, the total stored energy: 8x1021 Joules
• For a depth of 10 km it is 4x1022 Joules
• Thermal electric conversion efficiency of 20% will yield 10 GW of electric
power
A Geothermal Field
 A Geothermal Field
• A: Hot magma
• B: Igneous rock
• C: Permeable reservoir
• D: Impermeable solid rock
• E: Fissures
• F: Geysers fumarols
• G: Hot spring
• H: Well
 Nature of Geothermal Fields
Earth’s surface can be classified into three groups
• Non-thermal areas: having a temp gradient of 10-40oc per km depth.
• Semi-thermal areas: having a temp gradient of 70oc per km depth.
• Hyper-thermal areas: where the temp gradients are many times
greater than in non-thermal areas.
• Hyper-thermal fields:
o Wet fields: where the water is pressurized and temperatures are
above 100oc. When they are lead to the surface a fraction will be
splashed into steam and a major part remains as the boiling water.
o Dry fields: They produce dry saturated steam or superheated
steam at pressure above atmospheric.
• Semi-thermal fields: these are capable of producing hot water at
temperatures above 100oc.
 Geothermal sources
There are five categories of Geothermal sources
• Hydrothermal convective systems
o Vapor-dominated or dry steam fields
o Liquid-dominated or wet steam fields
o Hot water fields
• Geopressure resources
• Petro-thermal or Hot dry rocks(HDR)
• Magma resources
• Volcanoes
 Hydrothermal convective resources
• Hydrothermal refers to the transport and circulation of water within
the deep crust, in general from areas of hot rocks to areas of cooler
rocks.
• These are wet reservoirs at moderate depths containing steam and or
hot water under pressure at temperatures up to 3500C.
• They are subdivided depending on whether steam or hot water is the
dominant product.
• The depth of Hydrothermal wells is 600 to 2100 m.
Hydrothermal convective region
 Vapor-dominated systems
• Steam reservoirs are very rare but are an incredibly efficient sustainable
electricity source. The Geysers in California is the most prominent dry steam
reservoir. A dry steam plant works in a similar fashion to a Liquid Dominated
Geothermal Plant.
• Steam is obtained by drilling between seven to ten thousand feet deep into
the earth’s crust. The steam obtained is piped directly into a turbine
generator, producing electricity. The steam is then condensed and placed
back into the steam reservoir, providing a reusable energy source.
Vapor-dominated Power Plant
T-s diagram of Vapor-dominated Power
Plant
 Liquid-dominated systems
• Liquid dominated power plants are also referred to as flash steam power
plants; as they conduct flash steam by pressurizing hot water from the surface
of the earth.
• These power plants operate using water reservoirs with temperatures greater
than 2000C
• Liquid dominated reservoirs are more common than others, causing them to
produce more electricity and power more stations.
These are classified as
• Flashed steam system
• Binary cycle system
• Total flow system
 Flashed steam system
• The liquid originates from a depth of 600 to 1400 m
• The water is at a temperature of 2300C and a pressure of 40 atm.
• A cyclone separator is used to remove the water from steam before being
supplied to turbine
Liquid-dominated Single-flash Steam System
T-s diagram of Liquid-dominated Single-flash
Steam System
The limitations of Flashed steam system
• Requirement of larger mass flow rates
• Greater degree of ground sinking
• Precipitation of minerals from the brine
• Greater corrosion of piping
• Temperature and pressures may not be sufficient to produce flash
steam
Liquid-dominated double-flash
Steam System
• Double-flash can give more power than single-flash
• It can use some of the lost energy contained in the spent brine
• A 50 MW plant built on the Iceland of Kyushu in Japan is an example
Liquid-dominated double-flash
Steam System
T-s diagram of liquid-dominated
double-flash
steam system
 Liquid-dominated systems: Binary cycle
• In order to isolate the turbine from corrosive materials and to
accommodate the non-condensable gases the binary cycle concept is
developed
• This is basically an Rankine cycle with organic working fluid
• The first binary cycle developed was in Soviet Union in 1967 with a
capacity of 680 kW with water from reservoir and Freon-12 as working
fluids
• The first binary cycle developed in USA was that built with a capacity of
11 MW by Magma company in California which replaces Freon-12 with
Isobutane
Binary-fluid geothermal power system
 Geo-pressured Resources
• The term geopressure refers to a reservoir fluid (including gas) pressure that
significantly exceeds hydrostatic pressure (which is on the order of
0.4–0.5 psi per foot of depth) and may even approach overburden
pressure (on the order of 1.0 psi per foot of depth).
• Thus geopressurized zones are natural underground formations that are
under unusually high pressure for their depth.
• The geopressurized zones are formed by layers of clay that are deposited
and compacted very quickly on top of more porous, absorbent material such
as sand or silt. Water and natural gas that are present in this clay are
squeezed out by the rapid compression of the clay and enter the more
porous sand or silt deposits.
• Geopressured reservoirs frequently are associated with substantial faulting
and complex stratigraphy, which can make correlation, structural
interpretation, and volumetric mapping subject to considerable uncertainty.
 Hot dry rock(HDR) sources
• Hot dry rock (HDR) is an abundant source of geothermal energy available for
use.
• HDR, also known as petro-thermal system in a geothermal system is a
condition where water is not naturally present at the site. The magma only
heats dry rock on top of it.
• In order to tap heat from the dry rock, two wells can be drilled into the
rock. One well is used to carry water from the surface down into the HDR.
Once the water is heated, steam created is then channeled up through the
second well into a turbine above the surface.
• In order to increase the heat transfer between rock and water, water can be
pumped into the rock causing it to hydraulically fracture, or the rock can
be control-exploded first.
• There are two methods to tap geothermal energy:
• one is to detonate a high explosive at the bottom of a well drilled into the
rock and
• the other is to use hydraulic fracturing to produce the heat transfer surface
and permeability required to extract energy from HDR
• The explosion should create small rocks that can heat the water into steam
more effectively. Care should be given so that the explosion does not create
cracks that can allow the water or steam to leave the reservoir except
through the provided well.
• HDR system was used for the first time experimentally in Los Alamos, New
Mexico, USA in 1970.
• The experiment was then followed by similar projects in Australia, France,
Germany, Japan, and the United Kingdom
Heat extraction from hot dry rocks(HDR)
 Magma Resources
• Magmas rising from the mantle may often gather in reservoirs at the base
of the crust or within the Earth's crust. Reservoirs may be tens of kilometers
in dimension and thus represent huge reserves of magma.
• In the vicinity of volcanic activity, molten rock occurs at moderate depths
• The temperature is in excess of 6500C
Advantages of Geothermal Energy
Disadvantages of Geothermal Energy
 Geothermal Energy-Potential in India
Brief history of investigation:
• National Geophysical Research Institute (CSIR-NGRI), an important and
leading Earth Science research institute in India, The Geological Survey of
India (GSI) is a scientific agency of India and Jadhavpur University Calcutta
spearheaded the heat flow, geotectonic and geochemical studies for R&D
activities related to Geothermal energy.
• In 1968,1972 and 1973 hot springs committee of ministry of irrigation and
power and National committee on Science and Technology classified all the
known hot springs.
Potential of Geothermal sources in India:
• The estimated potential for geothermal energy in India is about 10000 MW.
There are 340 thermal areas and 12 geothermal provinces in India
• The total stored heat of around 93 systems is 36.87x10218 calories which is
equivalent to combustion energy of 5160 million tonnes of coal or 25440
barrels of oil.
Utilization studies: Several pilot projects were undertaken by Geological
Survey of India (GSI) in collaboration with N.A.L Bangalore and IIT Delhi in
north-west Himalayan province.
• A pilot project for “Greenhouse pilot project ” at Chumathang in Ladakh in
1974
• A pilot project for “space heating” at Puga in Ladakh in 1975 was
commissioned
• A third pilot project for “cold storage plant” at Manikaran in Himachal
Pradesh.
 Ocean Energy
Table of Contents
• OTEC
• Principles utilization
• Setting of OTEC plants
• Thermodynamic cycles
• Tidal and wave energy: Potential and conversion techniques
• Mini-hydel power plants and their economics.
Ocean energy refers to all forms of renewable energy derived from the sea.
Broadly ocean energy sources are
• Ocean thermal energy conversion(OTEC)
• Tidal energy
• Wave energy
• Energy emanating from sun-ocean system stemming from surface water
evaporation by solar heating(hydrological cycle)
All forms of energy from the ocean are still at an early stage of
commercialization.
Wave energy remains more costly than the other ocean technologies.
Tidal range has been deployed in locations globally where there is a strong
tidal resource (for example La Rance in France, Sihwa in South Korea), while
tidal stream has been demonstrated at pilot scale.
 Ocean thermal energy conversion(OTEC)
• Ocean thermal energy is generated by converting the temperature
difference between the ocean’s surface water and deeper water into energy.
• Ocean thermal energy conversion (OTEC) plants may be land-based as well
as floating or grazing.
• OTEC uses the temperature difference between high temperature source
and low temperature sink to run a prime mover (turbine) which in turn
drives a generator.
• ocean's warm surface water with a temperature of around 25°C to vaporize
a working fluid, which has a low-boiling point, such as ammonia. That
condenses the working fluid back into a liquid, so it can be reused. This is a
continuous electricity generating cycle.
• Systems may be either closed-cycle or open-cycle. Closed-cycle OTEC uses
working fluids that are typically thought of as refrigerants such
as ammonia or R-134a. These fluids have low boiling points, and are
therefore suitable for powering the system’s generator to generate
electricity.
• The most commonly used heat cycle for OTEC to date is the Rankine cycle,
using a low-pressure turbine. Open-cycle engines use vapor from
the seawater itself as the working fluid.
• OTEC can also supply quantities of cold water as a by-product. This can be
used for air conditioning and refrigeration and the nutrient-rich deep ocean
water can feed biological technologies. Another by-product is fresh
water distilled from the sea.
• OTEC theory was first developed in the 1880s and the first bench size
demonstration model was constructed in 1926. Currently the world's only
operating OTEC plant is in Japan, overseen by Saga University.
• Solar energy absorption by water takes place according to Lambert’s
law of absorption, which states that each layer of equal thickness
absorbs the same fraction of light that passes through it.
Mathematically
 Tidal energy
• Tides are periodic changes in sea level caused by gravitational effects of the
sun and moon in conjunction with the rotation of the earth. As a basic
principle, when the moon or sun is overhead of a specific portion of the ocean,
the water is attracted from elsewhere due to the gravitational force and thus
the sea level rises up in that region and drops down elsewhere.
• When the moon or sun is right underfoot, the situation is similar. So, there
are high tides when moon is overhead or under foot. Since the distance
between moon and earth is much closer than between sun and earth, the
gravitational effect of moon is much more significant than that of sun on
earth, despite their tremendous contrast in mass. Therefore, there are
generally two high tides and two low tides per day, due to the rotation of
earth.
• The difference between highest and lowest water levels within half a
day is termed semidiurnal range. This range varies in a two weeks
cycle around the full moon and new moon, sun, moon and earth form
a straight line, and thus the gravitational effect of sun will increase
the tidal range to the maximum. This is called spring tide. When the
angle between moon and sun viewed from earth is 90°, the presence
of sun reduces the difference of tide level so that the tidal range
reaches minimum.
 Wave energy
• Wave energy converters capture the energy contained in ocean waves and
use it to generate electricity. There are three main categories; oscillating
water columns that use trapped air pockets in a water column to drive a
turbine; oscillating body converters that are floating or submerged devices
using the wave motion (up/down, forwards/ backwards, side to side) to
generate electricity; and overtopping converters that use reservoirs to
create a head and subsequently drive turbines.
• On top of that, each category can be subdivided according to the
technologies used to convert wave energy into pneumatic/mechanical
energy (rotation/ translation), their power systems (air turbines, hydraulic
turbines, hydraulic engines), their structures (fixed, floating, submerged),
and their positioning within the ocean
 OTEC Open cycle system
• In an open cycle OTEC system the seawater itself is used to provide the
thermodynamic fluid. Warm seawater is expanded rapidly in a partially
evacuated chamber where some of it 'flashes' to steam. This steam is then
used to drive a steam turbine. From the exhaust of the turbine, the vapour is
condensed using cold seawater.
• The vapour produced by flashing warm seawater is at a relatively low
pressure so it requires a very large turbine to operate effectively. Practical
limitations mean that the largest open cycle turbine that can be built today is
around 2.5 MW, much smaller than for a closed cycle system.
• One of the major advantages of the open cycle system is that the water
condensed from the turbine exhaust is fresh, not salt water, and so the plant
can also serve as a source of drinking water as well as electricity. A 210 kW
open cycle OTEC pilot plant operated in Hawaii between 1993 and 1998.
OTEC Open cycle system
T-s diagram of OTEC Open cycle system
 OTEC Closed cycle system
• A closed cycle OTEC plant employs a thermodynamic fluid such as
ammonia or a refrigerant like freon. This is contained in a completely
closed system including the plant turbine. Hot surface seawater is used to
evaporate the fluid and the vapour is then exploited to drive the turbine.
The vapour from the turbine exhaust is condensed using the cold, deep
ocean water, and returned to the beginning of the cycle where it can be
reheated.
• A 50 kW closed cycle OTEC plant was built in Hawaii in 1979 and
operated for a few months. A consortium of Japanese companies has also
operated a 100 kW closed cycle OTEC plant in Nauru. Again this plant
operated for only a few months to prove the concept. Neither was large
enough to be commercially viable. Indeed, closed cycle OTEC is unlikely to
be commercially viable in sizes of less than 40 MW.
OTEC Closed cycle system
 Closed OTEC Ammonia cycle
• In closed-cycle OTEC, there is a long, closed loop of pipeline filled with a fluid such
as ammonia, which has a very low-boiling point (−33°C or 28°F). (Other fluids,
including propane and various low-boiling refrigerant chemicals, have also been
successfully used for transporting heat in OTEC plants.)
• The ammonia never leaves the pipe: it simply cycles around the loop again and
again, picking up heat from the ocean, giving it up to the OTEC power plant, and
returning as a cooled fluid to collect some more.
• First, the pipe flows through a heat exchanger fixed in the hot surface waters of
the ocean, which makes the ammonia boil and vaporize. The heated ammonia
vapor expands and blows through a turbine, which extracts some of its energy,
driving a generator to produce electricity. Once the ammonia has expanded, it
passes through a second heat exchanger, where cool water pumped up from the
ocean depths condenses it back to a liquid so it can be recycled.
•
• The ammonia working is in a similar way to the coolant in a refrigerator,
which is also designed to pick up heat from one place (the chiller
cabinet) and carry it elsewhere (the room outside) using a closed-loop
cycle.
• In OTEC, the ammonia picks up heat from the hot, surface ocean waters
(just as the coolant chemical picks up heat from the chiller
compartment), carries it to a turbine where much of its energy is
extracted, and is then condensed back to a liquid so it can run round the
loop for more heat (just as the coolant in a refrigerator is compressed
and cooled in the fins around the back of the machine).
Closed OTEC Ammonia cycle
 Advantages of OTEC Open cycle system
• The benefits of the open-cycle system are, you don't have to deal with the
low boiling point fluid, which could be dangerous if it escaped into the
environment.
• Since the warm sea water is evaporated, when it is condensed back into
water, it is freshwater, which could be given to the local communities in
need.
 Disadvantages of OTEC Open cycle system
• This type of configuration produces less power than the closed cycle
alternative but it is attractive in places where water shortage is an issue.
• The very low pressure at which the system operates means that connections
must be carefully sealed to prevent atmospheric air from entering the
system, which could bring the operation to a halt.
• Compared to the closed cycle system, the specific volume of the low-pressure
steam is very large compared to the pressurized working fluid used in the
closed cycle system. Therefore the components must have large flow areas to
ensure that steam flow does not reach a high enough velocity which could
damage the turbine.
• A large turbine is required to accommodate the very high volumetric flow
rates of the low-pressure steam in order to generate a sufficient amount of
electrical power.
• The pressurized chamber has to have zero leaks in order for the
chamber to be able to evaporate the water, so it takes a lot of
maintenance.
 Advantages of OTEC closed cycle system
• It produces more power than the open cycle alternative
• The very low pressure at which the system operates means that connections
must be carefully sealed to prevent atmospheric air from entering the
system, which could bring the operation to a halt.
• Compared to the open cycle system, the specific volume of the low-pressure
steam is less. Therefore less flow areas are sufficient.
• Small turbine is enough to generate a sufficient amount of electrical power.
Disadvantages of OTEC closed cycle system
• It uses expensive power working fluids
• Cost of electric power generation per kWh is very high.
• It is likely that a layer of slime known as bio-fouling will accumulate
on the water side
Hybrid OTEC cycle
 Energy from tides
• Tidal barrages are low-walled dams, usually installed at tidal inlets or
estuaries.
• Similar to traditional hydroelectric dams, sluice gates are used to create a
reservoir on one side of the barrage. The barrage is secured to the sea floor,
while the top of the barrage is just slightly above where the water level hits
during the highest tide.
• Tidal turbines are located towards the bottom of the barrage, inside a
tunnel, which allow water to flow through.
• Tidal barrages look like traditional hydropower dams. Turbines located along
the bottom of the barrage are turned with the incoming and outgoing tides.
• During an incoming high tide, water flows over the turbines as the water
rises. Then, the water flows back through the turbines as it becomes low
tide. The turbines are connected to a generator which produces the
electricity.
• Tidal barrages are the most efficient way to harness tidal energy, but they’re
also the most costly.
• They require an entire concrete structure to be built, which can cost a pretty
penny. Barrages also have a larger environmental impact on the surrounding
ecosystem than tidal fences or turbines.
• Because they are essentially an underwater wall, fish and other sea creatures
can’t pass through, causing a myriad of effects on the local ecosystem.
Principle of tidal power operation
The tides of sea
Relative high and low tides
Comparative Statistics of recently proposed
schemes
 Components of tidal power plants
There are three main Components of a tidal Power plant.
• Power house Dam and barrage are synonymous terms
• Dam or barrage to form pool or basin
• Sluice-ways from the basins to the sea and vice versa.
• The function of dam is to form a barrier between the sea and the basin or
between one basin and the other in case of multiple basins. Tidal power barrages
have to resist waves whose shock can be severe and where pressure changes
sides continuously.
• The barrage needs to provide channels for the turbines in reinforced concrete.
The location of the barrage is important, because the energy available is related
to the size of trapped basin and to the square of the tidal range. The nearer it is
built to the mouth of bay, the larger the basin, but the smaller the tidal range.
• A balance must also be struck between increased output and increased material
requirements and construction costs. Tidal barrages require sites where there is a
sufficiently high tidal range to give a good head of water – the minimum useful
range is around three meters.
 Operation methods of utilization of tidal energy
There are two basic arrangements
• Single basin arrangement
o Single ebb-cycle system
o Single tide-cycle system
o Double cycle system
• Double basin arrangement
Tidal power plant
Single-basin tidal system: Power generation
Double-basin tidal system: Power generation
 Advantages of tidal energy
• Environment-friendly.
• A highly predictable energy source.
• High energy density. It is also relatively prosperous at low speeds, in contrast to
wind power. Water has one thousand times higher density than air and tidal
turbines can generate electricity at speeds as low as 1 m/s, or 2.2 mph. In contrast,
most wind turbines begin generating electricity at 3m/s-4m/s, or 7mph-9mph.
• Operational and maintenance costs are low.
• An inexhaustible source of energy.
• Known as green energy source, at least in terms of emitting zero greenhouse gases.
• Doesn’t take up that much space. The largest tidal project in the world is the Sihwa
Lake Tidal Power Station in South Korea, with an installed capacity of 254 MW.
• Even small countries with a long enough stretch of coastline can utilize tidal
power in ways that they could not otherwise compete with land-rich
countries like the US, China, and India on solar and wind.
• It is predictable. The gravitational forces of celestial bodies are not going to
stop anytime soon. Furthermore, as high and low tide is cyclical, it is far
easier for engineers to design efficient systems, than say, predicting when
the wind will blow or when the sun will shine.
• “It’s a very predictable energy source and typically offsets the intermittency
of solar and wind – balancing the grid with a low levelised cost of energy.
• Tidal power plants can last much longer than wind or solar farms, at around
four times the longevity. Tidal barrages are long concrete structures usually
built across river estuaries. The barrages have tunnels along them containing
turbines, which are turned when water on one side flows through the
barrage to the other side. These dam-like structures are said to have a
lifespan of 100 years. The La Rance in France, has been operational since
1966 and continues to generate significant amounts of electricity each year.
 Disadvantages of tidal energy
• However, tidal energy currently isn’t the cheapest form of renewable energy.
• While long-term generation costs are relatively good compared to other
renewable energy systems, the initial construction cost makes investing in
tidal energy a particularly risky venture
• The real effects of tidal power on the environment have not yet been fully
determined
• While the true effects of tidal barrages and turbines on the marine
environment have not been fully explored, there has been some research
into how barrages manipulate ocean levels and can have similar negative
effects as hydroelectric power.
• Firstly, installing a tidal system is technologically challenging. Manufacturers
are competing against the moving ocean, and the equipment and technical
knowledge needed to successfully construct the system is typically very
expensive, especially compared to a wind or solar farm.
 Wave energy
Wave Energy is a non-polluting and renewable source of energy, created by
natural transfer of wind energy above the oceans, which itself is created by
the effects of the suns solar energy. As the wind blows across the oceans
surface, moving air particles transfer their energy to the water molecules that
they touch.
As the wind continues to blow more and more of its kinetic energy is
transferred to the oceans surface and the waves grow bigger. These larger
waves are called gravity waves because their potential energy is due to the
gravitational force of the Earth. There is a lot of potential energy in the waves
generated by the wind
As an ocean wave passes a stationary position the surface of the sea changes
in height, water near the surface moves as it loses its kinetic and potential
energy, which affects the pressure under the surface. The periodic or
oscillatory nature of ocean waves means that we can use a variety of
different Wave Energy Devices to harness the energy produced by the ocean
waves.
The problem lies in that the oscillatory frequency of an ocean wave is
relatively slow and is much less than the hundreds of revolutions per minute
required for electric power generation. Then a great variety of wave energy
devices and designs are available to convert these slow-acting, reversing
wave forces into the high speed, unidirectional rotation of a generator shaft.
Waves can be made to compress air in the top of floating tank, using one
way air valves. Electricity is generated as the air is bled out through a
pneumatic or air turbine.

Different concepts for converting wave energy into mechanical or electrical

energy:
• Wave energy conversion by floats
• High-level reservoir wave machine
• Doplhin-type wave-power machine
Wave energy conversion by floats
High-level reservoir wave machine
 High-level reservoir wave machine

• The concept of this device is illustrated with reference to above fig, in

which a magnification piston is used.
• The pressurized water is elevated to a natural reservoir above the
wave generator, which would have to near a shore line, or to an
artificial water reservoir.
• The water in reservoir is made to flow through a turbine coupled to
an electric generator, and then back to sea level.
• Calculations made shown that a 20m diameter generator can produce
1 MW power.
 Doplhin-type wave-power machine
The main components are
• A dolphin
• A float
• A connecting rod
• Two electric generators
Doplhin-type wave-power machine
• Doplhin-type wave-power machine:
• This device uses the float which has two motions.
• The first is rolling motion about its own flucrum with the connecting
rod.
• Revolving moments are caused between the float and the connecting
rod.
• The other or second is nearly vertical or heaving motion about the
connecting rod flucrum.
• It causes relative revolving movements between the connecting rod
and stationary dolphin.
• In both cases, the movements are amplified and converted by gears
into continuous rotary motions that drive the two electrical
generators.
 Small scale hydro-electric systems
• Small-scale hydropower has been used as a common way of generating
electricity in isolated regions since end of 19th century.
• Small-scale hydropower systems can be installed in small rivers, streams or
in the existing water supply networks, such as drinking water or wastewater
networks.
• A micro hydro power (MHP) plant is a type of hydro electric power scheme
that produces up to 100 kW of electricity using a flowing steam or a water
flow. The electricity from such systems is used to power up isolated homes or
communities and is sometimes connected to the public grid.
• Micro hydro systems are generally used in developing countries to provide
electricity to isolated communities or rural villages where electricity grid is
not available. Feeding back into the national grid when electricity production
is in surplus is also evident in some cases. The micro hydro scheme design
can be approached as per household basis or at the village level often
involving local materials and labor.
• In 1995, the micro-hydro capacity in the world was estimated at 28 GW,
supplying about 115 TWh of electricity. About 60% of this capacity was
in the developed world, with 40% in developing areas.
• Micro hydro plants that are found in the developing world are mostly in
mountainous regions for instance in the some places in the Himalayas
as well as in Nepal where there are around 2,000 schemes, including
both mechanical and electrical power generation.
• In South America, there are micro-hydro programs in the countries
along the Andes, such as Peru and Bolivia. Smaller programs have also
been set up in the hilly areas of Sri Lanka, Philippines and some parts of
China.
 Classification of small scale hydro-electric
Based on capacity
• Type: Power Output
• Micro: 5 – 100 kW
• Mini: 101 kW – 1000 kW
• Small: 1001 kW – 6000 kW
Based on head
• Ultra low head: below 3 metres
• Low head: below 30 metres
• Medium head: 30-75 metres
• High head: above 75 metres
• Small-scale hydropower is a clean energy source, producing no water or
air pollution
• As a non-consumptive water use, small hydropower is a renewable
energy source
• There is minimal impact on the environment
• As no reservoirs are created, small hydropower does not cause the
problems associated with reservoirs such as methane emissions,
displacement of people, sedimentation, and disrupted stream dynamics
(see factsheets on large-scale hydropower and man-made reservoirs to
find out more)
• To be economical, energy consumers need to be located near the
hydropower scheme, thus limiting the application of small-scale
hydropower to streamside communities
• The stream flow limits the power generation. Every small hydropower
plant has a maximum capacity, determined by the stream flow, which
cannot be exceeded
• Seasonal variation in stream flow causes variation and disturbance in
energy supply. Advanced planning is needed to ensure adequate
energy generation throughout the year, especially in areas with a
significant dry season
 Application: Use of Micro Hydro Power Plants
Power produced from a small hydro station can be used for various
purposes, some of the uses have been classified as follows:
• Productive Use: This is where the electricity generated is used to
perform activities where money is exchanged for a service. Most of
this scenarios take place in small businesses.
• Consumptive Use: All the other used that the electricity can be used
for are called consumptive use. they include using the electricity at
the household or close to the household.
 Advantages of Small scale hydro-electric
• Efficient energy source: It takes only a small amount of flow to make it work (as small as
two gallons of water or a drop of as low as two feet) to generate electricity with the
micro hydro, the produced electricity can be used as far as a mile away from the
production site.
• Reliable electricity source: There is a constant and continuous electrical energy supply
from a hydro power plant compared to other small scale renewable energy
technologies. There are however peak energy seasons (mainly during winter) when
large quantities of electricity is required.
• No reservoir required: Micro hydro are considered to run as a 'run-of-river' system , this
means that when the water passes through the turbines it is diverted back to the river/
stream with relatively low impact on the surrounding ecology.
• Cost effective energy solution: A small hydro- power system can cost in the range of
$1,000-$20,000 depending on the site electricity requirements and location. The
operation and maintenance costs are relatively low as well compared to other
technologies.
• Power for developing countries: Having low-cost versatility and long life
span, micro hydro can be used by developing countries in supplying
electricity to small villages and communities.
• Integrate with the local power grid: If there is a surplus production of
electricity, some companies can buy the electricity from you and integrate it
to the grid. There could also be a possibility of supplementing your level of
micro power with intake from the grid.
• Environmental impact: The impact on the environment is minimized as
compared to the traditional power stations that use fossil fuels.
 Disadvantages of Small scale hydro-electric
• Suitable site characteristics required:
• Energy expansion not possible:
• Low-power in the summer months: Since streams will reduce their flow
rates depending on the season, summer months are likely to have less flow
leading to less power output. However advanced planning and research can
ensure adequate energy requirements are met.
• Environmental impact: There is a low ecological impact from small-scale
hydro systems, however the low-level environmental effects must be taken
into consideration before construction begins.
• Stream water will be diverted away from a portion of the stream, and
proper caution must be exercised to ensure there will be no damaging
impact on the local ecology or civil infrastructure.
Components of a hydro-electric scheme
• Diversion and intake
• Desilting chamber
• Water conductor system
• Forebay/Balancing reservoir
• Surge tank(if necessary)
• Penstock
• Power house
• Tailrace channel