Generator Control

GOVENOR VOLTAGE
REGULATOR

PRIME MOVER GENERATOR Exciter

AC Generator

Basic Terminology

➢ Power

– Active Power (P Watts)

Active power or real power is the rate at
which energy is consumed resulting in
useful work being done.
U

– Reactive Power (Q, Vars) Q

Reactive power is the power produced
by current flowing through reactive
elements, whether inductance or
capacitance. θ
Reactive power can also be considered P
as the rate of exchange of energy
between a capacitor or inductor load
and a generator or between capacitors
and inductors. U² = P²+Q²
U = VI
– Apparent Power (U, Volt-Amps) P = VI cosθ
Q = VI sinθ
Apparent power is the total or combined
power produced by current flowing
through any combination of passive and
reactive elements.
GENERATOR
GOVERNOR CONTROL
 Governor - control
Introduction

– What is the Governor ?

The essential device which controls the speed or power output of Prime Mover.

– A governor senses the speed (or load) of a prime mover and controls the fuel (or steam) to the prime
mover to maintain its speed (or load) at a desired level.

– In some cases, the governor controls other factors that determine the speed or load of the prime
mover.

– A governor ends up controlling the energy source to a prime mover to control its power so it can be
used for a specific purpose.

Droop
setting

VARIABLE
LOAD
No Load SPEED
Set point GOVENOR
Shaft
Fuel Control Valve
Speed I
VT

PRIME MOVER GENERATOR Exciter

Generator Speed Governor control

 Governor - control
Example

– Drive a car, you’ve functioned as a governor when you control the car’s speed
under varying driving conditions.

➢ As the car starts uphill,

The load increases and actual speed decreases.
The driver notes that actual speed is less than desired speed and moves the throttle to
increase speed back to the desired speed at the increased load.

➢ As the car goes downhill,

The load decreases and actual speed increases.
The driver notes that actual speed is greater than desired speed and decrease the
throttle to return to the desired speed with the decreased load.
 Governor - control
Governor Components

– All governors have five fundamental components:

1. A way to set the desired speed.

(The driver sets the desired speed mentally.)

2. A way to sense actual speed.

(The driver refers to the speedometer).

3. A way to compare the actual speed to the desired speed.

(The driver compares the two items mentally.)

4. A way for the governor to change the fuel to the prime mover
(moving the rack or fuel valve). (The driver moves the throttle.)

5. A way to stabilize the engine after a fuel change has been made.
 Governor - control
1. Speed Setting

– Setting the “desired speed” of a governor is necessary to

efficiently control prime movers.

– Modern governors have advanced systems of speed setting

which can compensate for a variety of conditions when
determining the desired speed.

Hydro-mechanical governors use what is known as a

speeder spring. The more force applied to this spring, the
higher the desired speed setting is.

Electronic controls use an electronic force (voltage and

current) to set speed. The more the force is increased, the
more the output to the fuel increases.
 Governor - control
2. Sensing Speed

– The governor must receive a force that is proportional to the

speed of a prime mover.

In hydro-mechanical governors, it is done by the centrifugal force

of flyweights being rotated from a drive system that is connected to
the prime mover, and is directly related to the speed of the prime
mover.

In electronic controls, this force comes from sensing of the

frequency of a magnetic pickup, alternator, or generator which is
directly related to the speed of the prime mover. The frequency is
then changed to an electronic force that the control can use.

In both cases, the faster the engine runs, the stronger the speed
sensing force becomes.
 Governor - control
3. Comparing the “Actual Speed” to the “Desired Speed”

– The force of the “desired speed setting” and the force of the “actual speed” are compared or
“summed” together.
“Desired speed setting” is a force in one direction and
“actual speed” is a force in the opposite direction.

– When these opposing forces are the same value, their sum will be zero and at that point the
governor is controlling actual speed at the point of the desired speed setting.
If the “desired speed setting” force is stronger than the “actual speed” force, the governor will
increase fuel.
If the “actual speed” force is stronger than the “desired speed setting” force, the governor will
decrease fuel.

– As fuel is increased or decreased, these forces will change until they balance or “sum to
zero.”

In hydro-mechanical governors, these forces are summed at the “thrust bearing”.

In electronic controls, these forces are summed at what is known as a “summing point.”

– Note that other forces can be applied along with these forces to allow the governor to be
stabilized and perform other functions.

– Remember that all forces applied to the “thrust bearing” or “summing point” must
algebraically sum up to zero for the governor to control fuel at a steady state.
 Governor - control
4. Ways for the Governor to Change Fuel to the Prime Mover

– The hydro-mechanical governor or actuator normally has a

rotational or linear output shaft that is connected to the prime
mover‘s fuel system.
When the governor needs to make a fuel correction to
maintain speed (or load), the output shaft moves in the
proper direction to correct the final fuel setting.

– The electronic controls, an electrical signal is sent to an actuator

which converts this electrical signal to a mechanical force to
move the fuel setting in the same way the hydro-mechanical
governors do.

– Different types of governors and actuators have different

amounts of work output to meet the control needs of various
prime movers.
 Governor - control
5. Ways to Stabilize the Prime Mover

– Stabilization is accomplished through a variety of ways, but all of them

use a “feedback” system to apply a force to the “thrust bearing” or
“summing point.”

– This “feedback” is normally in the form of either:

➢ Droop or
➢ Compensation or
➢ A combination of both.

– Droop or compensation is usually related to the amount the output

shaft is told to move.
 GENERATOR
The governor is a proportional controller that
compares the actual engine speed with
The no-load set-point
The required generator speed droop setting.

The speed governor has five purposes:

1. To allow the synchronization the generator.
2. To act so that the Generator set supplies the customer MW
load on demand.
3. To change the load on the generator.
4. To carry out frequency correction (if it is necessary).
5. To control the Generator set during disturbance conditions.
 GENERATOR
Types of Governor control :
– Mechanical Governor
– Electronic governor
– Combination of electric and hydraulic
governor
– Manual frequency control
– Automatic frequency control
– External frequency control
 Droop
Droop
– Defined as a decrease in speed setting at the load increases.

– Droop is expressed as a percentage of the original speed setting from no load to full
load. The normal recommended percent of droop is 3% to 5%. A minimum of 2.5% is
required to maintain stability in a speed-droop governor.

– In operation,
the governor opens/closes the fuel valves in proportion of the speed
decrease/increase detected as compared to the total speed change allowed from
no-load to full-load.

The term speed droop is also some times called proportional band (eg: 2.5%
speed droop or 2.5% proportional band).

The governor feedback control will continue to adjust the valves until the speed
error is zero.

The allowable speed change is determined from the droop setting.

– More complex governors include temporary droop, which returns the speed setting to
its original speed setting after the engine has recovered from a change in speed or
load. The temporary droop is called “compensation.”
 Droop
Droop

– Why Is Droop Necessary?

In a system without droop, a load increase will cause the

engine to slow down. The governor will respond by
increasing the fuel until the engine speed has returned to the
original speed.

Instability problem can be eliminated with droop.

– As the load increases, speed setting is decreased. When

the governor moves to correct for the speed decrease
caused by the increased load, it will be correcting to a
lower speed setting.

– This lower speed setting prevents the speed from

overshooting.
 Droop
Schematic of Droop Governor
 Speed and Load sharing
The Basic Speed Control system consists of:

– (1) Speed Sensor.

A speed-sensing device, such as a magnetic pickup, senses the speed of the prime mover, and
converts it to an ac signal with a frequency proportional to prime mover speed.

– (2) Converter.
The frequency-to-voltage converter receives the ac signal from the speed sensor and changes it to a
proportional dc voltage.

– (3) A Speed Reference

A speed-reference circuit generates a dc “reference” voltage to which the speed signal voltage is
compared.
The speed signal voltage is compared to the reference voltage at the summing point. If the speed
signal voltage is lower or higher than the reference voltage, a signal is sent by the control amplifier
calling for an increase or decrease in speed.

– (4) A Speed Summer and Amplifier

An output proportional to the amount of fuel or steam required to maintain the desired speed at any
given load.

– (5)Actuator
To position the fuel or steam mechanism of the prime mover.
Balance Load Bridge
 GENERATOR
Electric Governor System ;
Loadsharing
Load sharing
 Governor Linkage
Linkage
– Governor operation is based on the assumption that linkage is so
arranged that a given movement in the governor output will provide a
proportional change in the fuel to the engine.

– Two types
1. Linear response (This is usually true of diesel engines.)
2. Non-linear response (This is particularly true of carbureted engines with
butterfly valves.)
 Magnetic Pickups
Magnetic Pickup Unit (MPU)

– It is basically a single pole,

alternating current, electric generator
consisting of a single magnet with a
multiple-layer coil of copper wire
wrapped around one pole piece.

– Principle operation - magnetic coil

operation.

– This increase and decrease of flux

induces an ac voltage into the coil
around the magnet.
 Magnetic Pickups
Magnetic Pickup Unit (MPU) - Count
– The output of this single pole generator, known
as a magnetic pickup (MPU), depends on
a) The surface speed of the gear being monitored,
b) The gap or clearance between the pole piece
and the gear teeth,
c) The dimensions of the magnetic pickup and
those of the gear
d) The impedance connected across the output coil
of the magnetic pickup.

– Setting the Gap

The gap between the end of the MPU and
the gear tooth is set at 0.25 to 1.02 mm
(0.010 to 0.040 inch) at the closest point.

A properly installed MPU will provide as

much as 50 Vac (rms) (most Woodward
controls require a minimum of 1.5 Vac at
the lowest speed).

One full turn counterclockwise will move

the MPU out 0.0555 inch (1.5 mm for the
metric model).
 GENERATOR
Isochronous

– An isochronous governor,
The speed is maintained
constant regardless of
generator loading.

– A constant frequency
operation
is called proportional plus
reset
is used only on single
generators that are not part
of a load sharing system. Isochronous Governor
Standby generators
 GENERATOR
Speed Droop Frequency % Speed
Change
Governor Speed Droop
– This droop setting is 62.4Hz +4%
used on the majority 61.8Hz +3%
of the generators
connected to the 61.2Hz +2%

Electricity Grid. 60.6Hz +1%

unloading
60Hz 0 Loading
– When a slope is added 50.4Hz -1%
to the governor droop
we obtain a five 58.8Hz -2%

characteristics droop 58.2Hz -3%

settings are shown, all
57.6Hz -4%
with the same slope.

– If you look at curve A,

the slope is 4% droop
per Total Rated Load.
% Rated Load
25% 50% 75% 100% or MW
 GENERATOR
% Speed
Speed Droop Frequency
Change

Governor Speed Droop

– Disadvantage, a speed 62.4Hz +4%

droop as compared to 61.8Hz +3%

isochronous mode. 61.2Hz +2%

60.6Hz +1%
The effect of a single 60Hz 0
generator with a C
large load suddenly 50.4Hz -1% A
applied (point B). 58.8Hz -2%

58.2Hz -3%
The NL set-point has
57.6Hz -4% B
to be increased to
bring the frequency
back up to 60Hz
(point C).

% Rated Load
25% 50% 75% 100% or MW

Single Generator Frequency Correction

 GENERATOR

Parallel Operation % Speed

Change
– on a Large (Infinite)
Frequency

Bus 62.4Hz +4%

The Volt and Freq will Speed

remain fairly constant Error
regardless of the
loading of the unit and
the generator will pick SP 60Hz 0 Grid
Frequency
up load.

The connected
generator is
constrained to share
the overall load 57.6Hz -4%
according to it’s droop
characteristic, while
the system frequency
maintains steady at
60Hz
% Rated Load
25% 50% 75% 100% or MW
100 200 300 400

Generator Loading on a Large Grid

 Governor Droops in Combined (parallel) Generating Set

% Speed % Speed
Change Change

Full
Speed
0
4%
Common
Speed (S)

MW SET A MW SET B
0 P 0
A B
Total Load (MV)
 Governor Droops in Combined (parallel) Generating Set
Increase of Load
% Speed
% Speed
Change
Change

Full
Speed
0
0’ Speed
Common S
Speed S’ falls

MW SET A
MW SET B
0 P P’ 0
A B
Total Load (MV)
A B’
New Total Load (MV)
 GENERATOR
Parallel Operation
– on a Finite Bus

There is a significant amount of impedance between the

paralleled generators and the infinite grid

The paralleled generators are in an island situation and

not connected to the infinite grid

As the electrical system decreases, the effect on the

operating frequency increases.
 GENERATOR
Varying Load Distribution on an Infinite Bus

Parallel Operation on a Large (Infinite) Bus

Where two generators are in parallel.

- Depending on the NL set point, the generators can be

made to share the load at whatever amount desired.

- In this case the NL set point of G2 is raised and G1 is

lowered to shift ( transfer ) 50 MW of load from G1 onto G2.
Frequency (Hz)

61.5Hz 61.8
0.3Hz
61.2Hz 61.5Hz
61.0 0.3Hz
61.2Hz
60.5

59.4

50KW
59
50KW

300 200 100 100 200 300

Load G1 (KW) Load G2 (KW)
 GENERATOR
Finite Bus Load Increase & Frequency Restoration

- A load increase from 400KW to 600KW and the freq dips to 59.4Hz.
To return the output freq to 60 Hz,

- The NL set points would have to be increased to raise both speed droop
curves so that the two generators can each supply 300 MW at 60 Hz.

- To accomplish this, the load/frequency set point or NL freq of each governor

must be increased by 0.6 Hz from 61.2 Hz to 61.8 Hz.

- This is the amount that it dropped during the load increase.

Frequency (Hz)

61.8
0.6Hz

61.0
60.5

59.4

59

300 200 100 100 200 300

Load G1 (KW) Load G2 (KW)
GENERATOR
VOLTAGE REGULATOR
 GENERATOR
Exciters

– Brushless exciter

The field winding is the stator (stationary)

The AC voltage ( at rotor) converted to DC by rotating

diodes and fed thru leads of rotor to provide excitation
for main generator field.

This action is control by Voltage Regulator.

 GENERATOR
BRUSHLESS EXCITATION

Generator 3Ø Output
VOLTAGE
REGULATOR
AC - sensing
DC
supply
Exciter
3Ø WINDING
Stationary 3Ø WINDING
winding
ROTOR Rotating
ROTOR
DC field
Wye
Connected 3Ø WINDING 3Ø WINDING
Rotor
BRUSHLESS
EXCITER
AC GENERATOR
Rotating
6 Diodes
 GENERATOR

3Ø 415V 50HZ
MOSFET

G1 G2
BATTERY
BACKUP

G4 G3

C L

EXCITER
STATOR

EXCITER PRIME
ROTOR MOVER

ROTATING DIODES
 GENERATOR

BASIC VOLTAGE REGULATOR OPERATION

Exciter

Field Power Sensing

Output Input Input
Manual Voltage
Adjuster
SCR Error Amp Error
Power Control & Detector
Firing Circuit
Reference
Voltage

Stability
 GENERATOR
VOLTAGE REGULATOR

– A Sensing Circuit, step-down CT and DC rectifier/ filter assembly supplies the Error
Detector with a DC feedback voltage that is proportional to the AC output of the generator.

– Voltage Reference (Constant DC ), A zener diode against which the feedback voltage is
compared. An external voltage adjustment potentiometer is also provided to permit fine
voltage

– The Error Detector circuit produces a DC output error voltage proportional to the difference
between the feedback and the reference ( zener diode) voltage.

– The Stabilty also inputs the error detector and is adjusted to match the response of the
regulator to the inductive time constant of the generator to provide quick, smooth response
when generator load is increased or decreased.

– The Firing Circuit converts the DC error voltage to a phase-controlled pulse that provides
firing for the SCR Power Controller package.

– The SCR Power Controller provides a phase-controlled signal to the generator DC field
which holds the generator output voltage constant under varying load conditions.

– Field Output, as output to Exciter. Field-Flashing Circuit may be employed to insure

consistent generator build-up.
R
GENERATOR
 GENERATOR
AUTOMATIC VOLTAGE REGULATOR (AVR)

– There are two parameters, which can have direct electrical

impact on both the generator set and the grid.

1. The AVR,
Which automatically adjusts the generator field current to maintain a
desired generator terminal voltage (or reactive power loading-VAR).

2. The speed governor

That is a closed loop control system that activates the fuel inlet valves
to the engine to control the speed of the unit.
When the unit is synchronized, the governor also controls the unit
loading.
 GENERATOR
AVR CONTROL

– An excitation system must be able to provide the required DC

rotor current and resulting magnetic flux, under the following
conditions:

1. When the generator is on no-load,

– The excitation system has to provide sufficient flux to cause the
generator to produce rated voltage at rated speed.

2. From no load to full load operation,

– The excitation current has to be increased to counter-act the effects
of armature reaction.

3. When faults occur on the grid system,

– The voltages are depressed or reduced. An excitation system must
have a very fast response. It must be able to increase excitation
very rapidly (typically within 0.25 seconds) to counter-act these
voltage depressions and in turn, quickly restore the main ac generator
output voltage to normal.
 GENERATOR
– AVR Connection and Parallel Compensation :
REACTIVE DROOP COMPENSATION (DROOP)

➢ A unit-parallel switch shorts the parallel CT secondary to prevent any

droop signal from being injected into the regulating system during
single unit operation.

➢ While parallel operation, KVAR load sharing is achieved by applying the

same signal through the potentialmeters to sensing circuits of the
regulators.

G1 G2

CT 1 CT 2

AVR 1 AVR 2

LOAD
 GENERATOR
– AVR Connection and Parallel Compensation:
REACTIVE DIFFERENTIAL COMPENSATION (CROSS
CURRENT)
➢ Can be used only if the all regulators on common bus
interconnected into the Cross-Current Loop.
➢ Generators different KW ratings can be operate.
➢ This is due to the unloaded generator parallel CT not supplying its
compensating signal, but allowing a voltage drop to occur across
it.
➢ Lack of this shorting contact will also cause the voltage of the
incoming generator to fluctuate prior to paralleling.

G1 G2

CT 1 CT 2

AVR 1 AVR 2

LOAD
 GENERATOR
AVR Action to Generator Loading

– While connected to a varying load,

– The output voltage of the main generator falls below the voltage
setting applied by the operator, the comparator will sense the
difference and send a signal to the AVR.

– The AVR will then raise the field current on the main exciter, which will
increase its output voltage.

– The excitation will now be increased, enabling the generator to

produce the required output voltage.

– Similarly, if the main generator output voltage rises, the comparator

will once again sense the difference.

– The AVR will lower the exciter output, which will reduce the main
generator output voltage to the required value.
 GENERATOR
AVR Action to Generator Loading

1. Unity PF Load

– a generator that has an internal no-load voltage E, a passive armature reaction

component RG and an active stator flux component XG.

– When the generator has a real or resistive load there is a voltage drop between
EG and the terminal voltage VT equal to the value VR. plus VX.

– However the voltage drop across VX is at 90 degrees to the terminal voltage so

small changes in the load do not create large changes in terminal voltage.
IR (Unity pf)
RG XG

VR VX

VT R LOAD
 GENERATOR
AVR Action to Generator Loading

2. Zero PF Lagging Load

– If the load is inductive

The inductive current causes a voltage drop VX across the much larger reactive
component XG.

This voltage drop is exactly opposite to the terminal voltage and a large decrease in
terminal voltage will be seen.

Again the AVR would detect the decreased terminal voltage VT send a feedback signal
to the exciter to increase field current.

IL(Lagging pf)

RG XG

VR VX

VT LLOAD
 GENERATOR
AVR Action to Generator Loading

3. Zero PF Leading Load

– If the load is capacitive

The capacitive current causes a voltage drop VX across the much

larger reactive component XG.
The capacitive load (leading) current works in reverse of the losses
caused by inductive currents.
The main generator field is assisted and the terminal voltage VT
increases.
Again the AVR would detect the increased terminal voltage VT send a
feedback signal to the exciter to decrease field current.
Ic (Leading pf)
RG XG

VR VX

VT C LOAD