Quantitative Research: What it is, Tips &

Examples

What is quantitative research?

Quantitative research is a systematic investigation of phenomena by gathering
quantifiable data and performing statistical, mathematical, or computational
techniques. Quantitative research collects information from existing and
potential customers using sampling methods and sending out online
surveys, online polls, and questionnaires, for example.

The results of which can be depicted in the form of numerical. After careful
understanding of these numbers to predict the future of a product or service
and make changes accordingly.

An example of quantitative research is the survey conducted to understand

the amount of time a doctor takes to tend to a patient when the patient walks
into the hospital. A patient satisfaction survey template can be administered to
ask questions like how much time a doctor takes to see a patient, how often a
patient walks into a hospital, and other such questions.

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Quantitative outcome research is mostly conducted in the social sciences

using the statistical methods used above to collect quantitative data from the
research study. In this research method, researchers and statisticians deploy
mathematical frameworks and theories that pertain to the quantity under
question.

Quantitative research templates are objective, elaborate, and many times,

even investigational. The results achieved from this research method are
logical, statistical, and unbiased. Data collection happened using a structured
method and was conducted on larger samples that represent the entire
population.
 Quantitative research characteristics
Some distinctive characteristics of quantitative research are:

 Structured tools: Structured tools such as surveys, polls, or questionnaires

are used to gather quantitative data. Using such structured methods helps
in collecting in-depth and actionable data from the survey respondents.
 Sample size: Quantitative research is conducted on a significant sample
size that represents the target market. Appropriate sampling methods have
to be used when deriving the sample to fortify the research objective
 Close-ended questions: Closed-ended questions are created per the
objective of the research. These questions help collect quantitative data and
hence, are extensively used in quantitative research.
 Prior studies: Various factors related to the research topic are studied
before collecting feedback from respondents.
 Quantitative data: Usually, quantitative data is represented by tables,
charts, graphs, or any other non-numerical form. This makes it easy to
understand the data that has been collected as well as prove the validity of
the market research.
 Generalization of results: Results of this research method can be
generalized to an entire population to take appropriate actions for
improvement.

Quantitative research examples

Some examples of quantitative research are:

1. If any organization would like to conduct a customer satisfaction (CSAT) survey,

a customer satisfaction survey template can be used. Through this survey,
an organization can collect quantitative data and metrics on the goodwill of
the brand or organization in the mind of the customer based on multiple
parameters such as product quality, pricing, customer experience, etc. This
data can be collected by asking a net promoter score (NPS) question, matrix
table questions, etc. that provide data in the form of numbers that can be
analyzed and worked upon.
2. Another example of quantitative research is an organization that conducts
an event, collecting feedback from the event attendees about the value that
they see from the event. By using an event survey template, the organization
can collect actionable feedback about the satisfaction levels of customers
during various phases of the event such as the sales, pre and post-event,
 the likelihood of recommending the organization to their friends and
colleagues, hotel preferences for the future events and other such
questions.

What are the advantages of quantitative research?

There are many advantages of quantitative research. Some of the major
advantages of why researchers use this method in market research are:
 Collect reliable and accurate data: As data is collected, analyzed, and
presented in numbers, the results obtained will be extremely reliable.
Numbers do not lie. They offer an honest picture of the conducted research
without discrepancies and is also extremely accurate. In situations where a
researcher predicts conflict, quantitative research is conducted.
 Quick data collection: Quantitative research is carried out with a group of
respondents who represent a population. A survey or any other quantitative
research method is applied to these respondents and the involvement of
statistics, conducting, and analyzing results is quite straightforward and less
time-consuming.
 Wider scope of data analysis: Due to the statistics, this research method
provides a wide scope of data collection.
 Eliminate bias: This research method offers no scope for personal
comments or biasing of results. The results achieved are numerical and are
thus, fair in most cases.
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Best practices to conduct quantitative research

Here are some best practices to conduct quantitative research

 Differentiate between quantitative and qualitative: Understand the difference

between the two methodologies and apply the one that suits your needs
best.
 Choose a suitable sample size: Ensure that you have a sample
representative of your population and large enough to be statistically
weighty.
 Keep your research goals clear and concise: Know your research goals
before you begin data collection to ensure you collect the right amount and
the right quantity of data.
 Keep the questions simple: Remember that you will be reaching out to a
demographically wide audience. Pose simple questions for your
respondents to understand easily.
As mentioned above, quantitative research is data-oriented. There are two
methods to conduct quantitative research. They are:

 Primary quantitative research methods

 Secondary quantitative research methods
Primary Methods
There are four different types of quantitative research methods:

Primary quantitative research is the most widely used method of

conducting market research. The distinct feature of primary research is that the
researcher focuses on collecting data directly rather than depending on data
collected from previously done research. Primary quantitative research design
can be broken down into three further distinctive tracks, as well as the process
flow. They are:

A. Techniques and Types of Studies

There are multiple types of primary quantitative research. They can be
distinguished into the four following distinctive methods, which are:

1. Survey Research:
Survey Research is the most fundamental tool for all quantitative outcome
research methodologies and studies. Surveys used to ask questions to a
sample of respondents, using various types such as online polls, online
surveys, paper questionnaires, web-intercept surveys, etc. Every small and
big organization intends to understand what their customers think about their
products and services, how well are new features faring in the market and
other such details.

By conducting survey research, an organization can ask multiple survey

questions, collect data from a pool of customers, and analyze this collected
data to produce numerical results. It is the first step towards collecting data for
any research.

This type of research can be conducted with a specific target audience group
and also can be conducted across multiple groups along with comparative
analysis. A prerequisite for this type of research is that the sample of
respondents must have randomly selected members. This way, a researcher
can easily maintain the accuracy of the obtained results as a huge variety of
respondents will be addressed using random selection. Traditionally, survey
research was conducted face-to-face or via phone calls but with the progress
made by online mediums such as email or social media, survey research has
spread to online mediums as well.
 Traditionally, survey research was conducted face-to-face or via phone calls
but with the progress made by online mediums such as email or social media,
survey research has spread to online mediums as well.

There are two types of surveys, either of which can be chosen based on the
time in-hand and the kind of data required:

Cross-sectional surveys: Cross-sectional surveys are observational surveys

conducted in situations where the researcher intends to collect data from a
sample of the target population at a given point in time. Researchers can
evaluate various variables at a particular time. Data gathered using this type
of survey is from people who depict similarity in all variables except the
variables which are considered for research. Throughout the survey, this one
variable will stay constant.

 Cross-sectional surveys are popular with retail, SMEs, healthcare industries.

Information is garnered without modifying any parameters in the variable
ecosystem.
 Using a cross-sectional survey research method, multiple samples can be
analyzed and compared.
 Multiple variables can be evaluated using this type of survey research.
 The only disadvantage of cross-sectional surveys is that the cause-effect
relationship of variables cannot be established as it usually evaluates
variables at a particular time and not across a continuous time frame.
Longitudinal surveys: Longitudinal surveys are also observational surveys but,
unlike cross-sectional surveys, longitudinal surveys are conducted across
various time durations to observe a change in respondent behavior and
thought-processes. This time can be days, months, years, or even decades.
For instance, a researcher planning to analyze the change in buying habits of
teenagers over 5 years will conduct longitudinal surveys.

 In cross-sectional surveys, the same variables were evaluated at a given

point in time, and in longitudinal surveys, different variables can be analyzed
at different intervals of time.
 Longitudinal surveys are extensively used in the field of medicine and
applied sciences. Apart from these two fields, they are also used to observe
a change in the market trend, analyze customer satisfaction, or gain
feedback on products/services.
 In situations where the sequence of events is highly essential, longitudinal
surveys are used.
 Researchers say that when there are research subjects that need to be
thoroughly inspected before concluding, they rely on longitudinal surveys.

2. Correlational research:
A comparison between two entities is invariable. Correlation research is
conducted to establish a relationship between two closely-knit entities and
how one impacts the other and what are the changes that are eventually
observed. This research method is carried out to give value to naturally
occurring relationships, and a minimum of two different groups are required to
conduct this quantitative research method successfully. Without assuming
various aspects, a relationship between two groups or entities must be
established.

Researchers use this quantitative research design to correlate two or more

variables using mathematical analysis methods. Patterns, relationships, and
trends between variables are concluded as they exist in their original set up.
The impact of one of these variables on the other is observed along with how
it changes the relationship between the two variables. Researchers tend to
manipulate one of the variables to attain the desired results.

Ideally, it is advised not to make conclusions merely based on correlational

research. This is because it is not mandatory that if two variables are in sync
that they are interrelated.

Example of Correlational Research Questions:

 The relationship between stress and depression.

The equation between fame and money.
The relation between activities in a third-grade class and its students.

3. Causal-comparative research:
This research method mainly depends on the factor of comparison. Also
called quasi-experimental research, this quantitative research method is used
by researchers to conclude the cause-effect equation between two or more
variables, where one variable is dependent on the other independent variable.
The independent variable is established but not manipulated, and its impact
on the dependent variable is observed. These variables or groups must be
formed as they exist in the natural set up. As the dependent and independent
 variables will always exist in a group, it is advised that the conclusions are
carefully established by keeping all the factors in mind.

Causal-comparative research is not restricted to the statistical analysis of two

variables but extends to analyzing how various variables or groups change
under the influence of the same changes. This research is conducted
irrespective of the type of relation that exists between two or more variables.
Statistical analysis is used to distinctly present the outcome obtained using
this quantitative research method.

Example of Causal-Comparative Research Questions:

 The impact of drugs on a teenager.

The effect of good education on a freshman.
The effect of substantial food provision in the villages of Africa.

4. Experimental research:
Also known as true experimentation, this research method is reliant on a
theory. Experimental research, as the name suggests, is usually based on one
or more theories. This theory has not been proven in the past and is merely a
supposition. In experimental research, an analysis is done around proving or
disproving the statement. This research method is used in natural
sciences.Traditional research methods are more effective than modern
techniques.

There can be multiple theories in experimental research. A theory is a

statement that can be verified or refuted.

After establishing the statement, efforts are made to understand whether it is

valid or invalid. This type of quantitative research method is mainly used in
natural or social sciences as there are various statements which need to be
proved right or wrong.

 Traditional research methods are more effective than modern techniques.

 Systematic teaching schedules help children who find it hard to cope up with
the course.
 It is a boon to have responsible nursing staff for ailing parents.
 Gather research insights

B. Data collection methodologies

The second major step in primary quantitative research is data collection. Data
collection can be divided into sampling methods and data collection with the
use of surveys and polls.

Data collection methodologies: Sampling methods

There are two main sampling methods for quantitative research: Probability
and Non-probability sampling.

 Probability sampling:
A theory of probability is used to filter individuals from a population and create
samples in probability sampling. Participants of a sample are chosen random
selection processes. Each member of the target audience has an equal
opportunity to be selected in the sample.

There are four main types of probability sampling:

1. Simple random sampling: As the name indicates, simple random sampling

is nothing but a random selection of elements for a sample. This sampling
technique is implemented where the target population is considerably large.
2. Stratified random sampling: In the stratified random sampling method, a
large population is divided into groups (strata), and members of a sample
are chosen randomly from these strata. The various segregated strata
should ideally not overlap one another.
3. Cluster sampling: Cluster sampling is a probability sampling method using
which the main segment is divided into clusters, usually using geographic
and demographic segmentation parameters.
4. Systematic sampling: Systematic sampling is a technique where the starting
point of the sample is chosen randomly, and all the other elements are
chosen using a fixed interval. This interval is calculated by dividing the
population size by the target sample size.

 Non-probability sampling:
 Non-probability sampling is where the researcher’s knowledge and experience
are used to create samples. Because of the involvement of the researcher,
not all the members of a target population have an equal probability of being
selected to be a part of a sample.

There are five non-probability sampling models:

1. Convenience sampling: In convenience sampling, elements of a sample are

chosen only due to one prime reason: their proximity to the researcher.
These samples are quick and easy to implement as there is no other
parameter of selection involved.
2. Consecutive sampling: Consecutive sampling is quite similar to convenience
sampling, except for the fact that researchers can choose a single element
or a group of samples and conduct research consecutively over a significant
period and then perform the same process with other samples.
3. Quota sampling: Using quota sampling, researchers can select elements
using their knowledge of target traits and personalities to form strata.
Members of various strata can then be chosen to be a part of the sample as
per the researcher’s understanding.
4. Snowball sampling: Snowball sampling is conducted with target audiences,
which are difficult to contact and get information. It is popular in cases
where the target audience for analysis research is rare to put together.
5. Judgmental sampling: Judgmental sampling is a non-probability sampling
method where samples are created only based on the researcher’s
experience and skill.

Data collection methodologies: Using surveys & polls

Once the sample is determined, then either surveys or polls can be distributed
to collect the data for quantitative research.

 Using surveys for primary quantitative research

A survey is defined as a research method used for collecting data from a pre-
defined group of respondents to gain information and insights on various
topics of interest. The ease of survey distribution and the wide number of
people it can be reached depending on the research time and research
objective make it one of the most important aspects of conducting quantitative
outcome research.
 Fundamental levels of measurement – nominal, ordinal, interval and
ratio scales

There are four measurement scales that are fundamental to creating a multiple-

choice question in a survey. They are nominal, ordinal, interval, and ratio
measurement scales without the fundamentals of which, no multiple-choice
questions can be created. Hence, it is crucial to understand these levels of
measurement to be able to develop a robust survey.

Use of different question types

To conduct quantitative research, close-ended questions have to be used in a

survey. They can be a mix of multiple question types including multiple-choice
questions like semantic differential scale questions, rating scale questions,
etc.

Survey Distribution and Survey Data Collection

In the above, we have seen the process of building a survey along with
the research design to conduct primary quantitative research. Survey
distribution to collect data is the other important aspect of the survey process.
There are different ways of survey distribution. Some of the most commonly
used methods are:

 Email: Sending a survey via email is the most widely used and most
effective method of survey distribution. The response rate is high in this
method because the respondents are aware of your brand. You can use the
QuestionPro email management feature to send out and collect survey
responses.
 Buy respondents: Another effective way to distribute a survey and conduct
primary quantitative research is to use a sample. Since the respondents are
knowledgeable and are on the panel by their own will, responses are much
higher.
 Embed survey on a website: Embedding a survey in a website increases
a high number of responses as the respondent is already in close proximity
to the brand when the survey pops up.
 Social distribution: Using social media to distribute the survey aids in
collecting a higher number of responses from the people that are aware of
the brand.
 QR code: QuestionPro QR codes store the URL for the survey. You can
print/publish this code in magazines, on signs, business cards, or on just
about any object/medium.
 SMS survey: A quick and time-effective way of conducting a survey to
collect a high number of responses is the SMS survey.
 QuestionPro app: The QuestionPro App allows users to circulate surveys
quickly, and the responses can be collected both online and offline.
Survey example

An example of a survey is short customer satisfaction (CSAT) survey template that

can quickly be built and deployed to collect feedback about what the customer
thinks about a brand and how satisfied and referenceable the brand is.

 Using polls for primary quantitative research

Polls are a method to collect feedback with the use of close-ended
questions from a sample. The most commonly used types of polls are election
polls and exit polls. Both of these are used to collect data from a large sample
size but using basic question types like a multiple-choice question.

C. Data analysis techniques

The third aspect of primary quantitative research design is data analysis. After
the collection of raw data, there has to be an analysis of this data to derive
statistical inferences from this research. It is important to relate the results to
the objective of the research and establish the statistical relevance of the
results.

It is important to consider aspects of research that were not considered for the
data collection process and report the difference between what was planned
vs. what was actually executed.

It is then required to select precise statistical analysis methods such as

SWOT, Conjoint, Cross-tabulation, etc. to analyze the quantitative data.

 SWOT analysis: SWOT Analysis stands for the acronym of Strengths,

Weakness, Opportunities, and Threat analysis. Organizations use this
statistical analysis technique to evaluate their performance internally and
externally to develop effective strategies for improvement.
 Conjoint Analysis: Conjoint Analysis is a market analysis method to learn
how individuals make complicated purchasing decisions. Trade-offs are
 involved in the daily activities of an individual, and these reflect their ability
to decide from a complex list of product/service options.
 Cross-tabulation: Cross-tabulation is one of the preliminary statistical market
analysis methods which establishes relationships, patterns, and trends
within the various parameters of the research study.
 TURF Analysis: TURF Analysis, an acronym for Totally Unduplicated Reach
and Frequency Analysis, is executed in situations where the reach of a
favorable communication source is to be analyzed along with the frequency
of this communication. It is used for understanding the potential of a target
market.
Inferential statistics methods such as confidence interval, the margin of error,
etc. can then be used to provide results.

Secondary Methods
Secondary quantitative research or desk research is a research method that
involves using already existing data or secondary data. Existing data is
summarized and collated to increase the overall effectiveness of research.

This research method involves the collection of quantitative data from existing
data sources like the internet, government resources, libraries, research
reports, etc. Secondary quantitative research helps to validate the data that is
collected from primary quantitative research as well as aid in strengthening or
proving or disproving previously collected data.

Following are five popularly used secondary quantitative research methods:

1. Data available on the internet: With the high penetration of internet and

mobile devices, it has become increasingly easy to conduct quantitative
research using the internet. Information about most research topics is
available online, and this aids in boosting the validity of primary quantitative
data as well as proving the relevance of previously collected data.
2. Government and non-government sources: Secondary quantitative
research can also be conducted with the help of government and non-
government sources that deal with market research reports. This data is
highly reliable and in-depth and hence, can be used to increase the validity
of quantitative research design.
3. Public libraries: Now a sparingly used method of conducting quantitative
research, it is still a reliable source of information though. Public libraries
have copies of important research that were conducted earlier. They are a
 storehouse of valuable information and documents from which information
can be extracted.
4. Educational institutions: Educational institutions conduct in-depth
research on multiple topics, and hence, the reports that they publish are an
important source of validation in quantitative research.
5. Commercial information sources: Local newspapers, journals,
magazines, radio, and TV stations are a great source to obtain data for
secondary quantitative research. These commercial information sources
have in-depth, first-hand information on economic developments, political
agendas, market research, demographic segmentation, and similar
subjects.

Quantitative research methods

You can use quantitative research methods for descriptive, correlational or experimental
research.

 In descriptive research, you simply seek an overall summary of your study

variables.
 In correlational research, you investigate relationships between your study
variables.
 In experimental research, you systematically examine whether there is a cause-
and-effect relationship between variables.

Correlational and experimental research can both be used to formally test hypotheses,

or predictions, using statistics. The results may be generalized to broader populations
based on the sampling method used.

To collect quantitative data, you will often need to use operational definitions that

translate abstract concepts (e.g., mood) into observable and quantifiable measures
(e.g., self-ratings of feelings and energy levels).

Quantitative research methods

Research How to use Example

method

Experiment Control or manipulate To test whether an intervention can reduce procrastination in college students,
an independent variable to you give equal-sized groups either a procrastination intervention or a
measure its effect on a comparable task. You compare self-ratings of procrastination behaviors
dependent variable. between the groups after the intervention.
Quantitative research methods

Research How to use Example

method

Survey Ask questions of a group of You distribute questionnaires with rating scales to first-year international
people in-person, over-the- college students to investigate their experiences of culture shock.
phone or online.

(Systematic) Identify a behavior or To study college classroom participation, you sit in on classes to observe them,
observation occurrence of interest and counting and recording the prevalence of active and passive behaviors by
monitor it in its natural setting. students from different backgrounds.

Secondary Collect data that has been To assess whether attitudes towards climate change have changed since the
research gathered for other purposes e.g., 1980s, you collect relevant questionnaire data from widely
national surveys or historical available longitudinal studies.
records.

Quantitative data analysis

Once data is collected, you may need to process it before it can be analyzed. For
example, survey and test data may need to be transformed from words to numbers.
Then, you can use statistical analysis to answer your research questions.

Descriptive statistics will give you a summary of your data and include measures of
averages and variability. You can also use graphs, scatter plots and frequency tables to
visualize your data and check for any trends or outliers.

Using inferential statistics, you can make predictions or generalizations based on your

data. You can test your hypothesis or use your sample data to estimate the population
parameter.

Examples of descriptive and inferential statisticsYou hypothesize that first-year college students
procrastinate more than fourth-year college students. You collect data on procrastination levels
of the two groups using 7-point self-rating scales.
First, you use descriptive statistics to get a summary of the data. You find the mean (average)
and the mode (most frequent rating) of procrastination of the two groups, and plot the data to see
if there are any outliers.

Next, you perform inferential statistics to test your hypothesis. Using a t-test to compare the
mean ratings of the two groups, you find a significant difference and support for your hypothesis.
You can also assess the reliability and validity of your data collection methods to
indicate how consistently and accurately your methods actually measured what you
wanted them to.

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Advantages of quantitative research

Quantitative research is often used to standardize data collection and generalize
findings.
Strengths of this approach include:

 Replication

Repeating the study is possible because of standardized data collection protocols and

tangible definitions of abstract concepts.

 Direct comparisons of results

The study can be reproduced in other cultural settings, times or with different groups of
participants. Results can be compared statistically.

 Large samples

Data from large samples can be processed and analyzed using reliable and consistent
procedures through quantitative data analysis.

 Hypothesis testing

Using formalized and established hypothesis testing procedures means that you have to

carefully consider and report your research variables, predictions, data collection and
testing methods before coming to a conclusion.

Disadvantages of quantitative research

Despite the benefits of quantitative research, it is sometimes inadequate in explaining
complex research topics. Its limitations include:

 Superficiality

Using precise and restrictive operational definitions may inadequately represent

complex concepts. For example, the concept of mood may be represented with just a
number in quantitative research, but explained with elaboration in qualitative research.

 Narrow focus
Predetermined variables and measurement procedures can mean that you ignore other
relevant observations.

 Structural bias

Despite standardized procedures, structural biases can still affect quantitative

research. Missing data, imprecise measurements or inappropriate sampling
methods are biases that can lead to the wrong conclusions.

 Lack of context

Quantitative research often uses unnatural settings like laboratories or fails to consider
historical and cultural contexts that may affect data collection and results.

Methods used for quantitative data collection 

A data that can be counted or expressed in numerical’s constitute the
quantitative data. It is commonly used to study the events or levels of
concurrence. And is collected through a structured questionnaire asking
questions starting with “how much” or “how many.” As the quantitative data is
numerical, it represents both definitive and objective data. Furthermore,
quantitative information is much sorted for statistical and mathematical
analysis, making it possible to illustrate it in the form of charts and graphs.  

Discrete and continuous are the two major categories of quantitative data
where discreet data have finite numbers and the constant data values falling
on a continuum possessing the possibility to have fractions or decimals. If
research is conducted to find out the number of vehicles owned by the
American household, then we get a whole number, which is an excellent
example of discrete data. When research is limited to the study of physical
measurements of the population like height, weight, age, or distance, then the
result is an excellent example of continuous data.

Any traditional or online data collection method that helps in gathering

numerical data is a proven method of collecting quantitative data. 

Probability sampling
A definitive method of sampling carried out by utilizing some form of random
selection and enabling researchers to make a probability statement based on
 data collected at random from the targeted demographic. One of the best
things about probability sampling is it allows researchers to collect the data
from representatives of the population they are interested in studying.
Besides, the data is collected randomly from the selected sample rules out the
possibility of sampling bias. 

There are three significant types of probability sampling

 Simple random sampling: More often, the targeted demographic is chosen

for inclusion in the sample. 
 Systematic random sampling: Any of the targeted demographic would be
included in the sample, but only the first unit for inclusion in the sample is
selected randomly, rest are selected in the ordered fashion as if one out of
every ten people on the list. 
 Stratified random sampling: It allows selecting each unit from a particular
group of the targeted audience while creating a sample. It is useful when the
researchers are selective about including a specific set of people in the
sample, i.e., only males or females, managers or executives, people
working within a particular industry. 

Interviews
Interviewing people is a standard method used for data collection. However,
the interviews conducted to collect quantitative data are more structured,
wherein the researchers ask only a standard set of questionnaires and
nothing more than that. 

There are three major types of interviews conducted for data collection 

 Telephone interviews: For years, telephone interviews ruled the charts of

data collection methods. However, nowadays, there is a significant rise in
conducting video interviews using the internet, Skype, or similar online video
calling platforms. 
 Face-to-face interviews: It is a proven technique to collect data directly
from the participants. It helps in acquiring quality data as it provides a scope
to ask detailed questions and probing further to collect rich and informative
data. Literacy requirements of the participant are irrelevant as F2F
surveys offer ample opportunities to collect non-verbal data through
observation or to explore complex and unknown issues. Although it can be
an expensive and time-consuming method, the response rates for F2F
interviews are often higher. 
 Computer-Assisted Personal Interviewing (CAPI): It is nothing but a
similar setup of the face-to-face interview where the interviewer carries a
desktop or laptop along with him at the time of interview to upload the data
obtained from the interview directly into the database. CAPI saves a lot of
time in updating and processing the data and also makes the entire process
paperless as the interviewer does not carry a bunch of papers and
questionnaires. 

Surveys/questionnaires
Surveys or questionnaires created using online survey software are playing a
pivotal role in online data collection be is quantitative or qualitative research.
The surveys are designed in a manner to legitimize the behavior and trust of
the respondents. More often, checklists and rating scale type of questions
make the bulk of quantitative surveys as it helps in simplifying and quantifying
the attitude or behavior of the respondents. 

There are two significant types of survey questionnaires used to collect online
data for quantitative market research. 

 Web-based questionnaire: This is one of the ruling and most trusted

methods for internet-based research or online research. In a web-based
questionnaire, the receive an email containing the survey link, clicking on
which takes the respondent to a secure online survey tool from where
he/she can take the survey or fill in the survey questionnaire. Being a cost-
efficient, quicker, and having a wider reach, web-based surveys are more
preferred by the researchers. The primary benefit of a web-based
questionnaire is flexibility; respondents are free to take the survey in their
free time using either a desktop, laptop, tablet, or mobile. 
 Mail Questionnaire: In a mail questionnaire, the survey is mailed out to a
host of the sample population, enabling the researcher to connect with a
wide range of audiences. The mail questionnaire typically consists of a
packet containing a cover sheet that introduces the audience about the type
of research and reason why it is being conducted along with a prepaid
return to collect data online. Although the mail questionnaire has a higher
churn rate compared to other quantitative data collection methods, adding
certain perks such as reminders and incentives to complete the survey help
in drastically improving the churn rate. One of the major benefits of the mail
questionnaire is all the responses are anonymous, and respondents are
allowed to take as much time as they want to complete the survey and be
completely honest about the answer without the fear of prejudice. 
Observations
As the name suggests, it is a pretty simple and straightforward method of
collecting quantitative data. In this method, researchers collect quantitative
data through systematic observations by using techniques like counting the
number of people present at the specific event at a particular time and a
particular venue or number of people attending the event in a designated
place. More often, for quantitative data collection, the researchers have a
 naturalistic observation approach that needs keen observation skills and
senses for getting the numerical data about the “what” and not about “why”
and ”how.” 

Naturalistic observation is used to collect both types of data; qualitative and

quantitative. However, structured observation is more used to collect
quantitative rather than qualitative data. 

 Structured observation: In this type of observation method, the researcher

has to make careful observations of one or more specific behaviors in a
more comprehensive or structured setting compared to naturalistic
or participant observation. In a structured observation, the researchers,
rather than observing everything, focus only on very specific behaviors of
interest. It allows them to quantify the behaviors they are observing. When
the observations require a judgment on the part of the observers – it is often
described as coding, which requires a clearly defining a set of target
behaviors. 

Document Review in Quantitative Data Collection

Document review is a process used to collect data after reviewing the existing
documents. It is an efficient and effective way of gathering data as documents
are manageable and are the practical resource to get qualified data from the
past. Apart from strengthening and supporting the research by providing
supplementary research data document review has emerged as one of the
beneficial methods to gather quantitative research data. 

Three primary document types are being analyzed for collecting supporting
quantitative research data 

 Public Records: Under this document review, official, ongoing records of

an organization are analyzed for further research. For example, annual
reports policy manuals, student activities, game activities in the university,
etc. 
 Personal Documents: In contrast to public documents, this type of
document review deals with individual personal accounts of individuals’
actions, behavior, health, physique, etc. For example, the height and weight
of the students, distance students are traveling to attend the school, etc. 
 Physical Evidence: Physical evidence or physical documents deal with
previous achievements of an individual or of an organization in terms of
monetary and scalable growth. 
Conclusion 
Quantitative data is not about convergent reasoning, but it is about divergent
thinking. It deals with the numerical, logic, and an objective stance, by
focusing on numeric and unchanging data. More often, data collection
methods are used to collect quantitative research data, and the results are
dependent on the larger sample sizes that are commonly representing the
population researcher intend to study. 

Although there are many other methods to collect quantitative data, those
mentioned above probability sampling, interviews, questionnaire observation,
and document review are the most common and widely used methods either
offline or for online data collection. 

Quantitative data research is comprehensive, and perhaps the only data type
that could display analytic results in charts and graphs. Quality data will give
you precise results, and data analysis is probably the essential component,
which will not only hamper the integrity and authenticity of your research but
will also make the findings unstable if you have weak data. Therefore, it does
not matter what method you chose to collect quantitative data, ensure that the
data collected is of good quality to provide insightful and actionable insights. 

Quantitative and Qualitative Data collection methods

The Quantitative data collection methods, rely on random sampling and structured
data collection instruments that fit diverse experiences into predetermined response
categories. They produce results that are easy to summarize, compare, and generalize. 

Quantitative research is concerned with testing hypotheses derived from theory and/or
being able to estimate the size of a phenomenon of interest.  Depending on the
research question, participants may be randomly assigned to different treatments.  If
this is not feasible, the researcher may collect data on participant and situational
characteristics in order to statistically control for their influence on the dependent, or
outcome, variable. If the intent is to generalize from the research participants to a
larger population, the researcher will employ probability sampling to select
participants. 

Typical quantitative data gathering strategies include:

 Experiments/clinical trials.
  Observing and recording well-defined events (e.g., counting the number of
patients waiting in emergency at specified times of the day).
 Obtaining relevant data from management information systems.
 Administering surveys with closed-ended questions (e.g., face-to face and
telephone interviews, questionnaires
etc). (http://www.achrn.org/quantitative_methods.htm)

Interviews

In Quantitative research(survey research),interviews are more structured than in

Qualitative research.(http://www.stat.ncsu.edu/info/srms/survpamphlet.html

In a structured interview,the researcher asks a standard set of questions and nothing

more.(Leedy and Ormrod, 2001)

Face -to -face interviews have a distinct advantage of enabling the researcher to

establish rapport with potential partiocipants and therefor gain their cooperation.These
interviews yield highest response rates in survey research.They also allow the
researcher to clarify ambiguous answers and when appropriate, seek follow-up
information. Disadvantages include impractical when large samples are involved time
consuming and expensive.(Leedy and Ormrod, 2001)

Telephone interviews are less time consuming and less expensive and the researcher
has ready access to anyone on the planet who hasa telephone.Disadvantages are that
the response rate is not as high as the face-to- face interview but cosiderably higher
than the mailed questionnaire.The sample may be biased to the extent that people
without phones are part of the population about whom the researcher wants to draw
inferences.

Computer Assisted Personal Interviewing (CAPI): is a form of personal

interviewing, but instead of completing a questionnaire, the interviewer brings along a
laptop or hand-held computer to enter the information directly into the database. This
method saves time involved in processing the data, as well as saving the interviewer
from carrying around hundreds of questionnaires. However, this type of data
collection method can be expensive to set up and requires that interviewers have
computer and typing skills.

Questionnaires

Paper-pencil-questionnaires can be sent to a large number of people and saves the

researcher time and money.People are more truthful while responding to the
questionnaires regarding controversial issues in particular due to the fact that their
responses are anonymous. But they also have drawbacks.Majority of the people who
receive questionnaires don't return them and those who do might not be representative
of the originally selected sample.(Leedy and Ormrod, 2001)

Web based questionnaires : A new and inevitably growing methodology is the use
of Internet based research. This would mean receiving an e-mail on which you would
click on an address that would take you to a secure web-site to fill in a questionnaire.
This type of research is often quicker and less detailed.Some disadvantages of this
method include the exclusion of people who do not have a computer or are unable to
access a computer.Also the validity of such surveys are in question as people might be
in a hurry to complete it and so might not give accurate responses.
(http://www.statcan.ca/english/edu/power/ch2/methods/methods.htm)

Questionnaires often make use of Checklist and rating scales.These devices help
simplify and quantify people's behaviors and attitudes.A checklist is a list of
behaviors,characteristics,or other entities that te researcher is looking for.Either the
researcher or survey participant simply checks whether each item on the list is
observed, present or true or vice versa.A rating scale is more useful when a behavior
needs to be evaluated on a continuum.They are also known as Likert scales. (Leedy
and Ormrod, 2001)

Qualitative data collection methods play an important role in impact evaluation by

providing information useful to understand the processes behind observed results and
assess changes in people’s perceptions of their well-being.Furthermore qualitative
methods can beused to improve the quality of survey-based quantitative evaluations
by helping generate evaluation hypothesis; strengthening the design of survey
questionnaires and expanding or clarifying quantitative evaluation findings. These
methods are characterized by the following attributes:

 they tend to be open-ended and have less structured protocols (i.e., researchers
may change the data collection strategy by adding, refining, or dropping
techniques or informants)
 they rely more heavily on iteractive interviews; respondents may be
interviewed several times to follow up on a particular issue, clarify concepts or
check the reliability of data
 they use triangulation to increase the credibility of their findings (i.e.,
researchers rely on multiple data collection methods to check the authenticity
of their results)
  generally their findings are not generalizable to any specific population, rather
each case study produces a single piece of evidence that can be used to seek
general patterns among different studies of the same issue

Regardless of the kinds of data involved,data collection in a qualitative study takes a

great deal of time.The researcher needs to record any potentially useful data
thououghly,accurately, and systematically,using field
notes,sketches,audiotapes,photographs and other suitable means.The data collection
methods must observe the ethical principles of research.

The qualitative methods most commonly used in evaluation can be classified in three
broad categories: 

 indepth interview
 observation methods
 document review
Quantitative research sampling
methods
By examining the nature of the small group, the researcher can deduce the
behaviour of the larger population. Quantitative research sampling
methods are broadly divided into two categories i.e.

1. Probability sampling

2. Non-probability sampling

Figure 1: Quantitative research sampling methods

Probability sampling method

In probability sampling, each unit in the population has an equal chance of
being selected for the sample. The purpose is to identify those sample sets
which majorly represent the characteristics of the population. Herein, all
the characteristics of the population are required to be known. This is done
through a process known as ‘listing’. This process of listing is called the
sampling frame. As probability sampling is a type of random sampling, the
generalization is more accurate.
Probability sampling is quite time-consuming and expensive. Hence, this
method is only suitable in cases wherein the population are similar in
characteristics, and the researcher has time, money, and access to the
whole population. Probability sampling is further categorized into 4 types:
simple random, systematic, stratified and cluster sampling. The figure
below depicts the types of probability sampling.

Figure 1: Types of probability sampling

The difference between and applicability of these sampling methods are
depicted in the table below.

Qualitative
Research
Sampling Type Meaning Applicable Example
Sampling
Method
 A survey is
conducted
Suitable for a
in a
small
company of
population.
100
Expensive and
Random employees
Probability time-consuming.
selection of the for
Sampling Simple Random Requires a
units from a determining
Method sampling frame.
population. their
Variability in the
satisfaction
characteristics
level. 20 of
is not
them are
significant.
selected at
random.

Suitable for a
small
population.
Applicable when
Initially, the 4th
the researcher
Selection of units employee is
has time and
from a population selected and
Systematic money.
at regular then every 5th
Requires a
intervals. employee is
sampling frame.
selected.
Variability in the
characteristics
of units is not
very large.

Stratified Random Suitable for Division of

selection of the populations employees on
units from the having variability the basis of
sub-population in gender first, and
formulated based characteristics. then selecting
on the variability Applicable when them randomly.
in the the researcher
characteristics of has limited time
the population. and money.
This selection A sampling
from strata frame is
(groups) could be
 proportional or
required.
non-proportional.

Suitable for a
large population.
Applicable when
the researcher
Categorization of
has limited time Dividing the
the very large
and money. employees into
population in
Suitable when clusters based
different clusters
the entire on geographical
Cluster (groups) based
population can location and
on their
be divided into then selecting
geographical
clusters based the clusters
area or any other
on some randomly.
feature.
common feature
like
geographical
area.

Table 1: Probability-based Quantitative research sampling methods

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Non-probability sampling method

Non-probability-based quantitative research sampling method involves
non-random selection of the sample from the entire population. All units of
the population do not an equal chance of participating in the survey.
Therefore, the results cannot be generalized for the population.
The non-probability technique of sampling is based on the subjective
judgement of the researcher. Hence this method can be applied in cases
wherein limited information about the population is available. Moreover, it
requires less time and money. Non-probability sampling method can be of
four types as shown below.
Figure 2: Types of non-probability sampling

Qualitative
Research
Sampling Type Meaning Applicable Example
Sampling
Method

Non- Convenience Selection of Suitable for a A study is

Probability units which are large population. done to know
Sampling convenient for Requires less time the perception
Method the researcher and money. of the Delhi
to approach. Don’t need to NCR people
generalize the about the
results. cleanliness
initiatives by
the
government. A
sample of 200
people living
 nearby is
collected.

A study needs to
Sample for the be done for
study is selected knowing the
based on the Suitable for a perception of
perception or large people about
knowledge or population who women
judgement of the are difficult to empowerment.
Purposive researcher about reach. Thus, 100
the required Preferred when females’ students
sample set. the researcher from the nearby
Thus, sample has less time institution were
units are and money. approached and
handpicked from included in the
the population. study as the
sample units.

Selection of the
sample units
from the different A study is done
categories of for collecting
people (male, Applicable reviews of people
female, when different about the
youngsters, characteristics cosmetic brand.
teenagers, or are present in Two categories
adult) formulated population i.e. are defined by the
in the population- groups could researcher i.e.
Quota based on certain be formulated male and female.
criteria (quota). from the Thus, placing a
These categories population. quota that the
are defined as Preferred when sample unit
per researcher the researcher should be
view on traits, has less time between 25-45
features, or and money. years, the sample
interest. Herein, of 100 people is
the sample is selected.
selected from
each category.
 Applicable
when targeted
population is
Selection of the
very less
sample units
Suitable when A study is done
based on the
difficult to based on the
network
identify or difficulties faced
formulated by
locate a by undocumented
connecting with
targeted immigrants. Thus,
more units form
population. the researcher
the population.
Snowball Suitable in the approach one
Herein,
case when such immigrant
approached unit
targeted and by the help of
suggest
population are him/her approach
researcher the
not willing to other immigrants
other units which
disclose for collecting
could be
themselves. information.
included in the
Preferred when
study.
researcher has
less time and
money.

Table 2: Non-probability-based Quantitative research sampling method

The results of the quantitative research are mainly based on the
information acquired from the sample. An effective sample yields a
representable outcome. To draw valid and reliable conclusions, it is
essential to carefully compute the sample size of the study and define the
sampling technique of the study.