HVAC Systems

Design (Introduction)
Eng.M.Nosier

+002 01117085208

Smartmech_nosier@yahoo
.com
7/1/2012
Heating Ventilating And Air Conditioning 2

Prepared by:

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Heating Ventilating And Air Conditioning 3

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Air Conditioning
Introduction to Air Conditioning
Air conditioning may be required in buildings which have a high heat gain and as a result a high
internal temperature. The heat gain may be from solar radiation and/or internal gains such as
people, lights and business machines. The diagram below shows some typical heat gains in a
room.

If the inside temperature of a space rises to about 25oC then air-conditioning will probably be
necessary to maintain comfort levels. This internal temperature (around 25oC) may change
depending on some variables such as:

 Type of building
 Location of building
 Duration of high internal temperature
 Expected comfort conditions
 Degree of air movement
 Percentage saturation

In some buildings it may be possible to maintain a comfortable environment with mechanical

ventilation but the air change rate will tend to be high (above about 8 air changes per hour)
which can in itself cause air distribution problems.

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Heating Ventilating And Air Conditioning 5

Since air conditioning is both expensive to install and maintain, it is best avoided if possible.
This may possibly be achieved by careful building design and by utilising methods such as:
 Window blinds or shading methods
 Heat absorbing glass
 Heat reflecting glass
 Operable windows
 Higher ceilings
 Smaller windows on south facing facades
 Alternative lighting schemes.

The diagram above shows some of these methods.

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Heating Ventilating And Air Conditioning 6

If air conditioning is the only answer to adequate comfort in a building then the main choice of
system can be considered.
Full comfort air conditioning can be used in summer to provide cool air (approx. 13oC to
18oC) in summer and warm air (approx. 28oC to 36oC) in winter.
Also the air is cleaned by filters, dehumidified to remove moisture or humidified to add
moisture.
Air conditioning systems fall into three main categories, and are detailed in the following pages;
 Plant Central systems.
 Room Air Conditioning Units.
 Fan Coil Units.

1. Central plant systems have one central source of conditioned air which is distributed in a
network of ductwork.
Room air conditioning units are self-contained package units which can be positioned in
each room to provide cool air in summer or warm air in winter.
Fan coil units are room units and incorporate heat exchangers piped with chilled water and a
fan to provide cool air.

There are other forms of air conditioning such as:

 Chilled Beams.
 Induction Units.
 Variable Air Volume Units.
 Dual Duct Systems.
 Chilled Ceiling.

But we will consider the more commonly used methods first. Typical central plant air
conditioning system is shown below.

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Heating Ventilating And Air Conditioning 7

The system shown above resembles a balanced ventilation system with plenum heating but
with the addition of a cooling coil.
In winter the heater battery will be on and the cooling coil will probably be switched off for
the majority of buildings. In summer the heater battery will not need to have the same output
and the cooling coil will be switched on.
A humidifier may be required to add moisture to the air when it is 'dry’. This is when outdoor
air has a low humidity of around 20% to 30%.
In the U.K. low humidity are rare and therefore humidification is sometimes not used. In
dryer regions humidification is required through most of the year whereas in tropical air
conditioning one of the main features of the system is the ability to remove moisture from
warm moist air.
Dampers are used in air conditioning central plant systems to control the amount of air in each
duct. It is common to have 20% fresh air and 80% recirculated air to buildings. In buildings
with high occupancy the fresh air quantity should be calculated based on C.I.B.S.E. data, this
may require a higher percentage of fresh air (i.e. more than 20%).
Filters are required to remove particles of dust and general outdoor pollution. This filter is
sometimes called a coarse filter or pre-filter. A removable fibreglass dust filter is positioned
in the fresh air intake duct or in larger installation oil filled viscous filter may be used.
The secondary filter, after the mix point, is used to remove fine dust particles or other
contaminant picked up in the rooms and recirculated back into the plant. A removable bag
filter is generally used for this where a series of woven fibre bags are secured to a framework
which can be slid out of the ductwork or air handling unit (A.H.U.) for replacement.

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Heating Ventilating And Air Conditioning 8

1-Air Handling Units

Air handling units (A.H.U.) are widely used as a package unit which incorporates all the main
plant items as shown below. Pipe work, ductwork and electrical connections are made after
the unit is set in place on site.
Since air conditioning plant rooms tend to be at roof level, the larger A.H.U.'s are lifted into
place by crane before the roof is fixed.

In some cases it is usual to place the fan in front of (that is upstream of) the heater battery and
cooling coil. This is because fans operate best if the system resistance is at the outlet rather
than the inlet of the impeller. This is shown on the schematic diagrams above.
The photograph below shows a typical air handling unit with handles on the doors for access
to equipment.

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Heating Ventilating And Air Conditioning 9

2-Room Air Conditioning Units

These units use refrigerant to transfer cooling effect into rooms.
Room air conditioning units fall into two main categories:
 Split type
 Window/wall units.

Split Air Conditioners

Split air conditioners have two main parts, the outdoor unit is the section which generates the
cold refrigerant gas and the indoor unit uses this cold refrigerant to cool the air in a space. The
outdoor unit uses a compressor and air cooled condenser to provide cold refrigerant to a
cooling coil in the indoor unit. A fan then blows air across the cooling coil and into the room.
The indoor unit can either be ceiling mounted (cassette unit), floor mounted or duct type. The
drawing below shows a ceiling mounted (cassette unit).

The photograph above shows a ceiling mounted cassette and an outdoor unit.

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Heating Ventilating And Air Conditioning 10

Window / Wall Units

Window or wall units are more compact than split units since all the plant items are contained
in one box.
Window units are installed into an appropriate hole in the window and supported from a metal
frame.
Wall units like the one shown below are built into an external wall and contain all the
necessary items of equipment to provide cool air in summer and some may even provide
heating in winter. A small
Hermetically sealed compressor is used to provide refrigerant gas at the pressure required to
operate the refrigeration cycle. The condenser is used to condense the refrigerant to a liquid
which is then reduced in pressure and piped to the cooling coil.

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Heating Ventilating And Air Conditioning 11

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3 -Fan Coil Units

Outlet
These are room air conditioners but use louver
Finned pipe
chilled water instead of refrigerant.
heat Cool Air
Units can be floor or ceiling mounted.
exchanger
The chilled water is piped to a finned heat Chilled water
exchanger as in a fan convector. pipes Drip tray and
A fan blows room air across the heat condensate
exchanger and cool air is emitted into the Centrifugal
fans drain
room, as shown below. Dust filter
Fan coil units may be looked upon as being Cabinet
small air handling units located in rooms and
they can be piped with chilled water for T Room Air
cooling and low temperature hot water Thermostat
(LTHW) for heating if necessary. The room
temperature can be controlled with low,
medium and high fan speeds and chilled FAN COIL UNIT
water flow is varied with a two-port or three-
port motorised valve. Two-pipe, three-pipe
and four-pipe systems have been used.

The four-pipe system has two heating and two cooling pipes and may have a single heat
exchanger or two separate heat exchangers for heating and cooling.
It is useful to have a summer/winter changeover switch in the main control system to avoid
both heat exchangers being on at the same time.
A three-pipe system used heating flow, cooling flow and common return pipe work.

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Heating Ventilating And Air Conditioning 13

Choosing an A/C System

Generally central plant systems are used in large prestigious buildings where a high quality
environment is to be achieved. Cassette units and other split systems can be used together
with central plant systems to provide a more flexible design.
Each system has its own advantages and the following is a summary of some of the main
advantages and disadvantages.

Central Plant Systems - Advantages:

1. Noise in rooms is usually reduced if plant room is away from occupied spaces.
2. The whole building can be controlled from a central control station. This means that
optimum start and stop can be used and a weather compensator can be utilised.
3. Also time clocks can bring air conditioning on and off at appropriate times.
4. Maintenance is centralised in the plant room. Plant is easier to access

Central Plant Systems - Disadvantages:

1. Expensive to install a complete full comfort air-conditioning system throughout a
building.
2. Space is required for plant and to run ductwork both vertically in shafts and horizontally
in ceiling spaces.
3. Individual room control is difficult with central plant.
4. Many systems have been tried such as Variable Air Volume (VAV), dual duct systems
and zone re-heaters. Zone re-heaters are probably more successful than the rest.

Room Air Conditioning Units - Advantages:

1. Cheaper to install.
2. Individual room control.
3. Works well where rooms have individual requirements.
4. No long runs of ductwork.
5. Can be used to heat as well as cool if a reversing valve is fitted.

Room Air Conditioning Units - Disadvantages:

1. Sometimes the indoor unit fan becomes noisy.
2. Noisy compressor in outdoor unit.
3. Each unit or group of units has a filter, compressor and refrigeration pipe work that needs
periodic maintenance and possible re-charging. Units have course filters therefore
filtration is not as good as with AHU’s.
4. The installation may require long runs of refrigerant pipe work which, if it leaks into the
building, can be difficult to remedy.

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Heating Ventilating And Air Conditioning 14

5. Not at robust as central plant.

6. The majority of room air conditioners just recalculate air in a room. With no fresh air
supply although most manufacturers make units with fresh air capability.
7. Cooling output is limited to about 9 kW maximum per unit, Therefore many units would
be required to cool rooms with high heat gains.

Fan coil units are similar is some respects to Room Air Conditioners.

Fan Coil Units - Advantages:

1. Cheaper to install than all air central plant system.
2. Individual room control.
3. Works well where rooms have individual requirements.
4. No long runs of ductwork.
5. Can be used to heat as well as cool if 3 or 4-pipe system is used.

Fan Coil Units - Disadvantages:

1. Sometimes the indoor unit fan becomes noisy, especially when the speed is changing
with in-built controls.
2. Each unit requires maintenance.
3. Long runs of pipe work are required.
4. A chiller is still required to produce chilled water therefore they do not save as much in
plant and plant room space as room air Conditioners. Also boilers will be required if
heating mode is installed.
5. Fresh air facility may not be installed.
6. Cooling output is limited to about 5 kW

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Heating Ventilating And Air Conditioning 15

Other Ways to Cool Buildings

There are alternative methods of cooling buildings other than full comfort air conditioning.

These include,
 Night-time cooling
 Evaporative cooling
 Chilled beams and ceilings
 Hollow floor slabs with air
 Cooling air by subsoil or water

Some of these will use significantly less energy than conventional air conditioning. The
following is a brief description of each of the systems listed above.

Night-time Cooling
Cool air is passed through the building at night-time.
In some buildings this may be achieved by opening windows and using a purely natural system.
Most buildings however, require to be mechanically ventilated to obtain the high level of air
change to cool down the building fabric.
This is particularly suited to areas where the summer temperature drops off at night-time.

The system is improved by having building fabric exposed to the cooling effect of the night-time
air as shown below.
Night cooling of exposed heavyweight constructions can offset from 20 to 30 Watts/m2 of heat
gains during the day, reducing peak internal temperatures by 2-3oC.

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Heating Ventilating And Air Conditioning 16

Evaporative Cooling
As water is sprayed into an air stream the water evaporates.
The heat that allows the water to evaporate (the latent heat of vaporisation) is taken from the air
thus causing a drop in the dry bulb temperature.

Constant Wet
Bulb
Moisture
Content

1
This is demonstrated on the
Dry Bulb Temperature psychometric chart.

Psychometric Chart

We usually avoid spaying water into air streams to reduce the risk of bacterial growth (such as
logion ally).A way around this may be to cool the exhaust air with evaporative cooling and use
this to cool the supply air by using a heat exchanger.

The exhaust louver for this system must be well away from the fresh air intake louver to ensure
no cross contamination of air streams.
The efficiency of the system relies on the efficiency of the heat exchanger. The best heat
exchangers at present are thermal wheels. Many systems already incorporate a heat exchanger in
the exhaust to recover heat in winter.
A plentiful supply of water is required to add at the humidifier.

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Heating Ventilating And Air Conditioning 17

Chilled Beams and Ceilings

Chilled water is circulated through narrow cooling units called beams or through pipes
incorporated into a ceiling. Chilled beams have no fan built in. Chilled beams can be passive or
active.
Passive chilled beams have a long chilled water pipe which cools room air. Warm air rises to
the ceiling and enters the top of the beam, where it is cooled by contact with the cold coil.
The cool air descends into the room through outlet slots on the underside of the beam.
Active chilled beams have primary cool air supplied through ducting in the beam itself. Warm
room air is induced into the beam and through the cooling coil reducing its temperature.

Primary cool air

Ceiling Space supply

Passive Chilled
Beam Active Chilled
Warm air
Cool Air Beam
Room rising

Chilled Beams

Hollow Floor Slabs with Air

Precast hollow concrete floor slabs can be used as a conduit for conditioned air.
The slab is cooled by chilled air or night time cool air so that the concrete mass has a lowered
temperature.
Concrete
Floor
Slab

Conditioned
air is forced
Hollow Concrete
inside hollow
Slab
The system has cores.
several advantages
 Dampens swings in internal temperature due to high thermal mass of concrete.
 Uses existing space in slabs for transporting air.
 Uses the cooler slab as a means of keeping the building air conditioned without the need
for ductwork.

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Heating Ventilating And Air Conditioning 18

Hollow Floor Slab systems can offset heat gains up to 30 W/m2 where the underside of the slab
is not exposed and 50 W/m2 where it is exposed.

Cooling Air by Subsoil or Water

The year round ground temperature at 2m to 5m depth in the U.K. is 10 oC to 14 oC.This sub-soil
layer can be used to cool air.
A series of air pipes are laid in the ground at a suitable depth.
As air is forced through the pipes it is cooled.

The cooled air from the above system can be used either; directly to cool a building or as pre-
conditioned air to be further cooled by a refrigeration system.
The system also can be used to pre-heat air in winter when the ground temperature is above the
outside air temperature.
The efficiency of the system depends on; air temperatures, air flow rates and the effectiveness of
the soil/pipe/air heat transfer system.
Another method of cooling air uses water sources such as the sea, a lake or a river.
Where available this is preferred over subsoil cooling, since water has about four times the heat
capacity compared to air.
Water is pumped from the source and passed through a heat exchanger where water is chilled
and passed to cooling coils.

Another use of cool water is as a source for a; water to water or water to air heat pump.

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‫‪Heating Ventilating And Air Conditioning‬‬ ‫‪19‬‬

‫‪Cooling Towers‬‬
‫فكرج اتراج التثرٌد‬
‫ذغرخذو أتشاض انرثش‪ٚ‬ذ يغ انًكصفاخ انًثشدج تانًاء نخفغ دسظح ؼشاسج انًاء انًغرخذو كٕع‪ٛ‬ؾ ذكص‪ٛ‬ف تؼذ اكرغاب انطالح‬
‫انؽشاس‪ٚ‬ح انًفمٕدج يٍ انًكصف ‪ٚ .‬ؼخ انًاء انغاخٍ انخاسض يٍ انًكصف ٔ‪ٚ‬ذخم إنٗ تشض انرثش‪ٚ‬ذ يٍ األػهٗ ٔ‪ٕٚ‬صع تشكم‬
‫يرغأ٘ ػهٗ شكم لطشاخ ؼرٗ ‪ٚ‬غمؾ ف‪ ٙ‬ؼٕع انثشض تؽ‪ٛ‬س ‪ٚ‬ظثػ ف‪ ٙ‬ذًاط يٍ انٕٓاء انًاس داخم انثشض ‪ٔ ،‬تؼذ أٌ ‪ٚ‬ثشد‬
‫‪ٚ‬شظغ يشج أخشٖ إنٗ داخم انًكصف كًا ف‪ ٙ‬انشكم (‪.)1-1‬‬

‫ذرى ػًه‪ٛ‬ح انرثش‪ٚ‬ذ داخم انثشض َر‪ٛ‬عح ذثخش تؼغ انًاء ف‪ ٙ‬أشُاء ذغالطّ ‪ ،‬ار ع‪ٛ‬أخز انؽشاسج انالصيح نرثخشِ يٍ كرهّ انًاء انثال‪ٛ‬ح‬
‫انر‪ ٙ‬عرُخفغ دسظح ؼشاسذٓا ‪ٔ .‬ع‪ٛ‬ؽًم انٕٓاء انًطشٔد إنٗ خاسض انثشض يؼّ انثخاس انُاذط ‪ٔ ،‬تاإلػافح إنٗ رنك فإٌ ظض ًء‬
‫يٍ انؽشاسج انًؽغٕعح ‪ُٚ‬رمم يٍ انًاء إنٗ انٕٓاء ‪ ،‬نزا ذشذفغ دسظح ؼشاسج انٕٓاء انخاسض يٍ انثشض ٔكً‪ٛ‬ح انشؽٕتح أ‪ٚ‬ؼا‪.‬‬
‫فًٍ انٕاػػ أٌ فؼان‪ٛ‬ح تشض انرثش‪ٚ‬ذ ذرٕلف نذسظح كث‪ٛ‬شج ػهٗ دسظح انؽشاسج انشؽثح نهٕٓاء ػُذ انذخٕل إنٗ انثشض يماعّ‬
‫تانرشيٕيرش انًثرم ‪ ،‬فكهًا كاَد دسظح ؼشاسج انٕٓاء تانرشيٕيرش انًثرم ػُذ انذخٕل يُخفؼح صادخ فؼان‪ٛ‬ح انثشض ‪ .‬ذرى ػًه‪ٛ‬ح‬
‫انرثش‪ٚ‬ذ داخم انثشض َر‪ٛ‬عح ذثخش تؼغ انًاء ف‪ ٙ‬أشُاء ذغالطّ ‪ ،‬ار ع‪ٛ‬أخز انؽشاسج انالصيح نرثخشِ يٍ كرهّ انًاء انثال‪ٛ‬ح انر‪ٙ‬‬
‫عرُخفغ دسظح ؼشاسذٓا ‪ٔ .‬ع‪ٛ‬ؽًم انٕٓاء انًطشٔد إنٗ خاسض انثشض يؼّ انثخاس انُاذط ‪ٔ ،‬تاإلػافح إنٗ رنك فإٌ ظض ًء‬
‫يٍ انؽشاسج انًؽغٕعح ‪ُٚ‬رمم يٍ انًاء إنٗ انٕٓاء ‪ ،‬نزا ذشذفغ دسظح ؼشاسج انٕٓاء انخاسض يٍ انثشض ٔكً‪ٛ‬ح انشؽٕتح أ‪ٚ‬ؼا‬
‫فًٍ انٕاػػ أٌ فؼان‪ٛ‬ح تشض انرثش‪ٚ‬ذ ذرٕلف نذسظح كث‪ٛ‬شج ػهٗ دسظح انؽشاسج انشؽثح نهٕٓاء ػُذ انذخٕل إنٗ انثشض يماعّ‬
‫تانرشيٕيرش انًثرم ‪ ،‬فكهًا كاَد دسظح ؼشاسج انٕٓاء تانرشيٕيرش انًثرم ػُذ انذخٕل يُخفؼح صادخ فؼان‪ٛ‬ح انثشض ‪.‬‬
‫‪ٚ‬غًٗ انفشق ت‪ ٍٛ‬دسظح ؼشاسج انًاء انذاخم نهثشض ٔانخاسض يُّ يذٖ انرثش‪ٚ‬ذ ‪ٔ .‬نالؼرفاظ تانرٕاصٌ ف‪ ٙ‬يعًٕػح انًكصف ‪ٚ‬عة‬
‫أٌ ‪ٚ‬كٌٕ يذٖ انرثش‪ٚ‬ذ ف‪ ٙ‬انثشض يغأ‪ٚ‬ا ً نالسذفاع ف‪ ٙ‬دسظح ؼشاسج انًاء ف‪ ٙ‬انًكصف ‪ ،‬ف‪ًٛ‬ا ػذا ؼانح اعرخذاو يًش ظاَث‪ ٙ‬نهًكصف‬
‫‪ٚ‬ؼًم ػهٗ يُغ كً‪ٛ‬ح يٍ انًاء انًاس ػهٗ انثشض يٍ انًشٔس ػهٗ انًكصف ٔ‪ٚ‬غًٗ انفشق ت‪ ٍٛ‬دسظح ؼشاسج انًاء انخاسض يٍ‬

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‫‪Heating Ventilating And Air Conditioning‬‬ ‫‪20‬‬

‫انثشض ٔدسظح ؼشاسج نهٕٓاء ػُذ انذخٕل تااللرشاب إٌ يؼذل اَرمال انؽشاسج خالل انثشض ‪ٚ‬ؼرًذ ػهٗ دسظح ؼشاسج انثظهح‬
‫انشؽثح نهٕٓاء انذاخم ‪ٔ ،‬انشكم انغاتك ‪ًٚ‬صم يخطؾ خٕاص انٕٓاء يٕػؽا ً ػه‪ ّٛ‬يذٖ انرثش‪ٚ‬ذ ٔااللرشاب ‪.‬‬

‫أسثاب استخدام أتراج التثرٌد ‪:‬‬

‫‪ .1‬ف‪ٔ ٙ‬ؼذاخ انرثش‪ٚ‬ذ ٔانركص‪ٛ‬ف انكث‪ٛ‬ـشج يصم يؽطاخ انرك‪ٛٛ‬ف انًـشكض‪ٚ‬ح ‪ central air conditioning‬ؼ‪ٛ‬س ‪ٚ‬هضو كً‪ٛ‬ح‬
‫كث‪ٛ‬شج يٍ انًاء نرثش‪ٚ‬ذ عائم انرثش‪ٚ‬ذ ‪.‬‬
‫‪ .2‬إرا كاَد دسظح ؼشاسج انًاء انذاخم نهًكصف يشذفؼح َغث‪ٛ‬ا ف‪ٛ‬هضو ف‪ْ ٙ‬زِ انؽانح كً‪ٛ‬ح كث‪ٛ‬شج يٍ انً‪ٛ‬اِ عٕاء أكاَد‬
‫ٔؼذج انرثش‪ٚ‬ذ يرٕعطح أٔ كث‪ٛ‬شج ‪.‬‬
‫‪ .3‬ف‪ ٙ‬ؼانح اسذفاع شًٍ انً‪ٛ‬اِ ف‪ ٙ‬تؼغ انثهذاٌ‪.‬‬
‫أوواع أتراج التثرٌد ‪:‬‬
‫أوال‪ :‬أتراج التٍار الطثٍعٍح ( ‪)Atmospheric draft towers‬‬
‫ْٔزِ األتشاض ذكٌٕ ؼشكح انٕٓاء ف‪ٓٛ‬ا تذٌٔ آالخ ي‪ٛ‬كاَ‪ٛ‬ك‪ٛ‬ح ( يشأغ ) ٔإًَا ذؽذز تفؼم‬
‫ؽث‪ٛ‬ؼ‪َ ٙ‬ر‪ٛ‬عح فشق انكصافح نهٕٓاء ٔذغًٗ تأتشاض انرثش‪ٚ‬ذ انعٕ‪ٚ‬ح ‪ْٔ.‬زِ األتشاض ػهٗ‬
‫َٕػ‪:ٍٛ‬‬

‫انُٕع األٔل ‪ٚ‬غرخذو فاالخ سػ ‪ spray nozzles‬ذؼًم ػهٗ َفس انًاء انذاخم إنٗ‬
‫انثشض يٍ األػهٗ ػهٗ شكم لطشاخ طغ‪ٛ‬شج ن‪ٛ‬غمؾ إنٗ ؼٕع ياء انثشض ف‪ ٙ‬األعفم‬
‫انشكم (‪.)2-1‬‬

‫أيا انُٕع انصاَ‪ ٙ‬ف‪ٛ‬غرخذو عطٕؼا ً أٔ ؼشٕج ‪ fill‬نض‪ٚ‬ادج انغطػ انًثرم ف‪ ٙ‬انثشض ٔذؽٕ‪ٚ‬م انًاء إنٗ لطشاخ ٔكزنك نرمه‪ٛ‬م عشػح‬
‫عمٕؽ ْزِ انمطشاخ إنٗ ؼٕع انثشض ‪ .‬إٌ ْزا انُٕع رٔ كفاءج اكثش يٍ انُٕع األٔل‬
‫تُؽٕ ‪ % 20 – 30‬كًا ف‪ ٙ‬انشكم (‪.)2-2‬‬

‫‪ٚ ‬عة أٌ ذُظة أتشاض انر‪ٛ‬اس انطث‪ٛ‬ؼ‪ ٙ‬خاسض انًثاَ‪ ٙ‬أٔ أػهٗ األعطػ تؽ‪ٛ‬س ‪ًٚ‬ش ػه‪ٓٛ‬ا‬
‫انٕٓاء تؽش‪ٚ‬ح ‪.‬‬
‫‪ ‬كفاءج األتشاض انطث‪ٛ‬ؼ‪ٛ‬ح يُخفؼح ألَٓا ذرأشش تشذج ٔاذعاِ انش‪ٚ‬اغ ٔتانران‪ ٙ‬ذكٌٕ األتشاض‬
‫انطث‪ٛ‬ؼ‪ٛ‬ح راخ ؼعى ٔاسذفاع كث‪ٛ‬ش‪. ٍٚ‬‬

‫خواص ترج التثرٌد ذو التٍار الطثٍعً‬

‫‪ - 1‬يغاؼح كث‪ٛ‬شج‪.‬‬
‫‪ - 2‬يكاٌ ‪ٚ‬كٌٕ يفرٕغ‪.‬‬
‫‪ - 3‬يكاٌ ال ‪ٚ‬كٌٕ ف‪ ّٛ‬انٕٓاء ساكذا ً‪.‬‬

‫ممٍزاخ ترج التثرٌد ذو التٍار الطثٍعً‪:‬‬

‫‪ - 1‬عٕٓنح األداء‪.‬‬
‫‪ - 2‬سخض انركان‪ٛ‬ف‪.‬‬
‫‪ - 3‬سخض انظ‪ٛ‬اَح‪.‬‬
‫عٍوته‪:‬‬
‫‪ٚ - 1‬رطهة يغاؼح أكثش‪.‬‬
‫‪ - 2‬التذ يٍ ذٕاظذِ ف‪ ٙ‬يكاٌ يشذفغ نركٌٕ عشػح انٕٓاء اكثش‪.‬‬
‫‪ - 3‬ال ‪ٚ‬شكة إال ف‪ ٙ‬األياكٍ انًفرٕؼح‪.‬‬

‫‪ENG: M. NOSIER‬‬ ‫‪Smartmech_Nosier@yahoo.com‬‬

‫‪Heating Ventilating And Air Conditioning‬‬ ‫‪21‬‬

‫ثاوٍا‪ :‬أتراج مٍكاوٍكٍح‬

‫ٔذغًٗ أ‪ٚ‬ؼا تأتشاض انرثش‪ٚ‬ذ راخ انر‪ٛ‬اس انٕٓائ‪ ٙ‬انمغش٘ ( انعثش٘ ) ‪ ْٙٔ ،‬شائؼح االعرؼًال ف‪ُْ ٙ‬ذعح انرك‪ٛٛ‬ف ٔانرثش‪ٚ‬ذ نهٕٓاء‬
‫ٔذًراص ْزِ األتشاض تأَٓا ألم ؼعًا ً ٔألم ٔصَا ً ٔكفاءج أػهٗ ٔنٓا يمذسج ػهٗ يٕاظٓح انؽًم ػُذ ذغ‪ٛ‬ش دسظاخ انؽشاسج نهٕٓاء‪.‬‬
‫ٔ‪ٚ‬غرخذو ْزاانُٕع يٍ األتشاض ف‪ ٙ‬انؽاالخ ا‪ٜ‬ذ‪ٛ‬ح (ف‪ ٙ‬انؽاالخ انر‪ٚ ٙ‬رؼزس ٔظٕد يغاؼح كث‪ٛ‬شج نّ ‪،‬ػذو ٔظٕد يغاؼاخ يفرٕؼح‬
‫يٕاظٓح نهش‪ٚ‬ػ ٔف‪ ٙ‬األياكٍ انر‪ٚ ٙ‬كٌٕ ف‪ٓٛ‬ا انٕٓاء ساكذا ً‪).‬‬

‫تصىف األتراج المٍكاوٍكٍح إلى ‪:‬‬

‫أوالًال‪:‬أتراج تٍار الدفع‪:‬‬

‫ذؼًم انًشٔؼح ػهٗ دفغ انٕٓاء خالل انثشض ٔ‪ٚ‬كٌٕ ػغؾ انٕٓاء داخم انثشض اكثش يٍ انؼغؾ‬
‫انعٕ٘ ‪ٔ ،‬ذٕػغ انًشٔؼح ػٍ د يذخم تشض انرثش‪ٚ‬ذ‪ .‬انشكم انًماتم‪.‬‬

‫ثاوٍا ًال‪:‬أتراج تٍار السحة (‪:(Induced draft‬‬

‫ذؼًم انًشٔؼح ػهٗ عؽة انٕٓاء يٍ انثشض ‪ٚ .‬كٌٕ ػغؾ انٕٓاء داخم انثشض الم يٍ انؼغؾ‬
‫انعٕ٘ ‪ .‬أ٘ أٌ ػغؾ انٕٓاء داخم انثشض ‪ٚ‬كٌٕ عانة ٔيٕظة ف‪ ٙ‬ؼانح انذفغ ؼ‪ٛ‬س ذٕػغ‬
‫انًشٔؼح ف‪َٓ ٙ‬ا‪ٚ‬ح انثشض ‪ .‬انشكم انًماتم‪.‬‬

‫ذكٌٕ انًشٔؼح ف‪ ٙ‬ؼانح انذفغ يٍ انُٕع انطاسد ػٍ انًشكض أٔ انًؽٕس٘ ت‪ًُٛ‬ا ف‪ ٙ‬ؼانح‬ ‫‪‬‬
‫انغؽة ذكٌٕ يٍ انُٕع انرشدد٘ ‪.‬‬
‫ذغرخذو يغ أتشاض انرثش‪ٚ‬ذ يٕاَغ )‪ ( Eliminators‬نًُغ خشٔض لطشاخ ي‪ٛ‬اِ يغ انٕٓاء‬ ‫‪‬‬
‫انخاسض يٍ انثشض‪.‬‬
‫‪ٚ‬ؼخ انًاء انغاخٍ انمادو يٍ انًكصف إنٗ أػهٗ انثشض ؼ‪ٛ‬س ‪ٚ‬رى سشّ إنٗ اعفم انثشض تٕاعطح‬ ‫‪‬‬
‫يعًٕػح يٍ انششاشاخ ‪.‬‬
‫اَخفاع انؼغؾ األيصم نهششاشاخ ْٕ ‪ 50‬ك‪ٛ‬هٕ َ‪ٕٛ‬ذٍ ‪ /‬يرش يشتغ‪.‬‬ ‫‪‬‬
‫ذؽرٕ٘ أتشاض انرثش‪ٚ‬ذ ػادج ػهٗ ؼشٕ يٍ انخشة )‪ (Decking‬نض‪ٚ‬ادج يغاؼح انغطػ انًثهم‬ ‫‪‬‬
‫ٔنرزس‪ٚ‬ح انً‪ٛ‬اِ إنٗ لطشاخ طغ‪ٛ‬شج ٔانؼًم ػهٗ ذثاؽئ عمٕؽ انمطشاخ إنٗ لاع انؽٕع ‪.‬‬

‫ثالثا‪ :‬األتراج التثخٍرٌح ‪:‬‬

‫ْٔزا انثشض كًا ف‪ ٙ‬انشكم االذٗ يصم األَٕاع انغاتمح آال إٌ انًكصف ‪ٚ‬كٌٕ داخم انثشض ‪ُْٔ ،‬ا‬
‫‪ٚ‬كٌٕ ٔع‪ٛ‬ؾ انركص‪ٛ‬ف ػثاسج ػٍ انًاء ٔانٕٓاء يؼا ً ‪ٔ.‬يٍ ػ‪ٕٛ‬ب ْزا انُٕع ْٕ انكفاءج انؼان‪ٛ‬ح ف‪ٙ‬‬
‫انركص‪ٛ‬ف ‪ ،‬أياػ‪ٕٛ‬تّ فٕٓ انؽاظح إنٗ كً‪ٛ‬ح ٔع‪ٛ‬ؾ ذثش‪ٚ‬ذ كث‪ٛ‬شج ‪.‬‬

‫‪ENG: M. NOSIER‬‬ ‫‪Smartmech_Nosier@yahoo.com‬‬

‫‪Heating Ventilating And Air Conditioning‬‬ ‫‪22‬‬

‫ٌمكه تصىٍف أتراج التثرٌد تثعا ًال لسرٌان إلى ثالثح أوواع ‪:‬‬

‫‪ - 1‬أتشاض راخ عش‪ٚ‬اٌ يرؼاكظ ٔف‪ٓٛ‬ا ذغشٖ انً‪ٛ‬اِ إنٗ اعفم ٔانٕٓاء إنٗ أػهٗ ‪.‬‬
‫‪ - 2‬أتشاض راخ عش‪ٚ‬اٌ يرؼايذ ٔف‪ٓٛ‬ا ‪ٚ‬غش٘ انٕٓاء أفم‪ٛ‬ا ٔانًاء ساع‪ٛ‬ا ً إنٗ اعفم ‪.‬‬
‫‪ - 3‬أتشاض راخ عش‪ٚ‬اٌ يرٕاص٘ ٔف‪ٓٛ‬ا ‪ٚ‬غشٖ انًاء ٔانٕٓاء ف‪َ ٙ‬فظ االذعاِ إنٗ اعفم ‪.‬‬

‫فأتشاض انرثش‪ٚ‬ذ راخ انعش‪ٚ‬اٌ انًرؼاكغح انًغرخذيح أعاعا ف‪ ٙ‬ذطث‪ٛ‬ماخ ذك‪ٛٛ‬ف انٕٓاء ‪ٚ‬كٌٕ ظش‪ٚ‬اٌ انٕٓاء ف‪ٓٛ‬ا تظٕسج ػًٕد‪ٚ‬ح‬
‫أٔ تظٕسج يؼاكغح نغمٕؽ انًاء ‪ٔ ،‬ظش‪ٚ‬اٌ انٕٓاء أيا أٌ ‪ٚ‬كٌٕ تانذفغ أٔ تانغؽة تًشٔؼح كًا ف‪ ٙ‬انشكه‪ ٍٛ‬االذ‪. ٍٛ‬‬

‫‪ -4‬األتراج ذاخ الجرٌان العرضً ‪،‬انًغرخذيح ف‪ ٙ‬ذطث‪ٛ‬ماخ ذك‪ٛٛ‬ف انٕٓاء ٔانرطث‪ٛ‬ماخ‬

‫انظُاػ‪ٛ‬ح ف‪ٛ‬كٌٕ ظش‪ٚ‬اٌ انٕٓاء ف‪ٓٛ‬ا تظٕسج أفم‪ٛ‬ح يرؼايذا ً يغ ظش‪ٚ‬اٌ انًاء كًا‬
‫تانشكم االذٗ ‪ٔ .‬ي‪ٛ‬ضذٓا أَٓا راخ اَخفاع ػغؾ له‪ٛ‬م يٍ ظاَة انٕٓاء تانُغثح إنٗ‬
‫يغاؼح عطػ اَرمال كث‪ٛ‬شج ‪ٔ .‬كزنك ‪ٚ‬كٌٕ ذٕص‪ٚ‬غ ذ‪ٛ‬اس انٕٓاء ٔانًاء ف‪ٓٛ‬ا يُرظًا ً ‪،‬‬
‫ْٔ‪ ٙ‬غانثا ً يا ذكٌٕ راخ ذ‪ٛ‬اس ْٕاء يغرؽس ‪ٔ ،‬انًشأغ انًغرخذيح يؼٓا راخ‬
‫ظش‪ٚ‬اٌ يؽٕس٘‪.‬‬

‫‪ -5‬ترج التثرٌد المتعامد ‪ :‬ؼ‪ٛ‬س ‪ٚ‬كٌٕ اذعاِ ظش‪ٚ‬اٌ انٕٓاء يرؼايذ يغ اذعاِ عمٕؽ انًاء كًا ف‪ ٙ‬انشكم االذٗ‪ ،‬ؼ‪ٛ‬س ‪ٚ‬كٌٕ اسذفاع‬
‫انثشض ُْا اطغش يًا ْٕ ف‪ ٙ‬تشض انرثش‪ٚ‬ذ رٔ انعش‪ٚ‬اٌ انًؼاكظ ‪ٔ .‬ذؼرثش ْزِ ي‪ٛ‬ضج ف‪ ٙ‬انؽاالخ انر‪ ٙ‬ذرطهة اسذفاػاخ له‪ٛ‬هح نهثشض‬

‫‪ENG: M. NOSIER‬‬ ‫‪Smartmech_Nosier@yahoo.com‬‬

‫‪Heating Ventilating And Air Conditioning‬‬ ‫‪23‬‬

‫‪.‬ذرٕلف كفاءج تشض انرثش‪ٚ‬ذ ػهٗ يا ‪ٚ‬ه‪:ٙ‬‬

‫دسظح انؽشاسج انشؽثح نهٕٓاء ػُذ دخٕنّ ف‪ ٙ‬انثشض‪.‬‬ ‫‪.1‬‬

‫يغاؼح عطػ انً‪ٛ‬اِ انًؼشػح نهٕٓاء ٔفرشج ذؼشػٓا‪.‬‬ ‫‪.2‬‬
‫عشػح عش‪ٚ‬اٌ انٕٓاء خالل انثشض‪.‬‬ ‫‪.3‬‬
‫إذعاِ عش‪ٚ‬اٌ انٕٓاء تانُغثح انًرغالطح ( يرٕاص٘ ‪ ،‬يرؼاكظ أٔ يرؼايذ)‬ ‫‪.4‬‬
‫‪.5‬‬
‫سعح ترج التثرٌد (‪(Cooling tower capacity‬‬
‫عؼح أ٘ تشض يؼُاْا كً‪ٛ‬ح انؽشاسج انر‪ٚ ٙ‬طشدْا عائم انرثش‪ٚ‬ذ أٔ انر‪ُٚ ٙ‬ثغ‪ ٙ‬أٌ ‪ٚ‬طشدْا عائم انرثش‪ٚ‬ذ ‪ ٔ.‬كً‪ٛ‬ح انؽشاسج انر‪ٙ‬‬
‫‪ُٚ‬ثغ‪ ٙ‬أٌ ‪ٚ‬طشدْا عائم انرثش‪ٚ‬ذ ْ‪ ٙ‬كً‪ٛ‬ح انؽشاسج انر‪ًٚ ٙ‬رظٓا انًثخش ‪+‬كً‪ٛ‬ح انؽشاسج انُاذعح ػٍ شغم انؼاغؾ‪ٚٔ .‬الؼع أٌ‬
‫دسظح انؽشاسج انُٓائ‪ٛ‬ح نهًاء ػُذ ؼٕع تشض انرثش‪ٚ‬ذ ذرٕلف ػهٗ اسذفاع ْزا انثشض تفشع أٌ عشػح انش‪ٚ‬اغ شاترح ‪.‬كًا إٌ انًاء‬
‫انخاسض يٍ انًكصف ‪ٚ‬ثشد ػادج إنٗ دسظح ذمرشب يٍ دسظح انؽشاسج انًثرهح نهٕٓاء انذاخم نهثشض ٔنكُٓا ال ذظم إنٗ ْزِ انذسظح‬
‫كًا ْٕ يٕػػ تانشكم انًماتم‪ٔ.‬ذظم ْزِ انذسظح ػادج إنٗ دسظح أػهٗ يٍ دسظح انؽشاسج انًثرهح نهٕٓاء انخاسظ‪ ٙ‬تمذس‬
‫ف يرٕلفح ػهٗ عؼح انثشض ٔكً‪ٛ‬ح انً‪ٛ‬اِ ٔؽش‪ٚ‬مح ذظً‪ٛ‬ى ‪.‬‬ ‫‪ٚ‬رشأغ يٍ ‪ْ 10-5‬‬

‫عوامل اختٍار أتراج التثرٌد‪:‬‬

‫‪ - 1‬عؼح تشض انرثش‪ٚ‬ذ انًطهٕتح‪.‬‬
‫‪ - 2‬دسظح انؽشاسج تانرشيٕيرش انًثرم نهرظً‪ٛ‬ى ‪.‬‬
‫‪ - 3‬دسظح ؼشاسج انًاء انًطهٕتح ػُذ انخشٔض ػٍ تشض انرثش‪ٚ‬ذ ‪.‬‬
‫( دسظح ؼشاسج انًاء ػُذ انذخٕل نهًكصف أٔ االلرشاب نهثشض ) ‪.‬‬
‫أٔ ‪..... :‬‬

‫‪ - 1‬يؼذل انرذفك انًطهٕب ػهٗ انثشض ( نرش ‪ /‬ز ) ‪.‬‬

‫‪ - 2‬دسظح انؽشاسج تانرشيٕيرش انًثرم نهرظً‪ٛ‬ى ‪.‬‬
‫‪ - 3‬دسظر‪ ٙ‬ؼشاسج انًطهٕتر‪ ٍٛ‬ػُذ انذخٕل نهثشض ٔانخشٔض يُّ‪.‬‬
‫( يذٖ ذثش‪ٚ‬ذ انثشض ٔااللرشاب يُّ ) ‪.‬‬

‫‪ENG: M. NOSIER‬‬ ‫‪Smartmech_Nosier@yahoo.com‬‬

‫‪Heating Ventilating And Air Conditioning‬‬ ‫‪24‬‬

‫الحمل الحراري لثرج التثرٌد ‪:‬‬

‫‪ٚ‬ؽغة انؽًم انؽشاس٘ نثشض انرثش‪ٚ‬ذ يٍ انًؼادنح انران‪ٛ‬ح ‪:‬‬

‫)‪Qct = Mw. CP. (Tin – Tout‬‬

‫ؼ‪ٛ‬س أٌ‬

‫‪ :kg/sec.‬ذذفك انًاء انًشاد ذثش‪ٚ‬ذِ تـ ‪Mw‬‬

‫‪ :‬انؽشاسج انُٕػ‪ٛ‬ح نهًاء‪CP .‬‬

‫‪ :‬دسظح ؼشاسج انًاء انذاخم نهثشض‪Tin .‬‬

‫دسظح ؼشاسج انًاء انخاسض يٍ انثشض ‪Tout.‬‬

‫إٌ كً‪ٛ‬ح انؽشاسج انر‪ٚ ٙ‬فمذْا انًاء انًطهٕب ذثش‪ٚ‬ذِ ‪ٚ‬كرغثٓا ياء انرثخش ف‪ ٙ‬انثشض ‪ ،‬فإرا كاَد كرهح انًاء انًثخشج ف‪ ٙ‬انثشض )‪)M‬‬

‫يٍ انًؼادنح انران‪ٛ‬ح ‪:‬‬

‫‪Qct = M L.H‬‬
‫ؼ‪ٛ‬س ‪:‬‬

‫‪L.H:‬‬ ‫انؽشاسِ انكايهّ نرثخ‪ٛ‬ش انًاء ٔذغأٖ ( ‪(550 kcal/kg‬‬

‫يصال ‪:‬‬
‫‪ٚ‬رذفك انًاء فٗ تشض انرثش‪ٚ‬ذ تًؼذل‪ٚٔ 2kg/sec‬خشض تذسظّ ؼشاسِ ‪ 36Co‬ؼ‪ٛ‬س ‪ٚ‬ذخم تذسظح ؼشاسِ ‪31Co‬‬
‫ٔانًطهٕب انؽًم انؽشاس٘ نهثشض ٔيؼذل انرثخ‪ٛ‬ش‪.‬‬
‫‪ .1‬يؼذل ذثخش انًاء ‪.‬‬
‫) ‪Qct = Mw * CP *( Tin – Tout‬‬
‫)‪= (2)*(1)*(36 – 31‬‬
‫‪= 10 kcal/sec‬‬
‫‪ .2‬انؽًم انؽشاس٘ نهثشض‬
‫‪M = Qct / L.H‬‬
‫‪= 10 / 550‬‬
‫‪= 0.018 kg/sec‬‬

‫‪ENG: M. NOSIER‬‬ ‫‪Smartmech_Nosier@yahoo.com‬‬

Heating Ventilating And Air Conditioning 25

Air Conditioning process

The aim of this section of the notes is to allow students to size air conditioning plant such as;
cooling coil, heater battery and humidifier.
The notes are divided into several sections as follows:
1. Psychometric for air conditioning.
2. The Psychometric chart.
3. Examples of psychometric properties.
4. Air conditioning plant for summer & winter.
5. Basic processes.
6. Typical air conditioning processes.
7. Annotation and room ratio.
8. Summer and winter cycles.
9. Examples.

The first section deals with Psychometric for air conditioning and discusses some properties of
moist air. A simplified psychometric chart is shown for familiarization, and some examples of
how to find air properties are provided.
A diagram of an air conditioning system is shown in schematic form in the section entitled AIR
Conditioning plant for summer & winter. Before sizing takes place the student should also
understand the processes that take place in air conditioning systems. There are four basic
processes for summer and winter air conditioning systems.
The following basic processes are explained:
1. Mixing
2. Sensible Cooling and Heating
3. Cooling with Dehumidification
4. Humidification
The section on Typical Air Conditioning Processes shows winter and summer schematic
diagrams and psychometric charts. There are some more details that may be useful to the
designer of air conditioning systems. Further information is as follows: Annotation, Room ratio
when the processes have been superimposed onto a psychometric chart then calculations may
commence. These are as detailed in the following sections of the notes.

Summer and Winter Cycles

1. Summer cycle psychometrics
2. Summer cycle calculations
3. Winter cycle psychometrics
4. Winter cycle calculations
5. Duct and Fan gains.
The final section is seven examples of plant sizing using psychometric charts.

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Heating Ventilating And Air Conditioning 26

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Heating Ventilating And Air Conditioning 27

Psychometric for Air Conditioning

Psychometric is the study of air and water vapour mixtures.
Air is made up of five main gases i.e.
Nitrogen 78.03%, Oxygen 20.99%, Argon 0.94%, Carbon Dioxide 0.03%, and Hydrogen 0.01%
by volume.
The Ideal Gas Laws are used to determine psychometric data for air so that the engineer can
carry out calculations.
To make life easier a chart has been compiled with all the relevant psychometric data indicated.
This is called the Psychometric Chart. A typical chart is shown below.

Air at any state point can be plotted on the psychometric chart.

The information that can be obtained from a Psychometric Chart is as follows:
1. Dry bulb temperature
2. Wet bulb temperature
3. Moisture content
4. Percentage saturation
5. Specific enthalpy
6. Specific volume.
The following is a brief description of each of the properties of air.
1. Dry bulb temperature
This is the air temperature measured by a mercury-in-glass thermometer.
2. Wet bulb temperature
This is the air temperature measured by a mercury-in-glass thermometer which has the
mercury bulb wetted by gauze that is kept moist by a reservoir of water. When exposed to
the environment the moisture evaporates from the wetted gauze, which gives a lower
reading on the thermometer. This gives an indication of how ‘dry’ or how ‘moist’ the air

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Heating Ventilating And Air Conditioning 28

is, since in ‘dry’ air the water will evaporate quickly from the gauze, which depresses the
thermometer reading.
3. Moisture content or specific humidity
This is the amount of moisture in air given in kg of moisture per kg of dry air e.g. for
room air at 21oC dry bulb and 15oC wet bulb, the moisture content is about 0.008 kg/kg
d. a. This is a small mass of moisture (0.008 kg = 8 grams) per kg of dry air or 9.5 grams
per cubic metre of air.
4. Moist air
It is a mixture of air and water vapour. The amount of water vapour present in the air
depends upon the absolute pressure and temperature of the mixture.
5. Standard air
It is moist air when the air has diffused the maximum amount of water vapour into it.
6. Dew point temperature
It is the temperature of air recorded by a thermometer when the moisture present in it
begins to condense at constant pressure, thus the dew point temperature is the saturation
temperature corresponding to partial pressure of water vapour.
7. Relative humidity
It is the ratio of the actual water vapour pressure of the air to the saturated water vapour
pressure of the air at the same temperature (PV, actual / PV, saturated).
8. Percentage saturation
The Percentage saturation is another indication of the amount of moisture in air. This is
the ratio of the moisture content of moist air to the moisture content of saturated air at the
same temperature. When air is saturated it is at 100% saturation and cannot hold any
more moisture.
9. Specific enthalpy
This is the amount of heat energy (kJ) in air per kg. If heat is added to the air at a heater
battery for example, then the amount to be added can be determined from Specific
enthalpy change.
10.Specific volume
This is the volume of moist air (dry air + water vapour) per unit mass. The units of
measurement are m3 per kg. Also specific volume = 1 / density.
11.Latent heat
It is the heat which causes a change in phase with no change in the temperature.
12.Sensible heat
It is the increase in heat content of air when the temperature rises as heat is added, or the
heat which causes a change in temperature.

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Heating Ventilating And Air Conditioning 29

The Psychometric Chart

The six properties of air previously discussed can be shown on one chart called a Psychometric
Chart. One of the purposes of the Psychometric Chart is to size heater batteries, cooling coils and
Psychometric Chart is to size heater batteries, cooling coils and humidifiers. A simplified
Psychometric Chart is shown below.

This chart is only for demonstration purposes. If accurate assessments are to be carried out use a
C.I.B.S.E. chart.

Using the Psychometric Chart

If any two properties of air are known then the other four can be found from the
psychometric chart.

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Heating Ventilating And Air Conditioning 30

Examples of Psychometric Properties

EXAMPLE 1
Find the moisture content of air at 25oC dry-bulb temperature and 25oC wet-bulb
temperature.
Referring to the chart below, a vertical line is drawn upwards from 25oC dry-bulb
temperature until it intersects at 25oC wet-bulb temperature. This intersection point
happens to be on the 100% saturation line. The intersection point is highlighted and a
horizontal line is drawn to the right to find the corresponding moisture content. The
moisture content is therefore 0.020 kg/kg dry air.

EXAMPLE 2
Find the specific volume and wet-bulb temperature of air at 20oC dry-bulb
temperature and 50% saturation.
Referring to the chart below, a vertical line is drawn upwards from 20oC dry-bulb
temperature until it intersects with the 50% saturation curve.
The intersection point is sometimes referred to as the state point.
The specific volume is found to be 0.84 m3/kg and the wet-bulb temperature is 14oC

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Heating Ventilating And Air Conditioning 31

EXAMPLE 3
Find the specific volume, percentage saturation and moisture content of air at 15oC
dry-bulb temperature and 10oC wet-bulb temperature.
Referring to the chart below, a vertical line is drawn upwards from 15oC dry-bulb
temperature until it intersects with the 10oC wet-bulb temperature line. This
intersection is the state point. The specific volumes found to be 0.823 m3/kg, the
percentage saturation 52% and the moisture content 0.0054 kg/kg d. a.

EXAMPLE 4
Find the specific volume, wet-bulb temperature, moisture content and specific
enthalpy of air at 35oC dry-bulb temperature and 30% saturation.
Referring to the chart below, a vertical line is drawn upwards from 35oC dry-bulb
temperature until it intersects with the 30% saturation curve.
This intersection is the state point.
The specific volume is found to be 0.883 m3/kg, the wet-bulb temperature is 22oC,
the moisture content 0.011kg/kg d. a. and the specific enthalpy 65 kJ/kg.

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Heating Ventilating And Air Conditioning 32

Air conditioning plant for summer and winter

In the summer time when cooling is required by the air conditioning plant it will be necessary to
operate the cooling coil, re-heater and possibly other plant as well. In winter time the pre-heater
and re-heater battery will probably be on to provide warm air to overcome heat losses. Other
plant may be switched on as well. These plant items are shown in the diagram below.

The photographs below show some plant items.

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Heating Ventilating And Air Conditioning 33

Basic Air Conditioning Processes

1. Mixing
Where two air streams are mixed the psychometric process is shown as a straight line between
two air conditions on the psychometric chart, thus points 1 and 2 are joined and the mix point 3
will lie on this line. Two air streams are mixed in air conditioning when fresh air (m1) is brought
in from outside and mixed with recirculated air (m2). The resulting air mixture is shown below
as (m3). The mixing ratio is fixed by dampers. Sometimes, in more sophisticated plant,
modulating dampers are used which are driven by electric motors to control the mixture of air
entering the system. The diagrams below show mixing of two air streams.

By the conservation of mass formula: m1 + m2 = m3

By the conservation of energy formula: m1 h1 + m2 h2 = m3 h3
Where: m = mass flow rate of air (kg/s)
h = Specific enthalpy of air (kJ/kg) found from psychometric chart.

2. Sensible Cooling and Heating

When air is heated or cooled sensibly, that is, when no moisture is added or removed, this
process is represented by a horizontal line on a psychometric chart.

For sensible heating:

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Heating Ventilating And Air Conditioning 34

The amount of heating input to the air approximates to H1-2 = m * Cp * (t2 - t1)
Or more accurately from psychometric chart: H1-2 = m * (h2 - h1)
Where: H = Heat or cooling energy (kW)
m = Mass flow rate of air (kg/s)
Cp = Specific heat capacity of air, may be taken as 1.01 kJ/kg oC.
t = Dry bulb temperature of air (oC)
h = Specific enthalpy of air (kJ/kg) found from psychometric chart.

3. Cooling with Dehumidification

The most commonly used method of removing water vapour from air (dehumidification) is to
cool the air below its dew point.
The dew point of air is when it is fully saturated i.e. at 100% saturation.
When air is fully saturated it cannot hold any more moisture in the form of water vapour.
If the air is cooled to the dew point air and is still further cooled then moisture will drop out of
the air in the form of condensate.
This can be shown on a psychometric chart as air sensibly cooled until it becomes fully saturated
(the dew point is reached) and then the air is cooled latently to a lower temperature.
This is apparent on the psychometric chart as a horizontal line for sensible cooling to the 100%
saturation curve and then the process follows the 100% saturation curve down to another point at
a lower temperature.
This lower temperature is sometimes called the Apparatus dew Point (ADP) of the cooling coil.
In reality the ADP of the cooling coil is close to the cooling liquid temperature inside the coil.
Chilled water or refrigerant may be the cooling liquid.
The psychometric process from state point 1 to 2 to 3 may be shown as a straight line for
simplicity as shown above with a yellow line.

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Heating Ventilating And Air Conditioning 35

The total amount of cooling input to the air approximates to;

H1-3 = m * (h1 - h3)

The sensible heat removed is H1-2 = m * (h1 - h2)
The latent heat removed is:
H2-3 = m * (h2 - h3)
Where: H = Cooling energy (kW)
m = Mass flow rate of air (kg/s)
h = Specific enthalpy of air (kJ/kg) found from psychometric chart.
In the absence of a suitable psychometric chart the following formula may be used,
The sensible heat removed is: H1-2 = m * Cp * (t1 - t2)
The latent heat removed is: H2-3 = m * hfg * (g2 - g3)
Where: H = Cooling energy (kW)
M = mass flow rate of air (kg/s)
Cp = Specific heat capacity of air, may be taken as 1.01 kJ/kg oC.
T = Dry bulb temperature of air (oC)
Hfg = latent heat of evaporization, may be taken as 2454 kJ/kg @20oC.
g = moisture content of air from psychometric chart (kg/kg dry air)

4. Cooling Coil Contact Factor

Some of the air going through a cooling coil does not come into contact with the tubes or fins of
the cooling coil and is therefore not cooled to the ADP temperature. A mixing process therefore
takes place as two air streams mix downstream of the cooling coil as shown below.

One air stream is cooled down to the ADP and the other air stream by-passes the coil surfaces to
give an off-coil air temperature (mixed air stream) a little higher than the ADP.
This may be looked upon as an inefficiency of the coil and is usually given as the cooling coil
contact factor. The process is shown on the psychometric chart below.

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Heating Ventilating And Air Conditioning 36

The contact factor of a cooling coil may be found from

𝑑𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 1 𝑡𝑜 2 𝑚𝑚 (h1 − h2)

Contact Factor = =
𝑑𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 1 𝑡𝑜 3 𝑚𝑚 (ℎ1 − ℎ3)

5. Heating and Humidification

If is it necessary to add some moisture, to the supply air
then this is best done by injecting steam into the air
stream.
Humidification can be carried out by spraying a fine mist
of water droplets into the air but this is not recommended
in rooms occupied by people due to the risk of bacteria
carry over.
Dry steam may be injected from a steam supply pipe or
generated in a local packaged unit as shown in the
photograph below. A disadvantage of using an existing
steam supply is smells may be carried over into the air.
The steam package unit is situated close to the air duct
and is sized to meet the maximum requirements; this is
usually in winter in the U.K.
A steam pipe (sometimes hoses are used) passes from the
packaged unit to the air duct and steam at 100oC is
injected into the air stream via spare pipe. The un-used
steam is drained from the system via a condensate
tundish and drain. It is important to layout the steam pipe
work so that any condensate will drain back to the unit.
The psychometric process is shown below.

See summer and Winter Cycles section for calculation

of amount of moisture added at humidifier.

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Heating Ventilating And Air Conditioning 37

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Heating Ventilating And Air Conditioning 38

Typical Air Conditioning Processes

The schematic diagram below shows a typical plant system for summer air conditioning.

The psychrometric diagram below shows a typical summer cycle.

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Heating Ventilating And Air Conditioning 39

Schematic diagram below shows a typical plant system for winter air conditioning.

The psychrometric diagram below shows a typical winter cycle.

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Heating Ventilating And Air Conditioning 40

Annotation
The state points on a psychrometric chart may be given numbers or symbols to identify them. If
symbols are used the following system may be adopted.

1. Room Ratio Air state point Letter

Outside O
This is the ratio of sensible to total heat in the Room R
room for summer or winter.
Mixed M
The total heat gain (summer) or loss (winter) will Apparatus dew point ADP
be determined by adding the Latent and Sensible
Off cooling condtion W
heat in a room or rooms, i.e.
Room ratio line RRL
(SUMMER) Total heat gain=
Preheater off coil condtion P
Sensible heat gain + Latent heat gain
Upstream of Humidifier H
(WINTER) Total heat =
Supply S
Sensible heat loss + Latent heat gain
Duct, fan gain allownce D
The room ratio is used on a psychrometric chart to determine the supply air state point.
A room ratio line is superimposed from the protractor on the psychrometric chart onto the main
body of the chart by a line passing through the room state point R.
An example calculation is as follows:
Sensible heat gain = 9.0 kW
Latent heat gain = 2.25 kW
Total heat gain = 9.0 kW + 2.25 kW = 11.25 kW.
Room ratio = Sensible / Total heat
Room ratio = 9 / 11.25 = 0.8
The supply air state point must also be somewhere on this room ratio line to meet the room heat
gain requirements i.e. the room ratio line always passes through points R and S.

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Heating Ventilating And Air Conditioning 41

Examples of Psychometric Calculations for summer and winter

Example 1 (Summer Cycle)
A room is to be maintained at 22oC dry-bulb temperature, 50% saturation, when the sensible heat
gain is 10.8 kW in summer.
The latent heat gain is 7.2 kW.
Determine the cooling coil and re-heater outputs required by using a psychrometric chart if the
plant schematic is as shown below.
DATA:
Outdoor condition is 28oC, 80% saturation.
The outdoor air and recirculated air ratio is 20% to 80%.
The Apparatus Dew Point ADP is 8oC
Neglect the cooling coil contact factor.

Procedure (Summer Cycle)

1. Draw schmatic diagram of air-conditioning plant (see above)
2. Plot room condition R on psychrometic chart.
3. Plot outside condtion O on psychometric chart.
4. Join points O and R.
5. Find the mix point M by mesuring the length of the line O-R and multiply this by the
mixing ratio.
On a full size CIBSE psychrometric chart this mesures 85mm.
The ratio of recirclated air is 0.8.
85mm*0.8=68mm
Measure down the O-R line from point O by 68mm.
This determines point M.
If there is more recirculated air than outside air at the mix point,then point M will be
closer to R then point O.

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Heating Ventilating And Air Conditioning 42

6. Find the room ratio.

This is the sensible to total heat gain ratio.
Total heat =10.8 kW sensible +7.2 kW latant
=18 kW total.
Heat ratio =10.8/18.0 =0.6
Plot this ratio on the protactor, bottom segment, on the
psychometric chart and transfer this line onto the chart
so that it passes through point R.
7. Plot the apparatus dew point ADP of the cooling coil.
This is on the 100% saturation curv.
The ADP is 8oC
The wet bulb and dry bulb temperatures at this point
will be equal.
8. Join points M and ADP
9. Since there is no cooling coil contact factor we can
proceed with rehating from point ADP.
10. Plot the supply air condtion B.
the reheater process will be a horizontal line from point ADP to point S.
Point S is on the room ratio line.
The supply air temperature is 15oC

Summer cycle calculations

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Heating Ventilating And Air Conditioning 43

Mass flow rate

When the supply air temperature has been found from the psychometric chart then the mass flow
Hs = ma * Cp ( tr - ts )
Where: Hs = Sensible heat gain to room (kW)
ma = Mass flow rate of air ( Kg/s)
Cp = Specific heat capacity of humid air
(Approx. 1.01 KJ/Kg oC)
tr = Room temperature (oC)
ts = Supply air temperature (oC)
The supply air temperature is 15 oC
Rearranging the above formula gives:
ma = Hs / ( Cp ( tr – ts) )
ma = 10.8 / ( 1.01( 22 – 15) )
ma = 1.528 Kg/s

Cooling Coil Output

The Cooling Coil Output is as followes:

When the supply air temperature has been found from the psychometric chart then the mass flow
HCooling Coil = ma ( hM- hADP )
Where: HCooling Coil = Cooling Coil Output (kW)
ma = Mass flow rate of air ( Kg/s)
hM = Specific enthalpy at condition M (KJ/Kg)
determined from psychometric chart.
hADP = Specific enthalpy at condition ADP (KJ/Kg)
determined from psychometric chart.

The Specific enthalpy at points M and ADP (KJ/Kg)are shown on the psychometric chart
below.
HCooling Coil = 1.528 ( 50 – 25 )
HCooling Coil = 38.2 kW
Note:
The cooling coil output of 38.2 kW is a much higher value than the sensible heat gain of 10.8
kW.
It should be remembered that the difference is these two values is mostly from the fresh air
cooling load.
It takes quite a lot of energy in summer to cool fresh air coming into air handling units.
This can be minimised by bringing in minimum fresh air but not too little otherwise the building
will suffer from lack of oxygen and feel stuffy. Sometimes mistakes are made when sizing
cooling apparatus.
If a cooling coil or indoor cooling unit is sized on the sensible heat gain only without allowing
for fresh air load then it will be grossly undersized. That is why psychometric charts are required
to calculate cooling coil output including fresh air loads. So, don’t size cooling coil and indoor
cooling units on sensible heat gain only if there is fresh air coming into the plant. Size these
items of plant using a psychrometric chart.

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Heating Ventilating And Air Conditioning 44

Heater Battery output

The Heater Battery or reheater output is as followes:

When the supply air temperature has been found from the psychometric chart then the mass flow
HHeater Battery = ma ( hS- hADP )
Where: HHeater Battery = Heater Battery Output (kW)
ma = Mass flow rate of air ( Kg/s)
hS = Specific enthalpy at condition S (KJ/Kg)
determined from psychometric chart.
hADP = Specific enthalpy at condition ADP (KJ/Kg)
determined from psychometric chart.
The Specific enthalpy at points S and ADP (KJ/Kg)are shown on the psychometric chart below.
HHeater Battery = 1.528 ( 31.5 – 25 )
HHeater Battery = 9.932 kW

Example 2 (Winter Cycle)

A room has a 18.0 kW sensible heat loss in winter and a 4.5 kW latent heat gain from the
occupants. Determine the supply air temperature and heater battery load using the following
information.
DATA:
Indoor condition: 21oC dry-bulb temperature, 50% saturation.
Outdoor condition: -2oC d. b., 80% saturation.

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Heating Ventilating And Air Conditioning 45

The outdoor air and recirculated air ratio is 20% to 80%.

No preheating or humidification takes place in this simplified example.

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Heating Ventilating And Air Conditioning 46

Procedure (Winter Cycle)

1. Draw schematic diagram of air-conditioning plant (see above)
2. Plot room condition R on psychrometric chart.
3. Plot outside condition O on psychrometric chart.
4. No Preheater condition P
5. Join points O and R
6. Find the mix point M by measuring the length of the line O-R.
And multiply this by the mixing ratio.
On a full size CIBSE psychrometric chart this measures 110mm.
The ratio of recirculated air is 0.
Therefore; 110mm x 0.8 = 88mm
Measure up the O-R line from point O by 88mm.
This determines point M .
If there is more recirculated air than outside air at the mix point, then point M will be
closer to point R than point O.
7. Find the room ratio.
This is the sensible total heat ratio.
Neglect signs ie. the total heat for the room will be Sensible loss plus Latent gain.
Total heat = 18 kW sensible + 4.5 kW latent = 22.5 kW total.
Heat ratio = 18 / 22.5 = 0.8
Plot this ratio on the protractor, top segment, on the psychrometric chart and transfer this
line onto the chart so that it passes through point R.
8. Find the supply air dry bulb temperature by calculation.
9. Plot the supply air condition S on the room ratio line.
This is on a horizontal line from point M to the right hand side of the chart, and intersects
with the RRL.
The supply air Temperature is found to be 32.5oC.

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Heating Ventilating And Air Conditioning 47

Supply Air Flow Rate

When the sensible heat loss and supply air temperature in winter are known then the mass
flow rate of air is calculated from the following formula:
HS = ma * Cp ( tS- tr )
Where: HS = Sensible heat loss (kW)
ma = Mass flow rate of air ( Kg/s)
Cp = Specific heat capacity of humid air
(Approx. 1.01 KJ/Kg oC)
tr = Room temperature (oC)
ts = supply air temperature (oC)
Therefore:
ma = Hs / ( Cp ( ts – tr) )
ma = 18 / ( 1.01( 32.5 – 21) )
ma = 18/11.615 Kg/s
ma = 1.55 Kg/s

Heater Battery Output

The heater battery output is as follows:
H reheater battery = ma * ( hS- hM )
Where: H reheater battery = Reheater battery output (kW)
ma = Mass flow rate of air ( Kg/s)
hS = Specific enthalpy at condition S (kJ/kg)
hM = Specific enthalpy at condition M (kJ/kg)
The specific enthalpies at points S and M are shown on the psychrometric chart below.
Therefore:

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Heating Ventilating And Air Conditioning 48

H reheater battery = ma / ( hs – hM)

H reheater battery = 1.55 / ( 50 – 34)
H reheater battery = 24.8 kW
Therefore the heater battery load is 24.8 kW.

Example 3 (Summer Cycle "Cooling Coil contact factor")

An office is to be maintained at 22oC dry-bulb temperature, 50% saturation in summer.

The sensible heat gain is 8.0 kW.
The latent heat gain is 2.0 kW.
Determine the cooling coil and reheater outputs required by using a psychrometric chart if the
plant schematic is as shown below.
DATA:
Outdoor condition is 28oC, 80% saturation.
The outdoor air and recirculated air ratio is; 20% to 80%.
The Apparatus Dew Point ADP is 8oC
The cooling coil contact factor is 0.8. (See explanation of contact factor in page 9)

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Heating Ventilating And Air Conditioning 49

Procedure (Summer Cycle)

1- Draw schematic diagram of air-conditioning plant (see above)
2- Plot room condition R on psychrometric chart.
3- Plot outside condition O on psychrometric chart.
4- Join points O and R.

5- Find the mix point M by measuring the length of the line O-R and multiply this
by the mixing ratio.
On a full size CIBSE psychrometric chart this measures 85mm.
The ratio of recirculated air is 0.8. ……..
therefore; 85mm x 0.8 = 68mm
Measure down the O-R line from point O by 68mm.
This determines point M .
6- Find the room ratio.
This is the sensible to total heat gain ratio.
Total heat = 8 kW sensible + 2 kW latent = 10 kW total.
Heat ratio = 8 / 10 = 0.8
Plot this ratio on the protractor, bottom segment, on the psychrometric
chart and transfer this line onto the chart so that it passes through point R.
7- Plot the Apparatus Dew Point ADP of the cooling coil.
This is on the 100% saturation curve.
The ADP is 80oC.

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Heating Ventilating And Air Conditioning 50

8- Join points M and ADP.

9- Find the off-coil condition W by measuring the length of the line M-ADP and
multiply this by the cooling coil contact factor..
On a full size CIBSE psychrometric chart this measures 75mm.
The cooling coil contact factor is 0.8. ………..
therefore; 75mm x 0.8 = 60mm.
Measure down along the line M-ADP by 60mm.
This determines point W.
10- Plot the supply air condition S.
The reheater process will be a horizontal line from point W to point S.
Point S is on the room ratio line.
The supply air temperature is 17oC.

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Heating Ventilating And Air Conditioning 51

Mass Flow Rate

When the supply air temperature has been found from the psychrometric chart then the
mass flow rate of air can be calculated from the following formula:
Ma = Hs / (Cp ( tr- ts ))

Where: HS = Sensible heat gain to room (kW)

ma = Mass flow rate of air ( Kg/s)
Cp = Specific heat capacity of humid air
(Approx. 1.01 KJ/Kg oC)
tr = Room temperature (oC)
ts = supply air temperature (oC)
The supply air temperature is 17oC.
ma = 8 / ( 1.01( 22– 17) )
ma = 8/5.05 Kg/s
ma = 1.584 Kg/s

Cooling Coil Output

The cooling coil output is as follows:
Hcooloing Coil = ma * ( hM - hADP )
Where: Hcooloing Coil = Cooling coil output (kW)
ma = Mass flow rate of air ( Kg/s)
hM = Specific enthalpy at condition M (kJ/kg)
determined from psychometric chart.
hADP = Specific enthalpy at condition M (kJ/kg)
determined from psychometric chart.
The specific enthalpies at points M and ADP are shown on the psychrometric Chart below.
Hcooloing Coil = 1.584 / ( 50.5– 25)
Hcooloing Coil = 40.4 kW

Heater Battery Output

The heater battery or reheater output is as follows:
H heater battery = ma * ( hs - hw )
Where: H heater battery = Heater battery output (kW)
ma = Mass flow rate of air ( Kg/s)
hs = Specific enthalpy at condition S (kJ/kg)
determined from psychometric chart.
Hw = Specific enthalpy at condition W(kJ/kg)
determined from psychometric chart.
The specific enthalpies at points S and W are shown on the psychrometric Chart below.
H heater battery = 1.584 / ( 36.5– 30.5)
H heater battery = 9.5 kW

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Heating Ventilating And Air Conditioning 52

Example 4 (Winter Cycle with Humidifier)

An conference room is to be maintained at 21oC dry-bulb temperature, 50% saturation in winter.

The sensible heat loss for the room is 17.0 kW.
The latent heat gain is 40 Watts per person (see Air Conditioning section).
Determine the preheater and reheater outputs required and the amount of moisture to be added at
the humidifier in litre/hour, by using a psychrometric chart if the plant schematic is as shown
below.
DATA:
Outdoor condition is -2oC, 80% saturation.
The outdoor air and recirculated air ratio is 50% to 50%.
Maximum occupancy is 250 people.
The preheater off coil temperature is 5oC.
Supply air quantity is 8 air changes per hour.
Room volume is 20 * 12 * 4m high = 960 m3.

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Heating Ventilating And Air Conditioning 53

Latent Heat Gain

The latent heat gain = heat gain per person x number of people
The latent heat gain = 40 W/person * 250 = 10,000 Watts
The latent heat gain = 10 kW

Supply Air & Fresh Air Quantities

Supply air quantity (m3/h) = air change rate x room volume (m3)
Supply air quantity (m3/h) = 8 x 960(m3)
Supply air quantity (m3/h) = 7680 (m3/h)
Supply air quantity (m3/s) = 7680(m3/h) / 3600 = 2.13 (m3/s)
Supply air mass flow rate (kg/s) = Supply air quantity (m3/s) / Specific Volume (m3/kg)
Supply air mass flow rate (kg/s) = 2.13 (m3/s) / 0.87 (m3/kg)
Supply air mass flow rate (kg/s) = 2.45 kg/s
The fresh air flow rate (kg/s) = 2.45 kg/s x 50% = 1.23 kg/s

Winter Cycle Psychometrics

1- Draw schematic diagram of air-conditioning plant (see above).
2- Plot room condition O, M and R on psychrometric chart.
3- Plot the after Preheater condition P.
The Preheater process will be a horizontal line from O to P and acts as a frost coil in
this case, heating the air to 5oC.
4- Join points P and R.
5- Find the mix point M by measuring the length of the line P-R and multiply this by the
mixing ratio.
The line measures 82mm long.
82 x 0.5 = 41 mm
6- Find the room ratio. Plot this ratio on the protractor, so that it passes through point R.
Total heat is 17 kW sensible + 10 kW latent = 27kW.
Ratio is 17/27 = 0.63.
7- Find the supply air dry bulb temperature by calculation.
This is found by calculation because we have already calculated the mass flow rate
of supply air from information given in the question.

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Heating Ventilating And Air Conditioning 54

Supply Air Dry Bulb Temperature

The temperature of supply air is calculated from the following formula:
Hs = ma * Cp ( ts - tr )
Where: Hs =
Sensible heat loss from room (kW)
ma =
Mass flow rate of air ( Kg/s)
Cp =
Specific heat capacity of humid air
(Approx. 1.01 KJ/Kg oC)
tr = Room temperature (oC)
ts = Supply air temperature (oC)
( ts - tr )= 6.87 oC
( ts -21)= 6.87 oC
Hs = 21 + 6.87 oC
Hs = 27.87 oC
8- Plot the supply air condition S on the room ratio line.
9- Plot condition H on the psychrometric chart.
This is vertically down from point S, and horizontally across from point M.
This is because M-H is the reheater process and thus a horizontal line and H-S is the
humidification process and is close to a vertical line if steam is used.

Preheat Battery Output (Or Frost Coil)

The preheater battery output is as follows:
H Preheat battery = maf * ( hp - ho )

Where: H Preheat battery = Sensible heat loss from room (kW)

maf = Mass flow rate of air ( Kg/s)
hp = Specific enthalpy at condition P (kJ/kg)
ho = Specific enthalpy at condition O (kJ/kg)
( ts - tr ) = 6.87 oC
( ts -21) = 6.87 oC
H Preheat battery = 1.23*(21 - 5.5)
H Preheat battery = 8.0 kW

Reheater Battery Output

The reheater battery output is as follows:
H Preheat battery = ma * ( hH - hM )

Where: H Preheat battery = Sensible heat loss from room (kW)

ma = Mass flow of supply air ( Kg/s)
hH = Specific enthalpy at condition H (kJ/kg)
hM = Specific enthalpy at condition M (kJ/kg)
H Preheat battery = 2.45*(42 - 27)
H Preheat battery = 36.8 kW

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Heating Ventilating And Air Conditioning 55

Humidifier Output
The amount of moisture added to the air may be calculated from the following formula:
m moisture added = ma * ( msS - msH )
Where: m moisture added = The amount of moisture or added or steam flow rate (kg/s)
ma = Mass flow of supply air ( Kg/s)
msS = Moisture content at condition S (kg/kg d. a.)
msH = Moisture content at condition H (kg/kg d. a.)
m moisture added = 2.45*(0.0064 – 0.0054)
m moisture added = 2.45*(0.001)
m moisture added = 0.00245 Kg/s
1 litre of water weights 1 kg, therefore;
m moisture added = 0.00245 liter/s
m moisture added = 0.00245 liter/s*3600 =8.82 liter/hour

Example 5 (Summer Cycle "Air Flows To Be Calculated")

A Lecture Theatre measures 15 m * 10 m * 6 m high.
It is to be air conditioned in summer so that the room is maintained at 22oC dry-bulb
temperature, 50% saturation.
Determine the cooling coil and reheater outputs required by using a psychrometric chart if the
plant schematic is as shown below.

DATA:
Outdoor condition is 28oC, 80% saturation.
The Apparatus Dew Point ADP is 7.5oC.
The latent heat gain is 10.0 kW.
The sensible heat gain is 12.0 kW.
Maximum occupancy is 200 people.
The cooling coil contact factor is unknown at present and should be calculated.
Use CIBSE guide B2 (2001) to determine air flow rates and calculate the mass flow rate of fresh
air and supply air to the room.
The lecture room may be taken as an Assembly hall.
The room is a non-smoking area.

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Heating Ventilating And Air Conditioning 56

Mass Flow Rates

Information from CIBSE Guide B2 (2001) Table 3.3 is as follows.
(see Ventilation – Ventilation rates section)
The recommended outdoor air rate is 8 l/s/person for non-smoking.
Information from CIBSE Guide B2 (2001) Table 3.1 is as follows
(see Ventilation – Ventilation rates section)
Assembly halls and auditorium refers to Table 3.6
(see Ventilation – Ventilation rates section)
The recommended total air supply rate is 6 – 10 air changes per hour for high level mechanical
strategy.
Fresh Air Flow Rate
Fresh air rate = 8 l/s/p x 200 people = 1600 l/s = 1.6 m3/s
The specific volume at the outside condition may be determined from a psychrometric chart.
It is 0.88 m3/kg.
Mass flow rate = Volume flow rate / specific volume
Mass flow rate (Fresh Air) = 1.6 / 0.88 = 1.82 kg/s .
Supply Air Flow Rate
If the maximum ventilation supply air rate is taken from Table 3.6 to be 10.0 air changes per
hour, then the mass flow rate can be calculated.
Volume flow rate (m3/h) = Volume of room (m3) x air change rate (ac/h)
3
Volume of room (m ) = 15 x 10 x 6 = 900 m3
Volume flow rate (m3/h) = 900 (m3) x 10 (ac/h)
3
Volume flow rate (m /h) = 9000 m3/h
Volume flow rate (m3/s) = 9000 / 3600 = 2.5 m3/s.
Mass flow rate = Volume flow rate / specific volume
The specific volume at the supply condition may be approximated at this stage from a
psychrometric chart. It is 0.834 m3/kg.
Mass flow rate (Supply Air) = 2.5 / 0.834 = 3.0 kg/s.
Fresh and Recalculating Air Ratio.
The ratio by mass is therefore;
Fresh air rate = 1.82 kg/s
Supply air rate = 3.00 kg/s

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Heating Ventilating And Air Conditioning 57

Recirculation air rate = 3.00 - 1.82 = 1.18 kg/s

The ratio of fresh air to total supply air is
1.82 / 3.00 = 0.6, i.e. 60% fresh air and therefore 40% recirculated air.
It is not unusual to have a high percentage of fresh air in a high occupancy room such as a
Lecture theatre.
The air flows are shown on the schematic diagram below.

Supply Air Temperature by Calculation

In this example the supply air temperature will be found by rearranging the following formula:
Hs = ma * Cp*( tr - ts )
Where: H s = Sensible heat loss from room (kW)
ma = Mass flow rate of air ( Kg/s)
Cp = Specific heat capacity of humid air
(Approx. 1.01 KJ/Kg oC)
tr = Room temperature (oC)
ts = Supply air temperature (oC)
Rearranging the above formula gives;
(tr - ts) = Hs / ( ma * Cp )
(tr - ts) = 12 / ( 3.00* 1.01 )
(tr - ts) = 3.96 oC
since tr = 22oC
ts = 22 - 3.96 = 18.04 oC ≈ 18 oC approx.
The processes can now be plotted on a psychrometric chart as shown below.

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Heating Ventilating And Air Conditioning 58

1-Points O, M and R can be shown on the chart.

2-Point ADP can be indicated and lines drawn between these points as shown.
3-The room ratio line can be drawn.
4-Point S is then shown on the chart, on the room ratio line at 18oC.
5-A horizontal line is then drawn from point S towards the line O – ADP.
6-Point W can then be found where the horizontal line W - S intersects the line O -
ADP.
From the psychrometric chart point W is at approximately 9oC dry bulb.
The heat ratio is 12 kW sensible / 22 kW total = 0.545.
The specific enthalpies are shown below.

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Heating Ventilating And Air Conditioning 59

Cooling Coil Output

The cooling coil output is as follows:
H cooling coil = ma * ( hM - hADP )
Where: H cooling coil = Cooling coil output (kW)
ma = Mass flow of supply air ( Kg/s)
hM = Specific enthalpy at condition M (kJ/kg)
Determined from psychrometric chart.
hADP = Specific enthalpy at condition ADP (kJ/kg)
Determined from psychrometric chart.
The specific enthalpies at points M and ADP are shown on the psychrometric Chart above.
H cooling coil = 3.00*(64 – 24)
H cooling coil = 120.0 kW

Reheater Battery Output

The heater battery or reheater output is as follows:
H heater battery = ma * ( hs - hw )
Where: H heater battery = heater battery output (kW)
ma = Mass flow of supply air ( Kg/s)
hs = Specific enthalpy at condition S (kJ/kg)
Determined from psychrometric chart.
Hw = Specific enthalpy at condition W (kJ/kg)
Determined from psychrometric chart.
The specific enthalpies at points W and S are shown on the psychrometric Chart above.
H heater battery = 3.00*(36 – 26.5)
H heater battery = 28.5 kW

Example 6 Summer Cycle and Winter Cycle

A Concert Hall measures 40 m * 20 m * 8 m high.
It is to be air conditioned in summer and winter.
Determine the following:
1- Air flow rates
2- Supply air temperature by calculation in summer and winter.
3- Cooling coil contact factor.
4- Cooling coil and reheater outputs in summer
5- Humidifier output in litres/hour.
The plant schematic is as shown below.

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Heating Ventilating And Air Conditioning 60

Heat Gains
The heat gains are given as:
Latent heat gain -40 W/person
Sensible heat gain -100 W/person + 20.5 kW fabric, lights, solar & ventilation gains.
Latent gain =40 W* 1000 people = 40,000 W =40 kW
Sensible gain =100 W * 1000 people=100,000 W =100 kW + 20.5 kW =120.5 kW.
Total heat gain =120.5 + 40 = 160.5 kW
Summer Heat ratio =Sensible / total = 120.5 / 160.5 = 0.75

Heat Loss
The heat loss in winter is given as 20.0 W/ m3.
Volume of room (m3) = 40 x 20 x 8 = 6400 m3
Total heat loss = 20 x 6400 = 128,000 Watts = 128 kW
Total heat (winter) = 128 + 40 (Latent) = 168 kW
Winter Heat ratio = sensible / total = 128 / 168 = 0.76

Summer Calculations & Process

Supply Air Temperature by Calculation
In this example the supply air temperature will be found by rearranging the following formula:
Hs = ma * Cp*( tr - ts )
Where: H s = heater battery output (kW)
ma = Mass flow of supply air ( Kg/s)
Cp = Specific heat capacity of humid air
(Approx. 1.01 KJ/Kg oC)
tr = Room temperature (oC)
ts = Supply air temperature (oC)

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Heating Ventilating And Air Conditioning 61

Rearranging the above formula gives:

(tr - ts) = Hs / ( ma * Cp )
(tr - ts) = 120.5 / ( 17.05* 1.01 )
(tr - ts) = 7.0 oC
since tr = 22oC
ts = 22 – 7.0 = 15.0 oC
The processes can now be plotted on a psychrometric chart as shown below.
1. Points O, M and R can be shown on the chart.
2. Point ADP can be indicated and lines drawn between these points as shown.
3. The room ratio line can be drawn.
4. Point S is then shown on the chart, on the room ratio line at 18oC.
5. A horizontal line is then drawn from point S towards the line O – ADP.
6. Point W can then be found where the horizontal line W - S intersects the line O - ADP.

Cooling Coil Contact Factor

On a full size psychrometric chart the length of the line from point M to point ADP is 116mm.
The distance from point M to point W is 107mm.
The cooling coil contact factor is therefore:
Distance M to W (mm)
𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑐𝑡 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 =
Distance M to ADP (mm)
107mm
𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑐𝑡 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = = 0.922
116mm
The specific enthalpies are shown below.

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Heating Ventilating And Air Conditioning 62

Cooling Coil Output in summer

The cooling coil output is as follows:
H Cooling coil = ma * ( hM - hADP )
Where: H Cooling coil = Cooling coil output (kW)
ma = Mass flow rate of air ( Kg/s)
hM = Enthalpy at condition M (kJ/kg)
Determined from psychrometric chart.
hADP = Enthalpy at condition ADP (kJ/kg)
Determined from psychrometric chart.
The specific enthalpies at points M and ADP are shown on the psychrometric Chart above.
H Cooling coil = 17.05 * ( 71 - 25 )
H Cooling coil = 784.3 kW
NOTE:
The cooling coil output is very high and a lot of energy would be required to provide this amount
of cooling.
The cooling coil load would probably be spread over several air handling units but it could be
examined with a view to some reduction.
The coil output is high because the mass flow rate of supply air is high (17.05 kg/s) and the
proportion of fresh air is also high (80%).
The mix point M is at approximately 27oC dry-bulb so there is little advantage in recirculation in
this instance.
It would be advantageous to consider the supply airflow rate to see if a lower rate would be
acceptable for this building.
If 6 air changes per hour are used as the ventilation rate then this would reduce the mass flow
rate of supply air.
Also the engineer may consider other methods of air-conditioning a hall with a large volume
such as using partial radiant cooling where surfaces are cooled rather than air.

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Heating Ventilating And Air Conditioning 63

Reheater Battery Output in summer

The heater battery or reheater output is as follows:
H heater battery = ma * ( hs - hw )
Where: H heater battery = heater battery output (kW)
ma = Mass flow rate of air ( Kg/s)
hM = Specific enthalpy at condition M (kJ/kg)
Determined from psychrometric chart.
HW = Specific enthalpy at condition W (kJ/kg)
Determined from psychrometric chart.
The specific enthalpies at points W and S are shown on the psychrometric Chart above.
H heater battery = 17.05 * ( 34 - 28 )
H heater battery = 102.3 kW

Winter Calculations & Process

Winter Cycle Psychometrics

The processes can now be plotted on a psychrometric chart as shown below.

1. Points O, M, P and R can be shown on the chart.
2. Join points O and P and R.
3. Find the mix point M.
The line measures 81mm long.
81 x 0.8 = 65 mm , the distance from point M to R is 65mm.
4. The room ratio is 0.76 from previous calculation. draw RRL.
5. Find the supply air dry bulb temperature by calculation.

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Heating Ventilating And Air Conditioning 64

Supply Air Temperature by Calculation

The temperature of supply air is calculated from the following formula:
Hs = ma * Cp* ( ts - tr )
Where: H s = Sensible heat loss from room (kW)
ma = Mass flow rate of air ( Kg/s)
(same as summer rate for constant volume systems).
Cp = Specific heat capacity of humid air.
(approx.1.01 kJ/kg oC).
tr = Room temperature (oC)
ts = Supply air temperature (oC)
( ts - tr )= Hs / (ma *Cp )
( ts - tr )= 128 / (17.05 *1.01 )
( ts - tr )= 7.43 oC
ts = 22+7.43 oC
ts = 29.5 oC

6. Plot the condition H at 29.5oC dB. on a horizontal line from M.

7. Plot condition S on a vertical line from H on the RRL.
8. Assume the humidity process is vertical.

Preheater Battery Output (or frost coil)

The preheater battery output is as follows:
H preheater battery = maf * ( hP - ho )
Where: H preheater battery = Preheater battery output (kW)
maf = Mass flow rate of fresh air ( Kg/s)
hp = Specific enthalpy at condition P (kJ/kg)
ho = Specific enthalpy at condition O (kJ/kg)
h preheater battery = 13.64(13-3) = 136.4 kW

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Heating Ventilating And Air Conditioning 65

Reheater Battery Output in winter

The reheater battery output is as follows:
H reheater battery = ma * ( hH - hM )
Where: H reheater battery = Reheater battery output (kW)
ma = Mass flow rate of supply air ( Kg/s)
hH = Specific enthalpy at condition H (kJ/kg)
hM = Specific enthalpy at condition M (kJ/kg)
h preheater battery = 17.05(39-19) = 341 kW

NOTE:
The heater battery load may be reduced by using other forms of heating for some of the load, e.g.
perimeter convectors or radiators.

Humidifier Output in winter

The amount of moisture added to the air may be calculated from the following formula:
m moisture added = ma * ( msS - msH )
Where: m moisture added = The amount of moisture or added or steam flow rate (kg/s)
ma = Mass flow of supply air ( Kg/s)
msS = Moisture content at condition S (kg/kg d. a.)
msH = Moisture content at condition H (kg/kg d. a.)
m moisture added = 17.05*(0.0074 – 0.0035)
m moisture added = 17.05*(0.0039)
m moisture added = 0.00665 Kg/s
m moisture added = 0.00665 liter/s*3600 =239.4 liter/hour
Example 7 (Summer Cycle with duct and fan gains)
A Computer Suite Theatre measures 24 m* 10 m* 3.5 m high.
It is to be air conditioned in summer so that the room is maintained at 22oC dry-bulb
temperature, 50% saturation.
Determine the cooling coil and reheater outputs required.
The air conditioning system is shown schematically below.
DATA:
Outdoor condition is 27oC, 80% saturation.
The Apparatus Dew Point ADP is 8oC
The internal latent heat gain is 40 W per person, plus additional gain of 5 kW.
The internal sensible heat gain is 200 Watts per computer, 100W per person and 15 W/m2 floor
area for lights.
The solar gain through windows is 6.0 kW
Maximum occupancy is 80 people.
Number of computers is 80.
The cooling coil contact factor is 0.8.
Duct and fans gains are 2oC.
Fresh air, recirculated air ratio is 20% to 80%.

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Heating Ventilating And Air Conditioning 66

HEAT GAINS
Sensible-(200 x 80) + (100 x 80) + ( 15 x 24 x 10) =
27,600 Watts =27.6 kW + solar gain 5.0 kW = 32.6 kW
Latent -(40 x 80) =3200 Watts = 3.2 kW + other 5kW = 8.2 kW
Total heat gain =32.6 + 8.2 = 40.8 kW
Room ratio =32.6 / 40.8 = 0.8

Mass Flow Rate

When the supply air temperature has been found from the psychrometric chart then the mass
flow rate of air to offset heat gains can be calculated from the following formula:

ma = Hs /( CP *(tr- ts ))
Where: H s = Sensible Heat gain to room (kW)
ma = Mass flow of supply air ( Kg/s)
CP = Specific heat capacity of humid air.
(approx.1.01 kJ/kg oC).
tr = Room temperature (oC)
ts = Supply air temperature (oC)
The supply air temperature is 14.5oC.
ma = 32.60/(1.01(22-14.5)) = 4.3 Kg/s
The processes can now be plotted on a psychrometric chart as shown below.
From the psychrometric chart point W is at approximately 11oC dry bulb.
Point D is 11 oC + 2oC (duct and fan gains given in Data) = 13 oC

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Heating Ventilating And Air Conditioning 67

Cooling Coil Output

The cooling coil output is as follows:
H cooling coil = ma *( hM - hADP )
Where: H cooling coil = cooling coil output (kW)
ma = Mass flow of supply air ( Kg/s)
hM = Specific enthalpy at condition M (kJ/kg)
Determined from psychrometric chart.
hADP = Specific enthalpy at condition ADP (kJ/kg)
Determined from psychrometric chart.
The specific enthalpies at points M and ADP are shown on the psychrometric Chart above.
H cooling coil = 4.3 (49.5-25) = 05.4 kW
H cooling coil = 32.60/(1.01(22-14.5)) = 4.3 Kg/s
Reheater Battery Output
The heater battery or reheater output is as follows:
H heater battery = ma * ( hS - hD )
Where: H heater battery = heater battery output (kW)
ma = Mass flow rate of air ( Kg/s)
hS = Specific enthalpy at condition S (kJ/kg)
Determined from psychrometric chart.
hD = Specific enthalpy at condition D (kJ/kg)
Determined from psychrometric chart.
The specific enthalpies at points S and D are shown on the psychrometric Chart above.
H heater battery = 4.3 * ( 33.5 - 32 ) = 6.5kW

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