TO BE WRITTEN AND DRAWN ON THE LEFT HAND SIDE PLAIN SHEET

❖KMnO4 is an oxidising agent

❖Mohr’s Salt is a reducing agent
❖KMnO4 is self indicator
❖Colour change : colourless to pink
TO BE WRITTEN ON THE LEFT HAND SIDE PLAIN SHEET

OBSERVATION TABLE
S. No Initial Final Volume of Volume of
Reading of Reading of Mohr’s Salt KMnO4
the burette the burette ( in mL ) taken in
( in mL ) ( in mL ) the burette
( in mL )

1 13.6 23.5 10.0 9.9

2 23.5 33.4 10.0 9.9
3 33.4 43.3 10.0 9.9

CALCULATION
S. No Initial Final Volume of Volume of
Reading of Reading of Mohr’s KMnO4
the burette the burette Salt taken in
( in mL ) ( in mL ) ( in mL ) the burette
( in mL )
1 13.6 23.5 10.0 9.9
2 23.5 33.4 10.0 9.9
3 33.4 43.3 10.0 9.9
TO BE WRITTEN AND DRAWN ON THE LEFT HAND SIDE PLAIN SHEET

❖KMnO4 is an oxidising agent

❖Oxalic acid is a reducing agent
❖KMnO4 is self indicator
❖Colour change : colourless to pink
 OBSERVATION TABLE
S. No Initial Reading Final Reading Volume of Volume of KMnO4
of the burette of the burette Oxalic Acid taken in the
( in mL ) ( in mL ) ( in mL ) burette
( in mL )
1 12.6 22.7 10.0 10.1

2 22.7 32.8 10.0 10.1

3 32.8 42.9 10.0 10.1
TO BE WRITTEN ON THE LEFT HAND SIDE PLAIN SHEET

OBSERVATION TABLE
S. No Initial Reading of Final Reading of Volume of Volume of KMnO4
the burette the burette Oxalic Acid taken in the burette (
( in mL ) ( in mL ) ( in mL ) in mL )

1 12.6 22.7 10.0 10.1

2 22.7 32.8 10.0 10.1

3 32.8 42.9 10.0 10.1

CALCULATION
RESULT :
(a)The molarity of given KMnO4 solution is 0.01 M
or 0.01 mol /L .
(b)The strength of given KMnO4 solution is 1.42 g/L
AIM : To find the anion and cation present in the given salt .

DETECTION OF CATION
EXPERIMENT OBSERVATION INFERENCE
Small amount of salt is NH3 gas is evolved Indicates the presence
taken in a test tube and of NH4+
Dil. NaOH is added to it

CONFIRMATORY TEST

NESSLER'S REAGENT
TEST
Small amount of salt is NH3 gas is evolved
taken in U – tube and
NaOH soln . is added
to it .
The gas evolved is Orange brown Confirms the presence
made to pass through precipitate is formed of NH4+
the Nessler 's reagent

COPPER SULPHATE
TEST
Small amount of salt is NH3 gas is evolved
taken in U – tube and
NaOH soln . is added
to it .
The gas evolved is Pale blue precipitate Confirms the presence
made to pass through and deep blue of NH4+
copper sulphate soln. coloration is obtained
 DETECTION OF ANION
EXPERIMENT OBSERVATION INFERENCE

Few drops of dilute Colourless and Indicates the

H2SO4 are added to a odourless gas with evolution of CO2
small portion of the brisk effervescence gas
salt in a test tube is evolved

CO2 gas evolved with lime water turns Indicates the

brisk effervescence milky presence of
is made to pass carbonate
through lime water ( CO32-) ion
taken in a U-tube
Salt is taken in a test Salt is soluble in Indicates the
tube and water is water presence of
added to it . soluble
carbonate
( CO32-) ion

CONFIRMATORY TEST

Aqueous solution of The solution turns Confirms the

the salt is taken in a pink presence of
test tube and soluble
phenolphthalein is carbonate
added to it ( CO32-) ion

RESULT :
The anion present in the given salt is carbonate radical ( CO3 2– )
The cation present in the given salt is Ammonium radical( NH4+)
 REACTIONS FOR AMMONIUM ( NH4+) RADICAL

CONFIRMATORY TEST
1 . NESSLER'S REAGENT TEST

2 . COPPER SULPHATE TEST

REACTIONS OF CARBONATE ( CO32-) RADICAL

(NH4)2CO3 + H2SO4(aq) → (NH4)2SO4 + H2O + CO2(g)

Ca(OH)2(aq) + CO2 → CaCO3 + H2O

limewater ( white ppt )
( Insoluble )
( milkiness appears )

CONFIRMATORY TEST

(NH4)2CO3 + 2HCl → 2 NH4Cl + H2O + CO2

Ca(OH)2 + CO2 → CaCO3 + H2O

( white ppt – insoluble )
CaCO3 + CO2 + H2O → Ca (HCO3)2
( soluble )
AIM – To identify the given food samples A ,B and C as fat
, protein or carbohydrate .

THEORY
Food is a necessary material which must be supplied to
the body for its normal and proper functioning. It is the
main source of energy and promotes growth. It regulates
body processes like assimilation and digestion and
sustains life. Every good food contains some important
nutrition like proteins, carbohydrates, fats, vitamins,
minerals and water. All these nutrients are important for
health and they work together to build new cells in our
body and keep the body working properly.
Protein is an important macronutrient essential for
survival. They are constituent of calls and hence are
present in all living bodies. 10-35% of calories should
come from protein. Protein is found in meats, poultry, fish,
meat substitutes, cheeses, milk etc.
PROTEINS
PROTEINS are large biological molecules composed of α-
amino acids (Amino acid in which amino group is
attached to α-carbon, which exist as zwitter ions and are
crystalline in nature). They contain carbon, hydrogen,
oxygen, nitrogen and sometimes phosphorous and
sulphur. Amino acids are molecules contain both amino
(NH2) and carboxylic (COOH) group. Amino acid
molecules undergo condensation reaction to form a
specific type of linkage known as peptide linkage.
Depending on the number of amino acid molecules
involved in the condensation reaction, the products
formed are classified as : Dipeptide , Tripeptide and
Polypeptide .
Dipeptide are the products formed by the condensation
of two α-amino acid molecules.
Tripeptide are formed by the condensation of three α-
amino acid molecules.
If large number of amino acid molecules combine, the
product formed is called polypeptide.
A polypeptide having molecular mass greater than 10000
is called a protein. Proteins differ from one another
primarily in their sequence of amino acid. There are
about more than 20 amino acids. Some amino acids are
not made by the body and are supplied through diet.
They are called essential amino acids.

Some Important Tests for the Detection of Proteins are :

BIURET TEST
This test is used to detect the presence of peptide bond.
When treated with copper sulphate solution in presence
of alkali (NaOH or KOH), protein reacts with copper (II)
ions to form a violet coloured complex called biuret.
XANTHOPROTEIC TEST

It is an identification test of protein and it gives a positive

result with those proteins with amino acid carrying
aromatic group. When protein is treated with hot
concentrated nitric acid, a yellow coloured substance is
formed. The yellow colour is due to xanthoproteic acid
which is formed by the nitration of certain amino acids
present in protein such as tyrosine and tryptophan.

MILLON’S TEST

When egg albumin is treated with Millon’s reagent, it first

gives a white coloured precipitate which then changes to
brick red on boiling. Gelatin does not give this test.
 CARBOHYDRATES
Carbohydrates are most abundant organic compounds
found in living organisms and are composed of carbon,
hydrogen and oxygen. Carbohydrates act as the primary
source to provide energy for functioning of living
organisms. These are called carbohydrates because they
can be considered as hydrates of carbon. Most of them
have the general formula Cx(H2O)y.
Carbohydrates are defined as polyhydroxy aldehydes or
polyhydroxy ketones or the compounds which produces
such products on hydrolysis. Carbohydrates are called
saccharides. Some of them have sweet taste and are
called sugars.
Based on the reactivity with Tollen’s, Benedict’s or
Fehling’s reagent, carbohydrates are classified as
reducing sugars and non-reducing sugars .
REDUCING SUGARS
Carbohydrates that can reduce Tollen’s, Benedict’s or
Fehling’s reagents are called reducing sugars (sugar with
free aldehyde or ketone group). All monosaccharides and
most of the disaccharides are reducing sugars. Some
examples are Maltose and Lactose.
NON-REDUCING SUGARS
Carbohydrates that cannot reduce Tollen’s, Benedict’s or
Fehling’s reagents are called non-reducing sugars.
Sucrose is a non-reducing sugar.
Some Important Tests of Carbohydrates are :
MOLISCH’S TEST
Molisch’s reagent is 10% alcoholic solution of α-naphthol.
This is a common chemical test to detect the presence of
carbohydrates. Carbohydrates undergo dehydration by
sulphuric acid to form furfural (furfuraldehyde) that reacts
FEHLING'S TEST
This is an important test to detect the presence of
reducing sugars. Fehling’s solution A is copper sulphate
solution and Fehling’s solution B is potassium sodium
tartrate. On heating, carbohydrate reduces deep blue
solution of copper (II) ions to red precipitate of insoluble
copper oxide.

BENEDICT'S TEST
Benedict’s test distinguishes reducing sugar from non-
reducing sugar. Benedict’s reagent contains blue copper
(II) ions (Cu2+, cupric ions) that are reduced to copper (I)
ions (Cu+, cuprous ions) by carbohydrates. These ions
form precipitate as red coloured cuprous (copper (I)
oxide.

TOLLEN’S TEST
Tollen’s reagent is ammoniacal silver nitrate solution. On
reacting with carbohydrate elemental silver is
precipitating out of the solution, occasionally onto the
inner surface of the reaction vessel. This produces silver
mirror on the inner wall of the reaction vessel.
IODINE TEST
Iodine test is used to detect the presence of starch. Iodine
is not much soluble in water so iodine solution is
prepared by dissolving iodine in water in presence of
potassium iodide. Iodine dissolved in an aqueous solution
of potassium iodide reacts with starch to form a
starch/iodine complex which gives characteristics blue
black colour to the reaction mixture.

FATS
Chemically fats and oils are triesters of glycerol and
higher fatty acids . At ordinary temperature oils are liquids
while fats are solids .
As compared to fats , oils contain a large proportion of
unsaturated acid radical . Fats and oils are of vegetable or
animal origin,
Fats and oils serve as an excellent source of energy for
the body as bicombustion they produce heat and energy.
They form fatty tissues around delicate organs to protect
them from injury.
 DETECTION OF PROTEIN
EXPERIMENT OBSERVATION INFERENCE

BIURET TEST
Bluish violet Protein is
To small amount of colouration is present in the
Sample A in a test observed given food
tube , 2 ml of NaOH sample A
solution is added
followed by the
addition of 4 – 5
drops of Copper
sulphate solution .

XANTHOPROTEIC
TEST
Yellow Protein is
Sample A in a test precipitate is present in the
tube is treated with obtained given food
small amount of hot sample A
concentrated nitric
acid .

MILLON’S TEST

To the dispersion of White precipitate Protein is

sample A , 2-3 drops turns brick red present in the
of Millon’s reagent is given food
added sample A
TO BE WRITTEN ON LEFT HAND SIDE PAGE OPPOSITE TO
OBSERVATION TABLE OF PROTEINS ie SLIDE 27

PEPTIDE LINKAGE
 DETECTION OF CARBOHYDRATE

EXPERIMENT OBSERVATION INFERENCE

TOLLEN’S TEST

To the aqueous Silver mirror is Carbohydrate

solution of sample B formed on the is present in
in a test – tube , walls of the test - the given food
2 – 3 ml of Tollen’s tube sample B
Reagent is added and
the test-tube is
heated in water –
bath for 5 minutes .

FEHLING'S TEST

To the aqueous Reddish – brown Carbohydrate

solution of sample B precipitate of is present in
in a test – tube , insoluble the given food
2 – 3 ml of Fehling’s copper oxide is sample B
Solution is added and formed
the test-tube is
heated in water –
bath for 5 minutes .
TO BE WRITTEN ON LEFT HAND SIDE PAGE OPPOSITE TO
OBSERVATION TABLE FOR CARBOHYDRATES ie SLIDE 29

TOLLEN’S REAGENT TEST

FEHLING’S SOLUTION TEST

 DETECTION OF FATS

EXPERIMENT OBSERVATION INFERENCE

TRANSLUSCENT
SPOT TEST
Press a little of the On unfolding the Indicates the
substance in the filter paper, the presence of
folds of the filter appearance of fat or oil in the
paper. transluscent or given food
greasy spot sample C
appears on the
filter paper. The
spot grows larger
on heating and
drying the filter
paper.

ACROLEIN TEST
Small quantity of the A pungent Fat /oil is
sample C is heated irritating odour present in the
with some crystals of of acrolein is given food
KHS04 in a test-tube obtained sample C

RESULT : Sample A is Protein .

Sample B is Carbohydrate .
Sample C is Fat .
TO BE WRITTEN ON LEFT HAND SIDE PAGE OPPOSITE TO
OBSERVATION TABLE FOR FATS ie SLIDE 31
TO BE DRAWN ON LEFT HAND SIDE PAGE
Furthermore, Rf value of a compound may be
different in different solvents.
Distance travelled by the substance
from reference line (cm)
Rf = ______________________________

Distance travelled by the solvent front

from reference line (cm)

Since solvent front moves faster than the

compounds, the Rf value of a substance will
always be less than one.
Rf value has no unit. If the compound is
coloured then its position on the
chromatographic paper may be easily
located. However, if the substance is
colourless, it may be treated with a reagent,
which imparts it a characteristic colour. This
reagent is given the name developer. Iodine is
the most commonly used developer in paper
chromatography. Several other techniques
are available for locating the spots.
TO BE MADE ON LEFT HAND SIDE PAGE

OBSERVATION TABLE
S.No COMPONENT DISTANCE DISTANCE RETENTION
TRAVELLED TRAVELLED FACTOR
BY THE BY THE VALUE
COMPONENT SOLVENT
( in cm ) ( in cm )

1 Yellow Dye
2 Blue Dye

CALCULATION
RESULT

1 Rf ( Retention factor ) Value of Yellow Dye =

2 Rf ( Retention factor ) Value of Blue Dye =

RESULT
1 Rf ( Retention factor ) Value of Yellow Dye =
2 Rf ( Retention factor ) Value of Blue Dye =

Precautions :
(a) The paper strip is dipped in the solvent in such a way
that the spot of the mixture is above the solvent level
and the movement of the solvent front is not zig-zag.
(b) While spotting the whatman paper, do not allow the
spot to spread.
(c) Finely drawn capillary is used to put the spot on the
paper.
(d) The Whatman paper strip must hang freely in the jar.
(e) The jar should not be disturbed as long as the
chromatogram is being developed.
(f) The jar should be kept covered with the lid when the
chromatogram is being developed.
(g) The chromatogram obtained should be absolutely dry
before measuring the distance .
AIM :- To find the anion and the cation present in the given
salt
EXPERIMENT OBSERVATION INFERENCE
Small amount of salt No NH3 gas Indicates the
is taken in a test tube evolved absence of NH4+
and Dil. NaOH is
added to it .

Original soln. of the

salt is taken in a test - No white ppt. Indicates the
tube and dil HCl is is obtained absence of Pb2+
added to it .

Na2S soln. is added to

group 1 filtrate . No yellow ppt. Indicates the
is obtained absence of Cd2+

No black ppt. Indicates the

is obtained absence of Cu 2+

The above solution is

discarded.
Original solution of No gelatinous Indicates the
the salt is taken in a white precipitate absence of
test -tube and pinch of is formed . Al3+
NH4Cl solid is added.
The mixture is boiled No brown Indicates the
and then cooled under precipitate is absence of
tap water . NH4OH is formed Fe3+
added in sufficient
quantity .
AIM :- To find the anion and the cation present in the given
salt
EXPERIMENT OBSERVATION INFERENCE
.
Group 3 filterate is No dirty white Indicates the
divided into 3 portions ppt. is obtained absence of
Zn 2+

To the I portion of No buff ppt Indicates the

group 3 filterate , Na2S is obtained absence of
is added Mn 2+

No black ppt Indicates the

is obtained absence of
Ni 2+
To the II portion of No white ppt Indicates the
group 3 filterate , is obtained absence of
(NH4)2CO3 is added group 5 – Ba ,
Sr 2+ , Ca 2+

To the III portion of White precipitate Indicates the

group 3 filterate , is obtained presence of
Na2HPO4 is added Mg2+

CONFIRMATORY TEST.
Filter ash test
Mixture of cobalt Pinkish white ash Confirms the
nitrate and salt is is obtained presence of
taken on a filter paper Mg 2+
and is introduced into
the flame
 EXPERIMENT OBSERVATION INFERENCE
.
Small amount of salt No gas is evolved Indicates the
is taken in a test tube absence of
and dil H2SO4 is added CO3 2- , S2- ,
to it . SO3 2- and NO2 –

Small amount of salt White fumes are

is taken in a test tube evolved
and conc. H2SO4 is
added .
A glass rod dipped in Dense White Indicates the
NH4OH is brought fumes are evolved presence of Cl –
near the mouth of the
test tube .

CONFIRMATORY
TEST

SILVER NITRATE
TEST
Aqueous solution of White precipitate Confirms the
salt is taken in a test is obtained which presence of Cl –
tube and silver nitrate is soluble in
solution is added to it. NH4OH solution

CHROMYL CHLORIDE
TEST
Small amount of salt Brown fumes of Confirms the
is taken in a U-tube chromyl chloride presence of Cl -
and solid potassium ( CrO2Cl2 ) are
dichromate is added evolved colourless
 EXPERIMENT OBSERVATION INFERENCE
.
to it followed by the
addition of conc.
H2SO4 .

Brown fumes evolved Colourless NaOH

are made to pass solution turns
through colourless yellow due to the
NaOH solution formation of
Na2CrO4
Yellow solution is
acidified with Acetic
acid followed by the Yellow precipitate
addition of lead of lead chromate
acetate ( PbCrO4 )is
obtained

RESULT : - The anion present in the given salt is Cl –

The cation present in the given salt is Mg2+
 TO BE WRITTEN ON LEFT HAND SIDE PAGE
Reactions for Cl –
INDICATORY TEST

CONFIRMATORY TEST
SILVER NITRATE TEST

CHROMYL CHLORIDE TEST

Reactions for Mg2+

GROUP REAGENT TEST
MgCl2 + NH4OH + Na2HPO4 → Mg(NH4)PO4 + 2NaCl + H2O

CONFIRMATORY TEST
FILTER ASH TEST
MgO + CoO → MgO.CoO
( pinkish white mass )
 EXPERIMENT 7
AIM
To prepare double salt Potassium aluminium sulphate
dodecahydrate ( Potash Alum ) .

THEORY
When a mixture containing equimolar proportions of
potassium sulphate and aluminium sulphate is
crystallised from its solution, a double salt potassium
aluminium sulphate dodecahydrate
( potash alum ) is formed.
The formation of double salt may be shown as follows:
K2SO4 + Al2(SO4)3 + 24H2O → K2SO4 .Al2(SO4)3 .24H2O
OR
K2SO4 + Al2(SO4)3 + 24H2O → 2KAl(SO4)2 .12H2O
(Potash alum dodecahydrate)
Al3+ ions undergo hydrolysis, therefore, while
preparing aqueous solutions of aluminium sulphate in
water, 2-3 mL dilute sulphuric acid is added .

PROCEDURE
Preparation of double Salt Potassium Aluminium
Sulphate dodecahydrate (Potash Alum)
(i) Taken 10 mL of distilled water in a 50 mL beaker and
heat it to about 40°C. Dissolved 6.6 g of aluminium
sulphate in it and added about 0.4 mL of dilute H2SO4 .
OCTAHEDRAL SHAPE
(iii) Ammonium sulphate solution is transferred into
the beaker containing ferrous sulphate solution .
(iv) The mixture of two solutions is filtered in china
dish to remove undesired impurities from it .
(v) China dish containing mixture of two solutions is
heated on a wire-gauze placed over a burner. The
solution is stirred with a glass-rod and is concentrated
till the crystallization point is reached.
(vi) The solution is allowed to cool to room
temperature slowly.
(vii) On cooling, light green crystals of ferrous
ammonium sulphate separate out .
(viii) The mother liquor is decanted and the crystals are
washed and filtered by gently shaking with 1:1 cold
water and alcohol mixture to remove sticking mother
liquor.
(ix) The crystals are dried between the folds of a filter
paper and recorded the yield .

PRECAUTIONS
(a) The solution is cooled slowly to get good crystals.
(b) Rapid cooling is avoided .
(c) The solution is not disturbed while cooling.
(d) Prolonged heating is avoided while preparing
crystals of ferrous ammonium sulphate, as it may
oxidize ferrous ions to ferric ions and change the
stoichiometry of the crystals .
To be drawn on left hand side page
 EXPERIMENT 8

AIM
To prepare double salt ferrous ammonium sulphate
(Mohr’s salt) ( FeSO4 .(NH4)2SO4 .6H2O ) .

THEORY
When a mixture containing equimolar proportions of
ferrous sulphate and ammonium sulphate is
crystallised from its solution, a double salt ferrous
ammonium sulphate is formed. The formation of
double salt may be shown as follows:
FeSO4 + (NH4)2SO4 + 6H2O → FeSO4 .(NH4)2SO4 .6H2O
Ferrous ammonium sulphate (Mohr’s salt)

Fe2+ ions undergo hydrolysis, therefore, while

preparing aqueous solutions of ferrous sulphate and
aluminium sulphate in water, 2 – 3 mL dilute sulphuric
acid .

PROCEDURE
Preparation of double salt ferrous ammonium sulphate
(Mohr’s salt) ( FeSO4 .(NH4)2SO4 .6H2O )
(i) Added about 0.5 mL of dilute sulphuric acid to 3.5 g
of ferrous sulphate and dissolved in 5 mL of distilled
water contained in a 50 mL beaker by heating .
(ii) 1.7 g of ammonium sulphate is weighed and
dissolved in water in another beaker by heating .
(ii) 2.4 g of powdered potassium sulphate is weighed
and is dissolved in water in another beaker . The
solution is heated with constant stirring till potassium
sulphate dissolves completely.
(iii) Potassium sulphate solution is transferred into the
beaker containing aluminium sulphate solution .
(iv) The mixture of two solutions is filtered in china
dish to remove undesired impurities from it .
(v) China dish containing mixture of two solutions is
heated on a wire-gauze placed over a burner. The
solution is stirred with a glass-rod and is concentrated
till the crystallization point is reached.
(vi) The solution is allowed to cool to room
temperature slowly.
(vii) On cooling, white crystals of potash alum separate
out.
(viii) The mother liquor is decanted and the crystals are
washed and filtered by gently shaking with 1:1 cold
water and alcohol mixture to remove sticking mother
liquor.
(ix) The crystals are dried between the folds of a filter
paper and recorded the yield .
PRECAUTIONS
(a) The solution is cooled slowly to get good crystals.
(b) Rapid cooling is avoided .
(c) The solution is not disturbed while cooling.
(d) Prolonged heating is avoided while preparing
crystals as it may change the stoichiometry of the
crystals .
To be drawn on left hand side page
 EXPERIMENT 9 ( A )
AIM: To detect the presence of ketone group in the given
organic sample.
EXPERIMENT OBSERVATION INFERENCE
1) 2,4- DNP TEST
small amount of sample is Appearance of Confirms the
taken in a test tube and orange/yellow presence of
rectified spirit is added till the precipitate >C = O
compound just dissolves . 2 carbonyl group
ml of 2,4 DNP solution is
added ,the mixture is shaken
and is allowed to stand for 5
min.

2) IODOFORM TEST
Small amount of sample is Appearance of
taken in a test tube and added yellow
1% of I2 solution. NaOH precipitate
solution is added dropwise Acetyl group
and the contents of the test present
tube are shaken well .

3) SODIUM NITROPRUSSIDE
TEST
A crystal of sodium Appearance of Ketone group
nitroprusside is dissolved in red colouration CH3 – CO – C –
1ml of distilled water in a present
clean test tube followed by the
addition of 1ml of the given
compound. NaOH solution is
added dropwise and the
contents of the test tube are
shaken well .
Result :The given organic sample contains ketone ( – CO – ) group .
CHEMICAL EQUATIONS FOR KETONE GROUP
 EXPERIMENT 9 ( B )
AIM: To detect the presence of phenol group in the given
organic sample.
EXPERIMENT OBSERVATION INFERENCE
1) LITMUS TEST
A drop of the given sample is Blue litmus Confirms the
placed on moist blue litmus turns red. presence of
paper. Phenolic
group
2) FERRIC CHLORIDE TEST
1 ml of the given organic Violet colour Confirms the
sample uis taken in a test tube appears presence of
and a drop of neutral Ferric Phenolic
chloride solution is added to it. group

3) BROMINE WATER TEST

To the aqueous solution of the
organic compound, bromine Appearance of Confirms the
water is added . white precipitate presence of
Phenolic
4) LIEBERMANN’S TEST group
2-3 crystals of NaNO2 are
placed in a dry test tube and A deep blue or Confirms the
about 1 ml of phenol is added green colour presence of
to it . It is heated gently for appears which Phenolic
about half a minute and is turns red on group
allowed to cool. Then about 1ml dilution with
of conc. H2SO4 is added to it water .
and the the test tube is shaken On adding
to mix its contents. Excess of excess NaOH,
NaOH solution is added to it. the blue colour
is restored
Result : The given organic sample contains phenol as functional
group.
CHEMICAL EQUATIONS FOR PHENOLIC GROUP
 EXPERIMENT 9 ( C )

AIM: To detect the presence of amine group ( – NH2 )

in the given organic sample.
EXPERIMENT OBSERVATION INFERENCE

1) LITMUS TEST

Place a drop of the Colour changes Confirms the

given liquid on the moist to blue presence of
red litmus paper and Amino group
note the colour.

2) AZO – DYE TEST

Dissolve 1ml of organic Formation of Confirms the

compound in 2 ml conc. orange presence of
HCl and cool in ice. Add precipitate amino group
0.5g of NaNO2 dissolved
in 5ml icecold water
slowly with shaking.
Then add a cold solution
of ß–naphthol in NaOH
solution to it.

Result : The given organic sample contains amine (– NH2)

group
CHEMICAL EQUATIONS FOR AMINO GROUP
 EXPERIMENT 9 ( D )

AIM: To detect the presence of aldehyde ( – CHO ) group in

the given organic sample.

EXPERIMENT OBSERVATION INFERENCE

1) TOLLEN’S REAGENT
TEST

To the Tollen’s reagent , 3 – Silver mirror is Confirms the

4 drops of the given liquid formed on the presence of
(or 0.1 g if solid) is added sides of the test aldehyde
and the test-tube is warmed tube . (– CHO) group
on a water-bath for about 5
minutes .

2) FEHLING’S SOLUTION
TEST

2 ml of Fehling’s solution Reddish brown Confirms the

( mixture of 1ml each of precipitate of presence of
Fehling’s solution A and B ) Cu2O is formed aldehyde
is taken in a test-tube. A (– CHO) group
pinch of the given organic
compound is added and
warmed the test-tube in hot
water bath for 4–5 minutes.

Result : The given organic sample contains aldehyde

( – CHO ) group .
CHEMICAL EQUATIONS FOR ALDEHYDE ( – CHO ) GROUP

TOLLEN’S REAGENT TEST

FEHLING’S SOLUTION TEST

 EXPERIMENT 9 ( E )

AIM: To detect the presence of carboxylic ( – COOH ) group

in the given organic sample.

EXPERIMENT OBSERVATION INFERENCE

LITMUS TEST
Blue litmus solution is Blue litmus turns Confirms the
added to the aqueous red presence of
solution of the given salt . carboxylic
(– COOH) group
SODIUM HYDROGEN
CARBONATE TEST
To the aqueous solution of Brisk Confirms the
organic compound a pinch effervescence is presence of
of sodium bicarbonate obtained carboxylic
(NaHCO3 ) is added . (– COOH) group

ESTER TEST
To about 0.1 g of the Fruity smell is Confirms the
organic compound, 1 ml of obtained presence of
ethanol is added followed carboxylic
by 1-2 drops of conc. (– COOH) group
H2S04 in a test tube. Heat
the reaction mixture on a
water bath for about five
minutes.

Result : The given organic sample contains carboxylic

( – COOH ) group .
CHEMICAL EQUATIONS FOR CARBOXYLIC ( – COOH )
GROUP

LITMUS TEST

SODIUM HYDROGEN CARBONATE TEST

ESTER TEST
 EXPERIMENT 9 ( F )
AIM : To detect the presence of alcohol ( – OH ) group in the
given organic sample.
EXPERIMENT OBSERVATION INFERENCE
CERRIC AMMONIUM NITRATE
TEST
About 1 ml of the given Appearance of Confirms the
organic compound is taken in pink or red presence of
a clean dry test-tube and colour carboxylic
added a few drops of ceric (– COOH) group
ammonium nitrate reagent to it
and the test tube is shaken
well.

SODIUM METAL TEST

About 1 ml of the given liquid
is taken ia a dry test-tube and A brisk Confirms the
added about 1 gm of effervescence presence of
anhydrous calcium sulphate due to the alcohol
and shaken well to remove evolution of (– OH) group
water. Filtered the liquid to hydrogen gas
another clean dry test tube is obtained
and add a small piece of
sodium metal group.

ESTER TEST
To about 0.1 g of the organic Fruity smell is Confirms the
compound, 1 ml of ethanol is obtained presence of
added followed by 1- 2 drops alcohol
of conc. H2SO4 in a test tube. (–OH) group
Heat the reaction mixture on a
water bath for about five
minutes.
Result : The given organic sample contains alcohol (– OH )
group .
CHEMICAL EQUATIONS FOR ALCOHOL ( – OH ) GROUP

CERRIC AMMONIUM NITRATE TEST

SODIUM METAL TEST

ESTER TEST
AIM : To prepare Ferric hydroxide sol
APPARATUS REQUIRED : Beaker – 250 mL
Conical flask – 100 mL
Burner
Tripod stand
Wire Gauge
Dropper
CHEMICALS REQUIRED : Ferric chloride solution
THEORY
Surface chemistry is a branch of chemistry that deals with the study of the nature of
surfaces, and physical and chemical reactions occur at the interface of two phases.
Colloids are the dissolved state of substances that either do not pass, or pass very slowly
through a parchment paper or animal membrane. A few examples of colloids are starch,
glue and gelatin.
The size of a particle of a colloid is between 1 – 100 nm. A colloid is a two phase
heterogeneous system in which one phase is called the dispersed phase and the other is
called the dispersion medium.
Dispersed phase: It is the component present in a small proportion.
Dispersion medium: It is the component present in excess.
Based on the physical state of the dispersed phase and dispersion medium, colloids can
be classified into different types.
One important class of colloidal system is sols. In sols, the dispersed phase is solid and
dispersion medium is liquid.
Depending upon the nature of the interaction between the dispersed phase and
dispersion medium sols can be classified into two types.
1.Lyophilic sols
2.Lyophobic sols
The word meaning of lyophilic means ‘liquid-loving’ or ‘solvent- attracting’. This means
that in this colloidal solution there is a strong attraction between the dispersed phase
and dispersion medium, i.e., the dispersed phase has great affinity for the dispersion
medium that results in the extensive solvation of the colloidal particles. In such solids,
the dispersed phase does not easily precipitate and the sols are quite stable. These sols
are reversible in nature. The dispersed phase obtained by the evaporation can be easily
converted to the sol state by simply agitating it with the dispersion medium. Additional
stabilisers are not required during their preparation. If water is used as the dispersion
medium, lyophilic sols are called hydrophilic sols. Starch, gum, gelatin, egg albumin etc.
are examples of lyophilic sols.
The word lyophobic means ‘liquid-hating’. That means in these sols, there is little or no
interaction between the dispersed phase and the dispersion medium ie, dispersed phase
has little affinity for dispersion medium.
To be drawn on left hand side page
These sols are easily precipitated by the addition of small amounts of electrolyte, by
heating or by shaking, therefore these sols are relatively less stable than lyophilic sols.
They need stabilising agents for their preparation. If water is used as the dispersion
medium, lyophobic sols are called hydrophobic sols. Examples of lyophobic sols
include sols of metals and their insoluble compounds like sulphides and oxides.
FERRIC HYDROXIDE SOL
Ferric hydroxide forms lyophobic sols on treatment with water. Ferric hydroxide sol is
prepared by the hydrolysis of ferric chloride with boiling distilled water. The reaction
takes place is as follows:

The hydrolysis reaction produces insoluble ferric hydroxide particles which undergo
agglomerisation to yield bigger particles of colloidal dimensions. These particles
absorb Fe3+ ions preferentially from the solution to give positive charge to the sol
particles. Stability of sol is due to the charge on the sol particles. Hydrochloric acid
produced during hydrolysis must be removed from the sol because it destabilizes the
sol. HCl can be removed from the sol by dialysis process otherwise sol will not be
stable.

PROCEDURE :
Preparation of Lyophobic Sol - Ferric hydroxide
(i) Taken 100 mL of distilled water in a 250 mL beaker and heated to boiling .
(ii) Drop by drop ferric chloride solution is added to the boiling water with constant
stirring till red sol is obtained .
(iii) Tyndall cone and Brownian movement can be observed in the Ferric hydroxide sol .

PRECAUTIONS :
(a) While preparing ferric chloride sol , the ferric chloride solution is gradually added
dropwise with the dropper into the boiling water with constant stirring.
(b) Addition of ferric choride solution in excess may cause precipitation.
To be drawn on left hand side page
AIM : To study the effect of concentration on the rate of reaction between sodium
thiosulphate and hydrochloric acid.
THEORY : The branch of chemistry that deals with the study of reaction rate and its
mechanism is called Chemical Kinetics. In all the chemical reactions the reactants are
consumed and new products are formed. So the rate of a reaction is defined as the
decrease in concentration of any one of the reactants or increase in concentration of
any one of the products in unit time .
Considering the hypothetical reaction, R > P.
[R] and [P] are the concentrations of the reactants and the product respectively.

There are various factors that can affect the rate of a chemical reaction are :
Temperature
Concentration of the reactant
Physical state
Catalyst
The concentration of the reactant plays an important role in the rate of a reaction. As
the concentration of the reactant increases, the number of reacting molecules
increases. Because of the increase in the number of molecules, the number of
collisions also increases as a result the rate of the reaction increases.
Reaction between Sodium thiosulphate and Hydrochloric Acid
The effect of concentration of the reactant on the rate of a reaction can be studied
easily by the reaction between sodium thiosulphate and hydrochloric acid.
Na2S2O3 + 2 HCl → S(s) + 2 NaCl (aq) + SO2 (g) + H2O (l)

Sodium thiosulphate reacts with dilute acid to produce sulphur dioxide, sulphur and
water. Sulphur dioxide is a soluble gas and dissolves completely in aqueous solution.
The sulphur formed however is insoluble and exist in the mixture as a white or pale
yellow precipitate or a colloid that gives a milky appearance and makes the solution
opaque. Therefore the rate of the reaction can be studied by monitoring the
opaqueness of the reaction. This can be easily done by measuring the time taken (t)
for forming a certain amount of sulphur.
In this experiment, the reaction is carried out by mixing the reactants in a conical
flask, and placing the conical flask on the top of a piece of white paper that has a cross
mark on it.
To be drawn on left hand side page
Before the reaction starts, the mark is clearly visible from the top of the conical flask
through the solution. However, as the reaction proceeds, sulphur precipitates that
make the solution more opaque and eventually the mark gets completely masked. The
time taken (t) for the mark to totally disappear indicates how fast the reaction has
occurred.
The graph between 1/t (in second) and the concentration of sodium thiosulphate
should be a straight slopping line.

From the graph, it is clear that 1/t is directly proportional to the concentration of
Na2S2O3. But 1/t is a direct measure of the rate of the reaction. Therefore the rate of
the reaction between Na2S2O3 and HCl is directly proportional to the concentration of
Na2S2O3 solution.

APPARATUS REQUIRED Conical flasks

Stop-watch
Measuring Cylinders

CHEMICALS REQUIRED : 0.1M sodium thiosulphate (Na2S2O3) solution

1M HCl
Distilled water.
PROCEDURE :

(1) Five clean conical flasks are taken and are labelled as A, B, C, D and E respectively.

(2) 10, 20, 30, 40 and 50 ml of 0.1M sodium thiosulphate solution is added to these
flasks A, B, C, D and E respectively.
(3) Volume of solution in each flask is made to 50ml by adding 40, 30, 20 and 10ml of
distilled water to the flask A, B, C and D respectively .

(4) 10ml of 1M HCl is added to conical flask A.

(5) When half of the HCl solution has been added to the conical flask, the stop- watch is
started immediately.

(6) The contents of the conical flask are shaken well and then the flask is placed on a
white tile that has a cross mark at the centre.

(7) The flask is observed from the top carefully and the stop-watch is stopped when the
cross marks just becomes invisible.

(8) The time required for the mark on the tile to become invisible is recorded .

(9) Same procedure is repeated by adding 10ml of 1M HCl to rest of the conical flasks B, C,
D and E respectively containing sodium thiosulphate solution of different concentrations
and the time taken in completion of reaction with the cross to become just invisible.
is recorded in each case .

(10) A graph will be drawn between 1/t (in second) and the concentration of sodium
thiosulphate .

OBSERVATION TABLE :

Flask Volume of Volume of Total Conc. of Volume of Time taken 1/t

No. 0.1M water volume of Na2S2O3 1M HCl (t) in ( in s – 1 )
Na2S2O3 ( in mL ) Na2S2O3 solution ( in mL ) completion
solution solution ( in M ) of reaction
( in mL ) ( in mL ) ( in seconds )

A 10 40 50 0.02 M 10 458 0.002

B 20 30 50 0.04 M 10 251 0.004

C 30 20 50 0.06 M 10 165 0.006

D 40 10 50 0.08 M 10 132 0.0075

E 50 0 50 0.10 M 10 102 0.01

 To be written and drawn on left hand side page
Flask Volume of Volume of Total Conc. of Volume of Time taken 1/t
No. 0.1M water volume of Na2S2O3 1M HCl (t) in ( in s – 1 )
Na2S2O3 ( in mL ) Na2S2O3 solution ( in mL ) completion
solution solution ( in M ) of reaction
( in mL ) ( in mL ) ( in seconds )

A 10 40 50 0.02 M 10 458 0.002

B 20 30 50 0.04 M 10 251 0.004

C 30 20 50 0.06 M 10 165 0.006

D 40 10 50 0.08 M 10 132 0.0075

E 50 0 50 0.10 M 10 102 0.01