COFFEE

A PROJECT REPORT

Submitted by

DORABJEE CYRUS

In partial fulfillment for the award of the degree of

BACHELOR OF SCIENCE

IN

HOSPITALITY STUDIES

M. A. RANGOONWALA INSTITUTE OF HOTEL

MANAGEMENT AND RESEARCH, PUNE

SAVITRIBAI PHULE PUNE UNIVERSITY:

GANESHKHIND PUNE-05

MAY 2017
 DECLARATION

I stand here on behalf of understanding that the following document project report titled “THE STUDY OF COFFEE”

It is a benefice work prepared by me. This is an organized and authentic work done by me for the partial fulfilment of the

Bachelor of Science in hospitality studies, degree programmer. The reason behind this project are based on the data

collected by me from the different sources of information available.

All the endeavoured put in the fulfilment of the last are genuine and original to the best of my knowledge.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
it is a great pleasure in presenting this project report on the topic Coffee.

I would like to take this opportunity to thank my prof .Nitin Shinde for giving me his presious time and guiding me to the right

as i needed. i am really grateful to them for their kind support. their valuable suggestions were very helpful

I am also grateful to prof Imran Sayyed the head of department M.A.R.I.H.M.R. for his indispensable support and

suggestions.

At the end our special thanks to the staff of the hotel management department, M.A.R.I.H.M.R for providing various

resources such as their time, knowledge and their efforts for our project.

Contents
 1Etymology
 2History
 2.1Legendary accounts
 2.2Historical transmission
 3Biology
 4Cultivation
 4.1Ecological effects
 5Production
 6Processing
 6.1Roasting
 6.2Grading roasted beans
 6.3Roast characteristics
 6.4Decaffeination
 6.5Storage
 6.6Brewing
 6.7Nutrition
 6.8Serving
 6.9Instant coffee
 7Sale and distribution
 7.1Commodity market
 8Health and pharmacology
 8.1Method of action
 8.2Health effects
 8.2.1Mortality
 8.2.2Cardiovascular disease
 8.2.3Mental health
 8.2.4Type II diabetes
 8.2.5Cancer
 8.2.6Risks
  8.3Caffeine content
 9Coffeehouses
 10Social and culture
 10.1Break
 10.2Prohibition
 10.3Fair trade
 10.4Folklore and culture
 10.5Economic impacts
 10.6Competition
 11See also
 12References
 12.1Footnotes
 12.2Citations
 12.3Further reading
 13External links
 Introduction About COFFEE

Coffee is a brewed drink prepared from roasted coffee beans, which are the

seeds of berries from the Coffea plant. The genus Coffea is native to tropical
Africa, and Madagascar, the Comoros, Mauritius and Réunion in the Indian
Ocean. The plant was exported from Africa to countries around the world and
coffee plants are now cultivated in over 70 countries, primarily in the equatorial
regions of the Americas, Southeast Asia, India, and Africa. The two most
commonly grown are the highly regarded arabica, and the less sophisticated but
stronger and more hardy robusta. Once ripe, coffee berries are picked,
processed, and dried. Dried coffee seeds (referred to as beans) are roasted to
varying degrees, depending on the desired flavor. Roasted beans are ground and
brewed with near boiling water to produce coffee as a beverage.

Coffee is slightly acidic and can have a stimulating effect on humans because of

its caffeine content. Coffee is one of the most popular drinks in the world. [3] It
can be prepared and presented in a variety of ways (e.g., espresso, French
press, cafe latte, etc.). It is usually served hot, although iced coffee is also
served. Clinical studies indicate that moderate coffee consumption is benign or
mildly beneficial in healthy adults, with continuing research on whether long-
term consumption inhibits cognitive decline during aging or lowers the risk of
some forms of cancer.[4][5]

The earliest credible evidence of coffee-drinking appears in the middle of the

15th century in the Sufi shrines of Yemen. It was here in Arabia that coffee
seeds were first roasted and brewed in a similar way to how it is now prepared.
Coffee seeds were first exported from East Africa to Yemen, as the
coffeaarabica plant is thought to have been indigenous to the former.  Yemeni
traders took coffee back to their homeland and began to cultivate the seed. By
the 16th century, it had reached Persia, Turkey, and North Africa. From there, it
spread to Europe and the rest of the world.

Coffee is a major export commodity: it is the top agricultural export for

numerous countries and is among the world's largest legal agricultural
exports. It is one of the most valuable commodities exported by developing
countries. Green (unroasted) coffee is one of the most traded agricultural
commodities in the world. Some controversy is associated with coffee
cultivation and the way developed countries trade with developing nations and
the impact of its cultivation on the environment, in regards to clearing of land
for coffee-growing and water use. Consequently, the markets for fair trade
coffee and organic coffee are expanding.
Etymology

Coffee beans
The first reference to coffee in the English language is in the form chaona,
dated to 1598 and understood to be a misprint of chaoua[11], equivalent, in
the orthography of the time, to chaova. This term and "coffee" both derive from
the Ottoman Turkish kahve, by way of the Italian caffè.[12]

In turn, the Arabic qahwah may be an origin,[13] traditionally held to refer to a

type of wine whose etymology is given by Arab lexicographers as deriving from
the verb qahiya (‫)قهي‬, "to lack hunger", in reference to the drink's reputation as
an appetite suppressant. It has also been proposed that the source may be the
Proto-Central Semitic root q-h-h meaning "dark".[14]

Alternatively, the word Khat, a plant widely used as stimulant

in Yemen and Ethiopia before being supplanted by coffee has been suggested as
a possible origin, or the Arabic word quwwah' (meaning "strength").[15] It may
also come from the Kingdom of Kaffa in southeast Ethiopia where
Coffeaarabica grows wild, but this is considered less likely; [14] in the local Kaffa
language, the coffee plant is instead called "bunno".[16]

The expression "coffee break" was first attested in 1952.[12] The term "coffee
pot" dates from 1705.[12]

History
Over the door of a Leipzigcoffeeshop is a sculptural representation of a man
in Turkish dress, receiving a cup of coffee from a boy

Legendary accounts

According to legend, ancestors of today's Oromo people in a region of Kaffa in

Ethiopia were believed to have been the first to recognize the energizing effect
of the coffee plant,[6] though no direct evidence has been found indicating where
in Africa coffee grew or who among the native populations might have used it
as a stimulant or even known about it, earlier than the 17th century. [6] The story
of Kaldi, the 9th-century Ethiopian goatherd who discovered coffee when he
noticed how excited his goats became after eating the beans from a coffee plant,
did not appear in writing until 1671 and is probably apocryphal.[6]

Other accounts attribute the discovery of coffee to Sheikh Omar. According to

the ancient chronicle (preserved in the Abd-Al-Kadir manuscript), Omar, who
was known for his ability to cure the sick through prayer, was once exiled
from Mocha in Yemen to a desert cave near Ousab (modern day Wusab, about
90 km east of Zabid).[17] Starving, Omar chewed berries from nearby shrubbery,
but found them to be bitter. He tried roasting the seeds to improve the flavor,
but they became hard. He then tried boiling them to soften the seed, which
resulted in a fragrant brown liquid. Upon drinking the liquid Omar was
revitalized and sustained for days. As stories of this "miracle drug" reached
Mocha, Omar was asked to return and was made a saint.[18] From Ethiopia, the
coffee plant was introduced into the Arab World through Egypt and Yemen.[19]
 Historical transmission

A late 19th century advertisement for coffee essence

The earliest credible evidence of coffee-drinking or knowledge of the coffee

tree appears in the middle of the 15th century in the accounts of Ahmed al-
Ghaffar in Yemen.[6] It was here in Arabia that coffee seeds were first roasted
and brewed, in a similar way to how it is now prepared. Coffee was used by
Sufi circles to stay awake for their religious rituals. [20] Accounts differ on the
origin of coffee (seeds) prior to its appearance in Yemen. One account credits
Muhammad ben Said for bringing the beverage to Aden from the African coast.
[21]
 Other early accounts say Ali ben Omar of the Shadhili Sufi order was the
first to introduce coffee to Arabia.[22] According to al Shardi, Ali ben Omar may
have encountered coffee during his stay with the Adal king Sadadin's
companions in 1401. Famous 16th century Islamic scholar Ibn Hajar al-
Haytami notes in his writings of a beverage called qahwa developed from a tree
in the Zeila region.[20]

By the 16th century, it had reached the rest of the Middle East, Persia, Turkey,
and northern Africa. The first coffee smuggled out of the Middle East was by
Sufi Baba Budan from Yemen to India in 1670. Before then, all exported coffee
was boiled or otherwise sterilised. Portraits of Baba Budan depict him as having
smuggled seven coffee seeds by strapping them to his chest. The first plants
grown from these smuggled seeds were planted in Mysore. Coffee then spread
to Italy, and to the rest of Europe, to Indonesia, and to the Americas.[23]

A coffee can from the first half of the 20th century. From the Museo del Objeto
del Objeto collection.

In 1583, Leonhard Rauwolf, a German physician, gave this description of coffee

after returning from a ten-year trip to the Near East:

A beverage as black as ink, useful against numerous illnesses, particularly those

of the stomach. Its consumers take it in the morning, quite frankly, in a
porcelain cup that is passed around and from which each one drinks a cupful. It
is composed of water and the fruit from a bush called bunnu.

— Léonard Rauwolf, Reise in die Morgenländer (in German)

From the Middle East, coffee spread to Italy. The thriving trade

between Venice and North Africa, Egypt, and the Middle East brought many
goods, including coffee, to the Venetian port. From Venice, it was introduced to
the rest of Europe. Coffee became more widely accepted after it was deemed a
Christian beverage by Pope Clement VIII in 1600, despite appeals to ban the
"Muslim drink." The first European coffee house opened in Rome in 1645.[23]
A 1919 advertisement for G Washington's Coffee. The first instant coffee was
invented by inventor George Washington in 1909.

The Dutch East India Company was the first to import coffee on a large scale.
[24]
 The Dutch later grew the crop in Java and Ceylon.[25] The first exports
of Indonesian coffee from Java to the Netherlands occurred in 1711.[26]

Through the efforts of the British East India Company, coffee became popular
in England as well. Oxford's Queen's Lane Coffee House, established in 1654, is
still in existence today. Coffee was introduced in France in 1657, and in Austria
and Poland after the 1683 Battle of Vienna, when coffee was captured from
supplies of the defeated Turks.[27]

When coffee reached North America during the Colonial period, it was initially
not as successful as it had been in Europe as alcoholic beverages remained more
popular. During the Revolutionary War, the demand for coffee increased so
much that dealers had to hoard their scarce supplies and raise prices
dramatically; this was also due to the reduced availability of tea from British
merchants,[28] and a general resolution among many Americans to avoid
drinking tea following the 1773 Boston Tea Party.[29]
After the War of 1812, during which Britain temporarily cut off access to tea
imports, the Americans' taste for coffee grew. Coffee consumption declined in
England, giving way to tea during the 18th century. The latter beverage was
simpler to make, and had become cheaper with the British conquest of India and
the tea industry there.[30] During the Age of Sail, seamen aboard ships of the
British Royal Navy made substitute coffee by dissolving burnt bread in hot
water.[31]

The Frenchman Gabriel de Clieu took a coffee plant to the French territory

of Martinique in the Caribbean, from which much of the world's cultivated
arabica coffee is descended. Coffee thrived in the climate and was conveyed
across the Americas.[32] Coffee was cultivated in Saint-Domingue (now Haiti)
from 1734, and by 1788 it supplied half the world's coffee. [33] The conditions
that the slaves worked in on coffee plantations were a factor in the soon to
follow Haitian Revolution. The coffee industry never fully recovered there. [34] It
made a brief come-back in 1949 when Haiti was the world's 3rd largest coffee
exporter, but fell quickly into rapid decline.

Meanwhile, coffee had been introduced to Brazil in 1727, although its

cultivation did not gather momentum until independence in 1822.[35] After this
time massive tracts of rainforest were cleared for coffee plantations, first in the
vicinity of Rio de Janeiro and later São Paulo. [36] Brazil went from having
essentially no coffee exports in 1800, to being a significant regional producer in
1830, to being the largest producer in the world by 1852. In 1910–20, Brazil
exported around 70% of the world's coffee, Colombia, Guatemala, and
Venezuela, exported half of the remaining 30%, and Old World production
accounted for less than 5% of world exports.[37]

Cultivation was taken up by many countries in Central America in the latter half
of the 19th century, and almost all involved the large-scale displacement and
exploitation of the indigenous people. Harsh conditions led to many uprisings,
coups and bloody suppression of peasants.[38] The notable exception was Costa
Rica, where lack of ready labor prevented the formation of large farms. Smaller
farms and more egalitarian conditions ameliorated unrest over the 19th and 20th
centuries.[39]

Rapid growth in coffee production in South America during the second half of
the 19th century was matched by growth in consumption in developed
countries, though nowhere has this growth been as pronounced as in the United
States, where high rate of population growth was compounded by doubling of
per capita consumption between 1860 and 1920. Though the United States was
not the heaviest coffee-drinking nation at the time (Nordic countries, Belgium,
and Netherlands all had comparable or higher levels of per capita consumption),
due to its sheer size, it was already the largest consumer of coffee in the world
by 1860, and, by 1920, around half of all coffee produced worldwide was
consumed in the USA.[37]

Coffee has become a vital cash crop for many developing countries. Over one

hundred million people in developing countries have become dependent on
coffee as their primary source of income. It has become the primary export and
backbone for African countries like Uganda, Burundi, Rwanda, and Ethiopia,
[40]
 as well as many Central American countries.

Biology
Illustration of Coffeaarabica plant and seeds

Robusta coffee flowers

Several species of shrub of the genus Coffea produce the berries from which

coffee is extracted. The two main species commercially cultivated
are Coffeacanephora (predominantly a form known as 'robusta') and C. arabica.
[41]
 C. arabica, the most highly regarded species, is native to the southwestern
highlands of Ethiopia and the Boma Plateau in southeastern Sudan and
possibly Mount Marsabit in northern Kenya.[42] C. canephora is native to
western and central Subsaharan Africa, from Guinea to Uganda and southern
Sudan.[43] Less popular species are C. liberica, C. stenophylla, C. mauritiana,
and C. racemosa.

All coffee plants are classified in the large family Rubiaceae. They

are evergreen shrubs or trees that may grow 5 m (15 ft) tall when unpruned. The
leaves are dark green and glossy, usually 10–15 cm (4–6 in) long and 6 cm
(2.4 in) wide, simple, entire, and opposite. Petioles of opposite leaves fuse at
base to form interpetiolar stipules, characteristic of Rubiaceae. The flowers are
axillary, and clusters of fragrant white flowers bloom simultaneously.
Gynoecium consists of inferior ovary, also characteristic of Rubiaceae. The
flowers are followed by oval berries of about 1.5 cm (0.6 in).[44] When immature
they are green, and they ripen to yellow, then crimson, before turning black on
drying. Each berry usually contains two seeds, but 5–10% of the berries [45] have
only one; these are called peaberries.[46]Arabica berries ripen in six to eight
months, while robusta take nine to eleven months.[47]

Coffeaarabica is predominantly self-pollinating, and as a result the seedlings

are generally uniform and vary little from their parents. In
contrast, Coffeacanephora, and C. liberica are self-incompatible and
require outcrossing. This means that useful forms and hybrids must be
propagated vegetatively.[48] Cuttings, grafting, and budding are the usual
methods of vegetative propagation.[49] On the other hand, there is great scope for
experimentation in search of potential new strains.[48]

In 2016, Oregon State University entomologist George Poinar, Jr. announced

the discovery of a new plant species that's a 45-million-year-old relative of
coffee found in amber. Named Strychnoselectri, after the Greek word for amber
(electron), the flowers represent the first-ever fossils of an asterid, which is a
family of flowering plants that not only later gave us coffee, but also
sunflowers, peppers, potatoes, mint — and deadly poisons.[50]

Cultivation
Map showing areas of coffee cultivation:
r:Coffea canephora
m:Coffeacanephora and Coffeaarabica
a:Coffea arabica

The traditional method of planting coffee is to place 20 seeds in each hole at the
beginning of the rainy season. This method loses about 50% of the seeds'
potential, as about half fail to sprout. A more effective method of growing
coffee, used in Brazil, is to raise seedlings in nurseries that are then planted
outside at six to twelve months. Coffee is often intercropped with food crops,
such as corn, beans, or rice during the first few years of cultivation as farmers
become familiar with its requirements. [44] Coffee plants grow within a defined
area between the tropics of Cancer and Capricorn, termed the bean belt or
coffee belt.[51]

Of the two main species grown, arabica coffee (from C. arabica) is generally
more highly regarded than robusta coffee (from C. canephora); robusta tends to
be bitter and have less flavor but better body than arabica. For these reasons,
about three-quarters of coffee cultivated worldwide is C. arabica.[41] Robusta
strains also contain about 40–50% more caffeine than arabica. [52] Consequently,
this species is used as an inexpensive substitute for arabica in many commercial
coffee blends. Good quality robusta beans are used in traditional
Italian espresso blends to provide a full-bodied taste and a better foam head
(known as crema).
Additionally, Coffeacanephora is less susceptible to disease than C. arabica and
can be cultivated in lower altitudes and warmer climates where C. arabica will
not thrive.[53] The robusta strain was first collected in 1890 from the Lomani
River, a tributary of the Congo River, and was conveyed from Zaire (now the
Democratic Republic of Congo) to Brussels to Java around 1900. From Java,
further breeding resulted in the establishment of robusta plantations in many
countries.[54] In particular, the spread of the devastating coffee leaf rust
(Hemileiavastatrix), to which C. arabica is vulnerable, hastened the uptake of
the resistant robusta. Coffee leaf rust is found in virtually all countries that
produce coffee.[55]

Over 900 species of insect have been recorded as pests of coffee crops
worldwide. Of these, over a third are beetles, and over a quarter are bugs.
Some 20 species of nematodes, 9 species of mites, and several snails and slugs
also attack the crop. Birds and rodents sometimes eat coffee berries, but their
impact is minor compared to invertebrates.[56] In general, arabica is the more
sensitive species to invertebrate predation overall. Each part of the coffee plant
is assailed by different animals. Nematodes attack the roots, coffee borer
beetles burrow into stems and woody material,[57] and the foliage is attacked by
over 100 species of larvae (caterpillars) of butterflies and moths.[58]

Mass spraying of insecticides has often proven disastrous, as predators of the

pests are more sensitive than the pests themselves.[59] Instead, integrated pest
management has developed, using techniques such as targeted treatment of pest
outbreaks, and managing crop environment away from conditions favouring
pests. Branches infested with scale are often cut and left on the ground, which
promotes scale parasites to not only attack the scale on the fallen branches but
in the plant as well.[60]
The 2-mm-long coffee borer beetle (Hypothenemushampei) is the most
damaging insect pest to the world's coffee industry, destroying up to 50 percent
or more of the coffee berries on plantations in most coffee-producing countries.
The adult female beetle nibbles a single tiny hole in a coffee berry and lays 35
to 50 eggs. Inside, the offspring grow, mate, and then emerge from the
commercially ruined berry to disperse, repeating the cycle. Pesticides are mostly
ineffective because the beetle juveniles are protected inside the berry nurseries,
but they are vulnerable to predation by birds when they emerge. When groves of
trees are nearby, the American yellow warbler, rufous-capped warbler, and
other insectivorous birds have been shown to reduce by 50 percent the number
of coffee berry borers in Costa Rica coffee plantations.[61]

Beans from different countries or regions can usually be distinguished by

differences in flavor, aroma, body, and acidity.[62] These taste characteristics are
dependent not only on the coffee's growing region, but also on genetic
subspecies (varietals) and processing.[63] Varietals are generally known by the
region in which they are grown, such as Colombian, Java and Kona.

Arabica coffee beans are cultivated mainly in Latin America, eastern Africa or

Asia, while robusta beans are grown in central Africa, throughout southeast
Asia, and Brazil.[41]

Ecological effects

A flowering Coffeaarabica tree in a Brazilian plantation

Originally, coffee farming was done in the shade of trees that provided a habitat
for many animals and insects.[64] Remnant forest trees were used for this
purpose, but many species have been planted as well. These include leguminous
trees of the genera Acacia, Albizia, Cassia, Erythrina, Gliricidia, Inga,
and Leucaena, as well as the nitrogen-fixing non-legume sheoaks of the
genus Casuarina, and the silky oak Grevillea robusta.[65]

This method is commonly referred to as the traditional shaded method, or

"shade-grown". Starting in the 1970s, many farmers switched their production
method to sun cultivation, in which coffee is grown in rows under full sun with
little or no forest canopy. This causes berries to ripen more rapidly and bushes
to produce higher yields, but requires the clearing of trees and increased use of
fertilizer and pesticides, which damage the environment and cause health
problems.[66]

Unshaded coffee plants grown with fertilizer yield the most coffee, although
unfertilized shaded crops generally yield more than unfertilized unshaded crops:
the response to fertilizer is much greater in full sun. [67] While traditional coffee
production causes berries to ripen more slowly and produce lower yields, the
quality of the coffee is allegedly superior.[68] In addition, the traditional shaded
method provides living space for many wildlife species. Proponents of shade
cultivation say environmental problems such as deforestation, pesticide
pollution, habitat destruction, and soil and water degradation are the side effects
of the practices employed in sun cultivation.[64][69]

The American Birding Association, Smithsonian Migratory Bird Center,

[70]
 National Arbor Day Foundation,[71] and the Rainforest Alliance have led a
campaign for 'shade-grown' and organic coffees, which can be sustainably
harvested. Shaded coffee cultivation systems show greater biodiversity than
full-sun systems, and those more distant from continuous forest compare rather
poorly to undisturbed native forest in terms of habitat value for some bird
species.[72][73]

Another issue concerning coffee is its use of water. It takes about 140 liters
(37 U.S. gal) of water to grow the coffee beans needed to produce one cup of
coffee, and coffee is often grown in countries where there is a water shortage,
such as Ethiopia.[74]

Used coffee grounds may be used for composting or as a mulch. They are

especially appreciated by worms and acid-loving plants such as blueberries.
[75]
 Some commercial coffee shops run initiatives to make better use of these
grounds, including Starbucks' "Grounds for your Garden" project,[76] and
community sponsored initiatives such as "Ground to Ground".[77]

Climate change may significantly impact coffee yields within a few decades.

[78]
 Kew Royal Botanic Gardens concluded that global warming threatens the
genetic diversity of Arabica plants found in Ethiopia and surrounding countries.
[79]

Production

Top ten green coffee producers in 2014

Ran
Country Millions of tonnes[80]
k

1  Brazil 2.8
2  Vietnam 1.4

3  Colombia 0.7

4  Indonesia 0.6

5  Ethiopia 0.4

6  India 0.3

7  Honduras 0.3

8  Guatemala 0.2

9  Peru 0.2

10  Uganda 0.2

World 8.8

Processing
Traditional coffee beans drying in Kalibaru, Indonesia

Coffee berries and their seeds undergo several processes before they become the
familiar roasted coffee. Berries have been traditionally selectively picked by
hand; a labor-intensive method, it involves the selection of only the berries at
the peak of ripeness. More commonly, crops are strip picked, where all berries
are harvested simultaneously regardless of ripeness by person or machine. After
picking, green coffee is processed by one of two methods—the dry process
method, simpler and less labor-intensive as the berries can be strip picked, and
the wet process method, which incorporates fermentation into the process and
yields a mild coffee.[81]

Then they are sorted by ripeness and color and most often the flesh of the berry
is removed, usually by machine, and the seeds are fermented to remove the
slimy layer of mucilage still present on the seed. When the fermentation is
finished, the seeds are washed with large quantities of fresh water to remove the
fermentation residue, which generates massive amounts of coffee wastewater.
Finally, the seeds are dried.[82]

The best (but least used) method of drying coffee is using drying tables. In this
method, the pulped and fermented coffee is spread thinly on raised beds, which
allows the air to pass on all sides of the coffee, and then the coffee is mixed by
hand. In this method the drying that takes place is more uniform, and
fermentation is less likely. Most African coffee is dried in this manner and
certain coffee farms around the world are starting to use this traditional method.
[82]

Next, the coffee is sorted, and labeled as green coffee. Another way to let the
coffee seeds dry is to let them sit on a concrete patio and rake over them in the
sunlight. Some companies use cylinders to pump in heated air to dry the coffee
seeds, though this is generally in places where the humidity is very high.[82]

An Asian coffee known as kopi luwak undergoes a peculiar process made from

coffee berries eaten by the Asian palm civet, passing through its digestive tract,
with the beans eventually harvested from feces. Coffee brewed from this
process[83] is among the most expensive in the world, with bean prices reaching
$160 per pound[84] or $30 per brewed cup.[85] Kopi luwak coffee is said to have
uniquely rich, slightly smoky aroma and flavor with hints of chocolate, resulting
from the action of digestive enzymes breaking down bean proteins to facilitate
partial fermentation.[83][85]

Roasting
Roasted coffee beans

The next step in the process is the roasting of the green coffee. Coffee is usually
sold in a roasted state, and with rare exceptions all coffee is roasted before it is
consumed. It can be sold roasted by the supplier, or it can be home roasted.
[86]
 The roasting process influences the taste of the beverage by changing the
coffee bean both physically and chemically. The bean decreases in weight as
moisture is lost and increases in volume, causing it to become less dense. The
density of the bean also influences the strength of the coffee and requirements
for packaging.

The actual roasting begins when the temperature inside the bean reaches
approximately 200 °C (392 °F), though different varieties of seeds differ in
moisture and density and therefore roast at different rates. [87] During
roasting, caramelization occurs as intense heat breaks down starches, changing
them to simple sugars that begin to brown, which alters the color of the bean.[88]

Sucrose is rapidly lost during the roasting process, and may disappear entirely
in darker roasts. During roasting, aromatic oils and acids weaken, changing the
flavor; at 205 °C (401 °F), other oils start to develop.[87] One of these
oils, caffeol, is created at about 200 °C (392 °F), which is largely responsible
for coffee's aroma and flavor.[25]

Roasting is the last step of processing the beans in their intact state. During this
last treatment, while still in the bean state, more caffeine breaks down above
235 °C (455 °F). Dark roasting is the utmost step in bean processing removing
the most caffeine. Although, dark roasting is not to be confused with
the Decaffeination process.
Grading roasted beans

Coffee "cuppers", or professional tasters, grade the coffee

Depending on the color of the roasted beans as perceived by the human eye,
they will be labeled as light, medium light, medium, medium dark, dark, or very
dark. A more accurate method of discerning the degree of roast involves
measuring the reflected light from roasted seeds illuminated with a light source
in the near-infrared spectrum. This elaborate light meter uses a process known
as spectroscopy to return a number that consistently indicates the roasted
coffee's relative degree of roast or flavor development.

Roast characteristics

The degree of roast has an effect upon coffee flavor and body. Darker roasts are
generally bolder because they have less fiber content and a more sugary flavor.
Lighter roasts have a more complex and therefore perceived stronger flavor
from aromatic oils and acids otherwise destroyed by longer roasting times.
[89]
 Roasting does not alter the amount of caffeine in the bean, but does give less
caffeine when the beans are measured by volume because the beans expand
during roasting.[90]

A small amount of chaff is produced during roasting from the skin left on the
seed after processing.[91] Chaff is usually removed from the seeds by air
movement, though a small amount is added to dark roast coffees to soak up oils
on the seeds.[87]
Decaffeination

Decaffeination may also be part of the processing that coffee seeds undergo.

Seeds are decaffeinated when they are still green. Many methods can remove
caffeine from coffee, but all involve either soaking the green seeds in hot water
(often called the "Swiss water process") [92] or steaming them, then using
a solvent to dissolve caffeine-containing oils.[25] Decaffeination is often done by
processing companies, and the extracted caffeine is usually sold to the
pharmaceutical industry.[25]

Storage

Coffee is best stored in an airtight container made of ceramic, glass, or non-

reactive metal.[93] Higher quality prepackaged coffee usually has a one-way
valve which prevents air from entering while allowing the coffee to release
gases.[94] Coffee freshness and flavor is preserved when it is stored away from
moisture, heat, and light.[93] The ability of coffee to absorb strong smells from
food means that it should be kept away from such smells.[93] Storage of coffee in
the refrigerator is not recommended due to the presence of moisture which can
cause deterioration.[93] Exterior walls of buildings which face the sun may heat
the interior of a home, and this heat may damage coffee stored near such a wall.
[93]
 Heat from nearby ovens also harms stored coffee.[93]

In 1931, a method of packing coffee in a sealed vacuum in cans was introduced.

The roasted coffee was packed and then 99% of the air was removed, allowing
the coffee to be stored indefinitely until the can was opened. Today this method
is in mass use for coffee in a large part of the world.[95]
Brewing

a contemporary automatic coffeemaker

Coffee beans must be ground and brewed to create a beverage. The criteria for
choosing a method include flavor and economy. Almost all methods of
preparing coffee require that the beans be ground and then mixed with hot water
long enough to allow the flavor to emerge but not so long as to draw out bitter
compounds. The liquid can be consumed after the spent grounds are removed.
Brewing considerations include the fineness of grind, the way in which the
water is used to extract the flavor, the ratio of coffee grounds to water (the brew
ratio), additional flavorings such as sugar, milk, and spices, and the technique to
be used to separate spent grounds. Ideal holding temperatures range from 85–
88 °C (185–190 °F) to as high as 93 °C (199 °F) and the ideal serving
temperature is 68 to 79 °C (154 to 174 °F).[96] The recommended brew ratio for
non-espresso coffee is around 55 to 60 grams of grounds per litre of water, or
two level tablespoons for a 5- or 6-ounce cup.[97]

The roasted coffee beans may be ground at a roastery, in a grocery store, or in

the home. Most coffee is roasted and ground at a roastery and sold in packaged
form, though roasted coffee beans can be ground at home immediately before
consumption. It is also possible, though uncommon, to roast raw beans at home.
Coffee beans may be ground in several ways. A burr grinder uses revolving
elements to shear the seed; a blade grinder cuts the seeds with blades moving at
high speed; and a mortar and pestle crushes the seeds. For most brewing
methods a burr grinder is deemed superior because the grind is more even and
the grind size can be adjusted.

The type of grind is often named after the brewing method for which it is
generally used. Turkish grind is the finest grind, while coffee
percolator or French press are the coarsest grinds. The most common grinds are
between these two extremes: a medium grind is used in most home coffee-
brewing machines.[98]

Coffee may be brewed by several methods. It may be boiled, steeped, or

pressurized. Brewing coffee by boiling was the earliest method, and Turkish
coffee is an example of this method.[99] It is prepared by grinding or pounding
the seeds to a fine powder, then adding it to water and bringing it to the boil for
no more than an instant in a pot called a cezve or, in Greek, a bríki. This
produces a strong coffee with a layer of foam on the surface and sediment
(which is not meant for drinking) settling at the bottom of the cup.[99]

Coffee percolators and automatic coffeemakers brew coffee using gravity. In an

automatic coffeemaker, hot water drips onto coffee grounds that are held in a
paper, plastic, or perforated metal coffee filter, allowing the water to seep
through the ground coffee while extracting its oils and essences. The liquid
drips through the coffee and the filter into a carafe or pot, and the
spent grounds are retained in the filter.[100]

In a percolator, boiling water is forced into a chamber above a filter by steam

pressure created by boiling. The water then seeps through the grounds, and the
process is repeated until terminated by removing from the heat, by an internal
timer,[100]or by a thermostat that turns off the heater when the entire pot reaches
a certain temperature.

Coffee may be brewed by steeping in a device such as a French press (also

known as a cafetière, coffee press or coffee plunger). [101] Ground coffee and hot
water are combined in a cylindrical vessel and left to brew for a few minutes. A
circular filter which fits tightly in the cylinder fixed to a plunger is then pushed
down from the top to force the grounds to the bottom. The filter retains the
grounds at the bottom as the coffee is poured from the container. Because the
coffee grounds are in direct contact with the water, all the coffee oils remain in
the liquid, making it a stronger beverage. This method of brewing leaves more
sediment than in coffee made by an automatic coffee machine. [101] Supporters of
the French press method point out that the sediment issue can be minimized by
using the right type of grinder: they claim that a rotary blade grinder cuts the
coffee bean into a wide range of sizes, including a fine coffee dust that remains
as sludge at the bottom of the cup, while a burr grinder uniformly grinds the
beans into consistently-sized grinds, allowing the coffee to settle uniformly and
be trapped by the press.[102] Within the first minute of brewing 95% of the
caffeine is released from the coffee bean.

The espresso method forces hot pressurized and vaporized water through

ground coffee. As a result of brewing under high pressure (ideally between 9–
10 atm), the espresso beverage is more concentrated (as much as 10 to 15 times
the quantity of coffee to water as gravity-brewing methods can produce) and has
a more complex physical and chemical constitution.[103] A well-prepared
espresso has a reddish-brown foam called crema that floats on the surface.
[98]
 Other pressurized water methods include the moka pot and vacuum coffee
maker.
Cold brew coffee is made by steeping coarsely ground beans in cold water for
several hours, then filtering them.[104] This results in a brew lower in acidity than
most hot-brewing methods.

Nutrition

Brewed coffee from typical grounds prepared with tap water contains

40 mg caffeine per 100 gram and no essential nutrients in significant content.
[105]
 In espresso, however, likely due to its higher amount of suspended solids,
there are significant contents of magnesium, the B
vitamins, niacin and riboflavin, and 212 mg of caffeine per 100 grams of
grounds.[106]

Serving

Enjoying coffee, painting by unknown artist in the Pera Museum

Once brewed, coffee may be served in a variety of ways. Drip-brewed,

percolated, or French-pressed/cafetière coffee may be served as white
coffee with a dairy product such as milk or cream, or dairy substitute, or
as black coffee with no such addition. It may be sweetened with sugar or
artificial sweetener. When served cold, it is called iced coffee.
Espresso-based coffee has a variety of possible presentations. In its most basic
form, an espresso is served alone as a shot or short black, or with hot water
added, when it is known as Caffè Americano. A long black is made by pouring
a double espresso into an equal portion of water, retaining the crema, unlike
Caffè Americano.[107] Milk is added in various forms to an espresso: steamed
milk makes a caffè latte,[108] equal parts steamed milk and milk froth make
a cappuccino,[107] and a dollop of hot foamed milk on top creates a caffè
macchiato.[109] A flat white is prepared by adding steamed hot milk (microfoam)
to espresso so that the flavour is brought out and the texture is unusually
velvety.[110][111] It has less milk than a latte but both are varieties of coffee to
which the milk can be added in such a way as to create a decorative surface
pattern. Such effects are known as latte art.

Coffee can also be incorporated with alcohol to produce a variety of beverages:

it is combined with whiskey in Irish coffee, and it forms the base of alcoholic
coffee liqueurs such as Kahlúa and Tia Maria. Darker beers such as stout and
porter give a chocolate or coffee-like taste due to roasted grains even though
actual coffee beans are not added to it.[112][113]

Instant coffee

Instant coffee

A number of products are sold for the convenience of consumers who do not
want to prepare their own coffee or who do not have access to coffeemaking
equipment. Instant coffee is dried into soluble powder or freeze-dried into
granules that can be quickly dissolved in hot water. [114] Originally invented in
1907,[115][116] it rapidly gained in popularity in many countries in the post-war
period, with Nescafé being the most popular product.[117] Many consumers
determined that the convenience in preparing a cup of instant coffee more than
made up for a perceived inferior taste, [118] although, since the late 1970s, instant
coffee has been produced differently in such a way that is similar to the taste of
freshly brewed coffee. Paralleling (and complementing) the rapid rise of instant
coffee was the coffee vending machine invented in 1947 and widely distributed
since the 1950s.[119]

Canned coffee has been popular in Asian countries for many years, particularly
in China, Japan, South Korea, and Taiwan. Vending machines typically sell
varieties of flavored canned coffee, much like brewed or percolated coffee,
available both hot and cold. Japanese convenience stores and groceries also
have a wide availability of bottled coffee drinks, which are typically lightly
sweetened and pre-blended with milk. Bottled coffee drinks are also consumed
in the United States.[120]

Liquid coffee concentrates are sometimes used in large institutional situations

where coffee needs to be produced for thousands of people at the same time. It
is described as having a flavor about as good as low-grade robusta coffee, and
costs about 10¢ a cup to produce. The machines can process up to 500 cups an
hour, or 1,000 if the water is preheated.[121]
Sale and distribution

Brazilian coffee sacks

Coffee ingestion on average is about a third of that of tap water in North

America and Europe. Worldwide, 6.7 million metric tons of coffee were
produced annually in 1998–2000, and the forecast is a rise to seven million
metric tons annually by 2010.[122]

Brazil remains the largest coffee exporting nation, however Vietnam tripled its
exports between 1995 and 1999 and became a major producer of robusta seeds.
[123]
 Indonesia is the third-largest coffee exporter overall and the largest producer
of washed arabica coffee. Organic Honduran coffee is a rapidly growing
emerging commodity owing to the Honduran climate and rich soil.

In 2013, The Seattle Times reported that global coffee prices dropped more than
50 percent year-over-year.[124] In Thailand, black ivory coffee beans are fed
to elephants whose digestive enzymes reduce the bitter taste of beans collected
from dung.[125] These beans sell for up to $1,100 a kilogram ($500 per lb),
achieving the world's most expensive coffee[125] some three times costlier than
beans harvested from the dung of Asian palm civets.[84][85]

Commodity market

Coffee is bought and sold as green coffee beans by roasters, investors, and price
speculators as a tradable commodity in commodity markets and exchange-
traded funds. Coffee futures contracts for Grade 3 washed arabicas are traded on
the New York Mercantile Exchange under ticker symbol KC, with contract
deliveries occurring every year in March, May, July, September, and December.
[126]
 Coffee is an example of a product that has been susceptible to significant
commodity futures price variations.[127][128] Higher and lower grade arabica
coffees are sold through other channels. Futures contracts for robusta coffee are
traded on the London International Financial Futures and Options
Exchange and, since 2007, on the New York Intercontinental Exchange.

Dating to the 1970s, coffee has been incorrectly described by many, including
historian Mark Pendergrast, as the world's "second most legally traded
commodity".[129][130] Instead, "coffee was the second most valuable commodity
exported by developing countries," from 1970 to circa 2000.[131] This fact was
derived from the United Nations Conference on Trade and
Development Commodity Yearbooks which show "Third World" commodity
exports by value in the period 1970–1998 as being in order of crude oil in first
place, coffee in second, followed by sugar, cotton, and others. Coffee continues
to be an important commodity export for developing countries, but more recent
figures are not readily available due to the shifting and politicized nature of the
category "developing country".[129]

International Coffee Day, which is claimed to have originated in Japan in 1983

with an event organised by the All Japan Coffee Association, takes place on
September 29 in several countries.[132][133][134]
Health and pharmacology

Method of action

Skeletal structure of a caffeine molecule

The primary psychoactive chemical in coffee is caffeine, an adenosine

antagonist that is known for its stimulant effects. Coffee also contains
the monoamine oxidase inhibitors β-carboline and harmane, which may
contribute to its psychoactivity.[135]

In a healthy liver, caffeine is mostly broken down by the

hepatic microsomal enzymatic system. The excreted metabolites are
mostly paraxanthines—theobromine and theophylline—and a small amount of
unchanged caffeine. Therefore, the metabolism of caffeine depends on the state
of this enzymatic system of the liver.[136]

Polyphenols in coffee have been shown to affect free radicals in vitro,[137] but

there is no evidence that this effect occurs in humans. Polyphenol levels vary
depending on how beans are roasted as well as for how long. As interpreted by
the Linus Pauling Institute and the European Food Safety Authority, dietary
polyphenols, such as those ingested by consuming coffee, have little or no
direct antioxidant value following ingestion.[138][139][140]
Health effects

Findings have been contradictory as to whether coffee has any specific health
benefits, and results are similarly conflicting regarding the potentially harmful
effects of coffee consumption.[141] Furthermore, results and generalizations are
complicated by differences in age, gender, health status, and serving size.

Extensive scientific research has been conducted to examine the relationship

between coffee consumption and an array of medical conditions. The consensus
in the medical community is that moderate regular coffee drinking in healthy
individuals is either essentially benign or mildly beneficial. Researchers
involved in an ongoing 22-year study by the Harvard School of Public
Health stated that "Coffee may have potential health benefits, but more research
needs to be done."[142]

Mortality

In 2012, the National Institutes of Health–AARP Diet and Health Study

analysed the relationship between coffee drinking and mortality. They found
that higher coffee consumption was associated with lower risk of death, and that
those who drank any coffee lived longer than those who did not. However the
authors noted, "whether this was a causal or associational finding cannot be
determined from our data."[143] A 2014 meta-analysis found that coffee
consumption (4 cups/day) was inversely associated with all-cause mortality (a
16% lower risk), as well as cardiovascular disease mortality specifically (a 21%
lower risk from drinking 3 cups/day), but not with cancer mortality.
[144]
 Additional meta-analysis studies corroborated these findings, showing that
higher coffee consumption (2–4 cups per day) was associated with a reduced
risk of death by all disease causes.[145][146]
Cardiovascular disease

Coffee is no longer thought to be a risk factor for coronary heart disease.[147] A

2012 meta-analysis concluded that people who drank moderate amounts of
coffee had a lower rate of heart failure, with the biggest effect found for those
who drank more than four cups a day.[148] Moreover, in one preliminary study,
habitual coffee consumption was associated with improved vascular function.
[149][150]
 Interestingly, a recent meta-analysis showed that coffee consumption was
associated with a reduced risk of death in patients who have had a myocardial
infarction.[151]

Mental health

One review published in 2004 indicated a negative correlation

between suicide rates and coffee consumption,[152] but this effect has not been
confirmed in larger studies.

Long-term studies of both risk and potential benefit of coffee consumption by

elderly people, including assessment on symptoms of Alzheimer's
disease and cognitive impairment, are not conclusive.[4][153]

Some research suggests that a minority of moderate regular caffeine consumers

experience some amount of clinical depression, anxiety, low vigor, or fatigue
when discontinuing their caffeine use.[154] However, the methodology of these
studies has been criticized.[155] Withdrawal effects are more common and better
documented in heavy caffeine users.[156]

Coffee caffeine may aggravate pre-existing conditions such

as migraines, arrhythmias, and cause sleep disturbances. Caffeine
withdrawal from chronic use causes consistent effects typical of physical
dependence,[157] including headaches,[158]mood changes and the possibility of
reduced cerebral blood flow.[157][159]
Type II diabetes

In a systematic review and meta-analysis of 28 prospective observational

studies, representing 1,109,272 participants, every additional cup of caffeinated
and decaffeinated coffee consumed in a day was associated with a 9% (95% CI
6%, 11%) and 6% (95% CI 2%, 9%) lower risk of type 2 diabetes, respectively.
[160]

Cancer

The effects of coffee consumption on cancer risk remain unclear, with reviews
and meta-analyses showing either no relationship[161][162] or a slightly lower risk
of cancer onset.[163]

Risks

Instant coffee has a greater amount of acrylamide than brewed coffee.[164] It was

once thought that coffee aggravates gastroesophageal reflux disease but recent
research suggests no link.[165]

Caffeine content

Depending on the type of coffee and method of preparation, the caffeine content
of a single serving can vary greatly.[166][167][168][169] The caffeine content of a cup
of coffee varies depending mainly on the brewing method, and also on the
variety of seed.[170] According to the USDA National Nutrient Database, an 8-
ounce (237 ml) cup of "coffee brewed from grounds" contains 95 mg caffeine,
whereas an espresso (25 ml) contains 53 mg.[171]

According to an article in the Journal of the American Dietetic Association,

coffee has the following caffeine content, depending on how it is prepared:[167]
 Serving size Caffeine content

Brewed 7 oz, 207 ml 80–135 mg

Drip 7 oz, 207 ml 115–175 mg

Espress
1.5–2 oz, 45–60 ml 100 mg
o

While the percent of caffeine content in coffee seeds themselves diminishes

with increased roast level, the opposite is true for coffee brewed from different
grinds and brewing methods using the same proportion of coffee to water
volume. The coffee sack (similar to the French press and other steeping
methods) extracts more caffeine from dark roasted seeds; the percolator and
espresso methods extract more caffeine from light roasted seeds:[172]

Light roast Medium roast Dark roast

Coffee sack – coarse

0.046 0.045 0.054
grind

Percolator – coarse grind 0.068 0.065 0.060

Espresso – fine grind 0.069 0.062 0.061

[173]
Coffeaarabica normally contains about half the caffeine of Coffearobusta.
A Coffeaarabica bean containing very little caffeine was discovered
in Ethiopia in 2004.[173]

See Low caffeine coffee.

Coffeehouses

Coffeehouse in Palestine (c.1900)

Widely known as coffeehouses or cafés, establishments serving prepared coffee

or other hot beverages have existed for over five hundred years. Various
legends involving the introduction of coffee to Istanbul at a "Kiva Han" in the
late 15th century circulate in culinary tradition, but with no documentation.[174]

Coffeehouses in Mecca became a concern as places for political gatherings to

the imams who banned them, and the drink, for Muslims between 1512 and
1524. In 1530 the first coffeehouse was opened in Damascus.[175] The first
coffeehouse in Constantinople was opened in 1475[176] by traders arriving from
Damascus and Aleppo. Soon after, coffeehouses became part of the Ottoman
Culture, spreading rapidly to all regions of the Ottoman Empire.
First patent for the espresso machine, Angelo Moriondo (1884)

In the 17th century, coffee appeared for the first time in Europe outside the
Ottoman Empire, and coffeehouses were established and quickly became
popular. The first coffeehouses in Western Europe appeared in Venice, as a
result of the traffic between La Serenissima and the Ottomans; the very first one
is recorded in 1645. The first coffeehouse in England was set up in Oxford in
1650 by a Jewish man named Jacob in the building now known as "The Grand
Cafe". A plaque on the wall still commemorates this and the Cafe is now a
trendy cocktail bar.[177] By 1675, there were more than 3,000 coffeehouses in
England.[178]

A legend says that after the second Turkish siege of Vienna in 1683, the
Viennese discovered many bags of coffee in the abandoned Ottoman
encampment. Using this captured stock, a Polish soldier
named Kulczycki opened the first coffeehouse in Vienna. This story never
happened. Nowadays it is proven that the first coffeehouse in Vienna was
opened by the Armenian Johannes Theodat in 1685.[179][180]

In 1672 an Armenian named Pascal established a coffee stall in Paris that was

ultimately unsuccessful and the city had to wait until 1689 for its first
coffeehouse when ProcopioCutò opened the Café Procope. This coffeehouse
still exists today and was a major meeting place of the
French Enlightenment; Voltaire, Rousseau, and Denis Diderot frequented it, and
it is arguably the birthplace of the Encyclopédie, the first modern encyclopedia.
[181]
 America had its first coffeehouse in Boston, in 1676.[182] Coffee, tea and beer
were often served together in establishments which functioned both as
coffeehouses and taverns; one such was the Green Dragon in Boston,
where John Adams, James Otis, and Paul Revere planned rebellion.[30]

The modern steamless espresso machine was invented in Milan, Italy, in 1938

by AchilleGaggia,[183] and from there spread across coffeehouses and restaurants
across Italy and the rest of Europe in the early 1950s. An Italian named
PinoRiservato opened the first espresso bar, the Moka Bar, in Soho in 1952, and
there were 400 such bars in London alone by 1956. Cappucino was particularly
popular among English drinkers.[184] Similarly in the United States, the espresso
craze spread. North Beach in San Francisco saw the opening of the Caffe
Trieste in 1957, which saw Beat Generation poets such as Allen
Ginsberg and Bob Kaufman alongside bemused Italian immigrants.[184] Similar
such cafes existed in Greenwich Village and elsewhere.[184]

The first Peet's Coffee & Tea store opened in 1966 in Berkeley, California by

Dutch native Alfred Peet. He chose to focus on roasting batches with fresher,
higher quality seeds than was the norm at the time. He was a trainer and
supplier to the founders of Starbuck's.[185]

The international coffeehouse chain Starbucks began as a modest business

roasting and selling coffee beans in 1971, by three college students Jerry
Baldwin, Gordon Bowker, and Zev Siegl. The first store opened on March 30,
1971 at the Pike Place Market in Seattle, followed by a second and third over
the next two years.[186] Entrepreneur Howard Schultz joined the company in
1982 as Director of Retail Operations and Marketing, and pushed to sell
premade espresso coffee. The others were reluctant, but Schultz opened Il
Giornale in Seattle in April 1986.[187] He bought the other owners out in March
1987 and pushed on with plans to expand—from 1987 to the end of 1991, the
chain (rebranded from Il Giornale to Starbucks) expanded to over 100 outlets.
[188]
 The company has 16,600 stores in over 40 countries worldwide.[189]

Barista at work

South Korea experienced almost 900 percent growth in the number of coffee
shops in the country between 2006 and 2011. The capital city Seoul now has the
highest concentration of coffee shops in the world, with more than 10,000 cafes
and coffeehouses.[190]

A contemporary term for a person who makes coffee beverages, often a

coffeehouse employee, is a barista. The Specialty Coffee Association of Europe
and the Specialty Coffee Association of America have been influential in setting
standards and providing training.[191]

Social and culture

A coffee-house in Constantinople (modern day Istanbul), 1826

Coffee is often consumed alongside (or instead of) breakfast by many at home
or when eating out at diners or cafeterias. It is often served at the end of a
formal meal, normally with a dessert, and at times with an after-dinner mint,
especially when consumed at a restaurant or dinner party.

Coffee break area

Break

A coffee break in the United States and elsewhere is a short mid-morning rest

period granted to employees in business and industry, corresponding with
the Commonwealth terms "elevenses", "smoko" (in Australia), "morning tea",
"tea break", or even just "tea". An afternoon coffee break, or afternoon tea,
often occurs as well.

The coffee break originated in the late 19th century in Stoughton, Wisconsin,
with the wives of Norwegian immigrants. The city celebrates this every year
with the Stoughton Coffee Break Festival. [192] In 1951, Time noted that
"[s]incethe war, the coffee break has been written into union contracts". [193] The
term subsequently became popular through a Pan-American Coffee Bureau ad
campaign of 1952 which urged consumers, "Give yourself a Coffee-Break – and
Get What Coffee Gives to You."[194] John B. Watson, a behavioral psychologist
who worked with Maxwell House later in his career, helped to popularize coffee
breaks within the American culture.[195] Coffee breaks usually last from 10 to 20
minutes and frequently occur at the end of the first third of the work shift. In
some companies and some civil service, the coffee break may be observed
formally at a set hour. In some places, a cart with hot and cold beverages
and cakes, breads and pastries arrives at the same time morning and afternoon,
an employer may contract with an outside caterer for daily service, or coffee
breaks may take place away from the actual work-area in a
designated cafeteria or tea room. More generally, the phrase "coffee break" has
also come to denote any break from work.

Prohibition

The Coffee Bearer, Orientalist painting by John Frederick Lewis (1857)

Coffee was initially used for spiritual reasons. At least 1,100 years ago, traders
brought coffee across the Red Sea into Arabia (modern-day Yemen), where
Muslim dervishes began cultivating the shrub in their gardens. At first, the
Arabians made wine from the pulp of the fermented coffee berries. This
beverage was known as qishr (kisher in modern usage) and was used during
religious ceremonies.[196]

Coffee drinking was prohibited by jurists and scholars (ulema) meeting in

Mecca in 1511 as haraam, but the subject of whether it was intoxicating was
hotly debated over the next 30 years until the ban was finally overturned in the
mid-16th century.[197] Use in religious rites among the Sufi branch of Islam led
to coffee's being put on trial in Mecca: it was accused of being a heretical
substance, and its production and consumption were briefly repressed. It was
later prohibited in Ottoman Turkey under an edict by the Sultan Murad IV.[198]

Coffee, regarded as a Muslim drink, was prohibited by Ethiopian Orthodox

Christians until as late as 1889; it is now considered a national drink of Ethiopia
for people of all faiths. Its early association in Europe with rebellious political
activities led to Charles II outlawing coffeehouses from January 1676 (although
the uproar created forced the monarch to back down two days before the ban
was due to come into force).[30]Frederick the Great banned it in Prussia in 1777
for nationalistic and economic reasons; concerned about the price of import, he
sought to force the public back to consuming beer.[199] Lacking coffee-producing
colonies, Prussia had to import all its coffee at a great cost.[200]

A contemporary example of religious prohibition of coffee can be found in The

Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints.[201] The organization holds that it is
both physically and spiritually unhealthy to consume coffee. [202] This comes
from the Mormon doctrine of health, given in 1833 by founder Joseph Smith in
a revelation called the Word of Wisdom. It does not identify coffee by name,
but includes the statement that "hot drinks are not for the belly," which has been
interpreted to forbid both coffee and tea.[202]

Quite a number of members of the Seventh-day Adventist Church also avoid

caffeinated drinks. In its teachings, the Church encourages members to avoid
tea, coffee, and other stimulants. Abstinence from coffee, tobacco, and alcohol
by many Adventists has afforded a near-unique opportunity for studies to be
conducted within that population group on the health effects of coffee drinking,
free from confounding factors. One study was able to show a weak
but statistically significant association between coffee consumption and
mortality from ischemic heart disease, other cardiovascular disease, all
cardiovascular diseases combined, and all causes of death.[203]

For a time, there had been controversy in the Jewish community over whether

the coffee seed was a legume and therefore prohibited for Passover. Upon
petition from coffeemaker Maxwell House, the coffee seed was classified in
1923 as a berry rather than a seed by orthodox Jewish rabbi Hersch Kohn, and
therefore kosher for Passover.[204]

Fair trade

Small-sized bag of coffee beans

The concept of fair trade labeling, which guarantees coffee growers a negotiated

preharvest price, began in the late 1980s with the Max Havelaar
Foundation's labeling program in the Netherlands. In 2004, 24,222 metric tons
(of 7,050,000 produced worldwide) were fair trade; in 2005, 33,991 metric tons
out of 6,685,000 were fair trade, an increase from 0.34% to 0.51%.[205][206] A
number of fair trade impact studies have shown that fair trade coffee produces a
mixed impact on the communities that grow it. Many studies are skeptical about
fair trade, reporting that it often worsens the bargaining power of those who are
not part of it. Coffee was incorporated into the fair-trade movement in 1988,
when the Max Havelaar mark was introduced in the Netherlands. The very first
fair-trade coffee was an effort to import a Guatemalan coffee into Europe as
"Indio Solidarity Coffee".[207]

Since the founding of organisations such as the European Fair Trade

Association (1987), the production and consumption of fair trade coffee has
grown as some local and national coffee chains started to offer fair trade
alternatives.[208][209] For example, in April 2000, after a year-long campaign by
the human rights organization Global Exchange, Starbucks decided to carry
fair-trade coffee in its stores.[210] Since September 2009 all Starbucks Espresso
beverages in UK and Ireland are made with Fairtrade and Shared Planet
certified coffee.[211]

A 2005 study done in Belgium concluded that consumers' buying behavior is

not consistent with their positive attitude toward ethical products. On average
46% of European consumers claimed to be willing to pay substantially more for
ethical products, including fair-trade products such as coffee. [210] The study
found that the majority of respondents were unwilling to pay the actual price
premium of 27% for fair trade coffee.[210]

Folklore and culture

The Oromo people would customarily plant a coffee tree on the graves of

powerful sorcerers. They believed that the first coffee bush sprang up from the
tears that the god of heaven shed over the corpse of a dead sorcerer.[212]

Johann Sebastian Bach was inspired to compose the humorous Coffee Cantata,

about dependence on the beverage.[213]
Economic impacts

Map of coffee areas in Brazil

Market volatility, and thus increased returns, during 1830 encouraged Brazilian
entrepreneurs to shift their attention from gold to coffee, a crop hitherto
reserved for local consumption. Concurrent with this shift was the
commissioning of vital infrastructures, including approximately 7,000 km
of railroads between 1860 and 1885. The creation of these railways enabled the
importation of workers, in order to meet the enormous need for labor. This
development primarily affected the State of Rio de Janeiro, as well as the
Southern States of Brazil, most notably São Paulo, due to its favourable climate,
soils, and terrain.[214]

Coffee production attracted immigrants in search of better economic

opportunities in the early 1900s. Mainly, these were Portuguese, Italian,
Spanish, German, and Japanese nationals. For instance, São Paulo received
approximately 733,000 immigrants in the decade preceding 1900, whilst only
receiving approximately 201,000 immigrants in the six years to 1890. The
production yield of coffee increases. In 1880, São Paulo produced 1.2 million
bags (25% of total production), in 1888 2.6 million (40%), in 1902 8 million
bags (60%).[215] Coffee is then 63% of the country's exports. The gains made by
this trade allow sustained economic growth in the country.

The four years between planting a coffee and the first harvest extends seasonal
variations in the price of coffee. The Brazilian Government is thus forced, to
some extent, to keep strong price subsidies during production periods.

Competition

Coffee competitions take place across the globe with people at the regional
competing to achieve national titles and then compete on the international stage.
World Coffee Events holds the largest of such events moving the location of the
final competition each year. The competition includes the following events:
Barista Championship, Brewers Cup, Latte Art and Cup Tasters. A World
Brewer's Cup Championship takes place in Melbourne, Australia, every year
that houses contestants from around the world[216] to crown the World's Coffee
King.[217][218]

FLAVOURS USED IN COFFEE

French vanilla, hazelnut, and cinnamon all sound like they would be a natural
addition to coffee, but in reality there are very few coffee bean flavors that are
truly natural. To flavor coffee, the roaster adds the chemical propylene glycol to
the beans to help get the flavoring to sink in Coffee.

DIFFERENT VARIETIES OF COFFEE

Coffee Bean Varieties. There are two main species of coffeebeans in the
world, Coffee Arabica, and Coffee Robusta. More than three-quarters of the
beans that are sold in the world today are Coffea Arabica, the majority of the
remainding bulk are Coffea Robusta also known as CoffeaCanephora.

7 Coffee Brewing Methods And Their Different Results

Coffee is more than just a vessel for caffeine. A wide variety of beans, mix-ins
and machines have recently turned coffee brewing into a delicate art. In fact,
depending on how you make your morning cuppa, you’re toying with the flavor,
nutrition and caffeine content. Here’s a look at seven common brewing methods
—in order of most basic to most time-consuming—and what actually ends up in
your cup.

Chemex Originally created in the 1940s, this slow-and-steady approach to

coffee brewing has made a comeback in the last few years. Just like a standard-
drip machine, the Chemex method involves pouring hot water over coffee
grounds. But the Chemex is special because it requires a filter that’s up to three
times thicker. As a result, the finished coffee has smoother texture and purer
flavor, with fewer fatty oils than what you’d get out of a standard-drip brew.
The Chemex machine also keeps your water at a steady 180-200 degrees. Any
hotter or colder, and the water will chemically alter the taste of your brew. 

Cold Brew 
Cold brewing, which is similar to the French press technique, has become
trendy among today’s coffee connoisseurs. Unlike the French press, cold water
is used in place of hot, and the grounds are steeped up to 12 hours. The finished
product is a crisper, sweeter cup of coffee than the coffee-shop-special dark
roast most of us are used to. That’s because cool water brings out the natural
flavors in coffee’s oils that hot water chemically alters or takes away. Cold
brewing also takes away some of the acid naturally found in coffee beans,
which makes this method ideal for those who suffer from heart burn or acid
reflux disease. If iced coffee isn’t your thing, make a stronger cup with cold
water and then mix it with heated water or milk when you’re ready to drink. 

French Press 

Looking for a morning jolt? French press is one of your best bets —especially
for those on the go. To brew, just throw some grounds in the pitcher, add heated
water, and steep for five minutes. When you’re ready for a drink, push the
strainer down, and out comes a freshly brewed cup of coffee. The longer and
more thoroughly your grounds are steeped, the higher the caffeine content in
your brew, making this method ideal for those in need of a serious early-
morning wakeup call. But that extra caffeine comes at a cost. French pressed
coffee contains higher amounts of Cafestol, the molecule in coffee that can
cause cholesterol spikes. In fact, a 2002 study in the European Journal of
Clinical Medicine found that people who drink four cups of French pressed
coffee each day can experience an 8 to 10 percent increase in their cholesterol
levels after just four weeks. 

Instant Mix 
The name doesn’t lie —just mix a spoonful of ground coffee powder with a cup
of hot water, and you ’re ready to go in seconds. But since the instant mix isn’t
technically coffee (it’s actually coffee extract that’s been freeze- or spray-dried),
you’re missing out on the flavor and caffeine that comes with the real stuff.
However, a 2012 study published in the Journal of Nutrition and
Metabolism found that instant coffee is loaded with antioxidants that can help
lower your blood-sugar levels and reduce your risk of developing type 2
diabetes.
Single Serve 

The ultimate solution for bleary-eyed students on the go, single-serve cups work
just like the standard drip machine. But with this method, the coffee is already
ground and pre-portioned. Just pop a little pod into the machine and you ’ll a
have a steaming cup in less than five minutes. The difference here is in the type
of pod you choose. Dark roast coffees contain the most cancer-fighting
antioxidants, while light roasts tend to have a higher caffeine content. When
shopping, make sure to double check the packaging, too. Aluminum pods can
alter the flavor of your brew, as if you can almost taste a hint of metal. Opt for
plastic packaging instead.

Standard Drip 

The granddaddy of all brewing methods, a standard-drip brew involves pouring

water over ground coffee beans in an automatic machine (think: your parents ’
Mr. Coffee pot). Many Americans prefer this method of brewing since it ’s fast,
easy, and traditional. It ’s also one of the healthiest: The filter at the top of the
machine absorbs most of the beans’ natural oils, which can do a number on your
cholesterol over time. Unfortunately, these oils also trap flavonoids, the
chemicals that give coffee the bold, earthy flavor we love.

The “Cowboy” Method 

Recently popularized by the foodie community, the cowboy method of brewing
coffee was once used only by serious campers and backpackers. The art is in
heating coffee beans and water over a small flame (but a stovetop burner works,
too). Right before the water begins to boil, sprinkle a handful of cool water into
the pot and then pour the brew straight into mugs. In addition to being cheap
and perfect for the great outdoors, this brewing method packs a serious flavor
punch, since nothing is strained or filtered. However, some find the results a
little too bitter; others don’t enjoy scraping up coffee grounds from the bottom
of their cups. And because the cowboy method doesn’t involve filtering, mugs
fill with all the oils and acids naturally found in coffee beans. But serious hikers
and campers need the extra calories, anyway.

POTENTIAL IN INDIA FOR COFFEE BUSINESS :

The Indian coffee retail market has been buzzing over the last 12 months with
two key players Starbucks and Cafe Coffee Day on expansion drive. The market
size of retail coffee in India is estimated at Rs 1700 crore plus and expected to
grow at a fast pace of over 20% in the recent times. This story explores what are
the key drivers fuelling the industry and what are the key challenges breaking
its growth speed.

The good: What's working and key drivers

Expansion drive: The entry of global coffee retailer Starbucks has turned out to
be one of the key growth drivers of the coffee retail market. Since the launch of
its first store in 2012, the coffee retailer has opened 50 stores across Delhi,
Mumbai, Pune, Bangalore and Chennai. Starbucks' India operations are a part of
Tata Starbucks Ltd, which is a 50:50 joint venture between the US coffee
retailer and Tata Global Beverages. Starbucks stores attract not only the regular
coffee goers (which are the youngsters), but it also has lured the executive
segment which otherwise stayed away from coffee shops due to their
association with being a spot for college goers.

On the other hand, Cafe Coffee Day, India's biggest coffee retailer, has
launched approximately 150 stores over the last one year. The total store count
of this retailer is about 1550, with presence in 200 cities. This increase in the
total number of stores and Starbucks brand name has added to the growth and
expansion of this market.

Increasing disposable income and expansion of consumption

culture: Another key drive which has given a boost to the Indian coffee retail
space is the increase in consumption culture, westernization and increased
disposable income. Over the last one decade, Indian consumers have shifted
from being saving oriented to be more consumption oriented, more so in the last
4 years. This shift in our consumer behaviour has taken away the mental barrier
on spending on eating out. Thus, Spending Rs 200-400 on a cup of coffee along
with some food is not big deterrent for today's Indian consumers.

Different formats to catch every consumer segment: Cafe Coffee Day

follows a mix of various formats including mall formats, highways, Lounge
(premium upscale format) and Square (which is a single-origin coffee
destination). Having these different formats has helped it tap into the various
consumer segment in the market with their different spending power and
preferences. This has been quite a smart strategy and a few small coffee retailers
are also following this format to tap this market better.

Indianisation: One of the key reasons of Starbucks instant success in India is

being attributed to its Indianisation of store ambience as well as food menu.
Most of the stores of this US retailer have interiors done with an Indian flavour.
Hand-carved wooden screens, tables of solid Indian teak, painted vintage
trunks, Indian theme paintings, etc. are a key part of the stores. The
indianisation is clearly visible in the menu too. So there is a Reshami Kabab
fighting for your attention against the Classic Breakfast Chicken Sandwich. The
Indian Chai Latte, MurgKathi Roll, Konkani Twist, etc. are a few other options
that add Indian flavour to the offering of Starbucks in India. Experts believe that
this Indianisation of the menu, particularly, food has really helped increase
spending per person/group in a single visit and also ensured repeat visits of
families. While the standard global offerings like blueberry muffic, Sandwich
biscuit, quiche, etc. keeps stays to be an attraction for the younger as well as
corporate consumers.

The bad and the ugly: Key challenges

The struggle: The coffee retail is a segment which has also seen many
players struggling and failing. With more than 3100 stores across the country
and the industry size of Rs 1700 crore, the competition is quite intense with
very less margin for error. Barrista, which had quite a good footing for a few
years, is seemingly more lost with its parent Lavazza scouting for a buyer.
Gloria Jean, which has been struggling since its launch in India is considering to
pull out. Costa Coffee which is world's second largest coffee retailer and has
been in India for quite a few years, has still not been able to find a strong
footing and has about only 100 stores after all these years of operation in the
country.

Two player battle: So far, the Coffee retailing market seems largely a two
player battle between Cafe Coffee Day and Starbucks, primarily because they
seem to have winning Indian consumer's heart as well as their wallet. This is
another challenge for the market's overall growth. Unless, other players don't hit
it off with the consumers expanding the market will remain a challenge. With
more players getting established, there will be more innovation, better service,
better quality which will boost the sector's growth. But that seems to be lacking
at the moment.

The economic impact: The economic slowdown of 2009 did hit the coffee
retail sector majorly, as with incomes and job securities going down, people did
became cautious in nature. Industry experts believe while things have started to
look up more recently, consumer approach is still not back to what it was back
in 2008.

Real estate costs: High real estate cost is another challenge that cuts into the
margin of coffee retailers. While these costs have gone down slightly in the last
couple of years, it still is quite high. In a good location, almost 505 of the
enterprise cost goes for the real estate. This affects the overall costing and
profitability of the coffee retailers.

Good Health Reasons To Drink Coffee

There are good reasons to drink coffee and there are a few reasons not to. This
article is for those that are looking for reasons to keep drinking it.
After all, you may have a caffeine-hater in your life. You know the type –
they’re always telling you what’s bad for your health.

Here’s a list of some good reasons to drink coffee. Memorize this list – so the
next time you encounter your favorite coffee-hater you can pull out one of these
babies.

While you’re at it, you can add the words “from a peer-reviewed scientific
journal” — that’ll really get your pet coffee-hater frothing at the mouth.

In all seriousness, here are some scientific reasons for drinking coffee in

moderation. 

Top 11 Coffee Health Benefits

1. Cut the Pain

Two cups of coffee can cut post-workout muscle pain by up to 48%. From
the Journal of Pain, March 2007 (link)

2. Increase your fiber intake

A cup of brewed coffee represents a contribution of up to 1.8 grams of fiber
of the recommended intake of 20-38 grams. From the Journal of
Agricultural and Food Chemistry (link).

3. Protection against cirrhosis of the liver

Of course, you could just cut down on the alcohol intake. From the Archives
of Internal Medicine (link). Another more recent study also showed coffee’s
liver protecting benefits. link. Yet another study showed that both coffee
and decaffeinated coffee lowered the liver enzyme levels of coffee drinkers.
This study was published in the Hepatology Journal.

4. Lowered risk of Type 2 Diabetes

Those who consumed 6 or more cups per day had a 22% lower risk of
diabetes. From the Archives of Internal Medicine (link). A recent review of
research conducted by Harvard’s Dr. Frank Hu showed that the risk of type
II diabetes decreases by 9% for each daily cup of coffee consumed. Decaf
coffee decreased risk by 6% per cup.

5. Lowered risk of Alzheimer’s disease

There is considerable evidence that caffeine may protect against
Alzheimer’s disease. From the European Journal of Neurology (link).

6. Reduces suicide risk and Depression

A 10-year study of 86,000 female nurses shows a reduced risk of suicide in
the coffee drinkers. From the Archives of Internal Medicine (link). Another
 study conducted by the Harvard School of Public Health found that women
who drink 4 or more cups of coffee were 20% less likely to suffer from
depression. Study link.

7. Protection against Parkinson’s

People with Parkinson’s disease are less likely to be smokers and coffee
drinkers than their healthy siblings. Just make sure you don’t get lung
cancer on the way. From the Archives of Neurology (link). Even newer
research out of Sweden revealed that drinking coffee reduces the risk of
Parkinson’s even when genetic factors come into play. link.

8. Coffee drinkers have less risk of heart disease. Korean researchers found

that study participants who consumed 3 to 5 cups of coffee a day were less
likely to show the beginning signs of heart disease. The study. Other dietary
factors should also be noted as Koreans typically have a different diet than
do Westerners.

9. Coffee drinkers have stronger DNA. A study published in the European

Journal of Nutrition showed that coffee drinkers have DNA with stronger
integrity since the white blood cells of coffee drinkers had far less instance
of spontaneous DNA strand breakage. Study abstract.

10.Lower Risk of Multiple Sclerosis. Recent research showed that at least 4

cups of coffee a day may help protect against the development and
reoccurrence of MS. It is believed that the coffee prevents the neural
inflammation that possibly leads to the disease developing. The study was
published in the Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery & Psychiatry. 

11.Coffee reduces colorectal cancer risk. Even moderate consumption of

coffee can reduce the odds of developing colorectal cancer by 26%. This
protective benefit increases with more consumption. The study is described
in detail here.

Recent research has also shown that coffee may boost a woman’s sex drive, but
the fact that it’s only been tested on rats somehow takes the shine off.