GATE Material. Heat Transfer. Chemical
GATE Material. Heat Transfer. Chemical
GATE Material
Heat transfer
Heat flows from point of high temperature to those of relatively low temperature. The
net flowing is always in the direction of the temperature decreases. Whenever there is an
exchange of heat, heat lost by the hot body is always equal to heat gained by the cold body. This
substance expands on heating.
Conduction is at transfer through solids or stationery fluids. When you touch a hot
object, the heat you feel is transferred through your skin by conduction. Two mechanisms
explain how heat is transferred by conduction: lattice vibration and particle collision. Conduction
through solids occurs by a combination of the two mechanisms; heat is conducted through
stationery fluids primarily by molecular collisions. When molecules collide against one another
without moving from a fixed position, such as in a solid, the mechanism of transmitting energy is
called conduction. In solids, the heat is conducted by the following two mechanisms.
I. by Lattice Vibrations:
The faster moving molecules or atoms in hottest part of a body transfer heat by
impacts some of their energy to adjacent molecules
In case of liquids the mechanism of heat the molecules of more closely spaced
and intra molecular forces come in to play.
Note2:
Generally the resistance offered by any material is inversely proportional to the conductance.
Resistance α (1/conductance).
The rate of heat flow through a simple homogeneous solid is directly proportional to
area of the cross section at right angles to the direction of heat flow and to change of temperature
with respective to the length of the path of the heat flow.
Q α A*(dx/dx)
Where Q is rate of heat flow through a body per unit time –watts;
Q=-kA (dT/dx)
2. It is a vector expression indicating that heat flow rate is in the direction of decreasing
Thermal Conductivity:
Thermal conductivity Is the quantity of heat passing through a material of unit thickness with
unit heat flow are in unit time when unit temperature difference is maintained across the opposite
faces of material. Units: w/mºc
K is the property of the material, depends essential upon the following factors
B. moisture content,
C. pressure &temperature,
D. density of material.
A. Type of material:
K S>L>G
1. Thermal conductivity is higher for pure metals compared alloys &nonmetals.
5. Materials with higher thermal conductivity are usually used as heat conductors.
6. Materials with low thermal conductivity (k<0.21w/mºk) are usually used as insulators.
2) Thermal conductivity with respective to the temperature for most metals is almost linear.
K=K (1+βT)
β is coefficient thermal conductivity /ºc,it is used for positive for nonmetals, negative for metals.
3) In most of liquid the value of thermal conductivity tends to decreases with temperature (water
being an exception) due to decreases in density with increases in temperature.
4) In case of gases the value of thermal conductivity increases with temperature. Gases with
higher molecules weights have smaller thermal conductivity than with lower molecular weights.
5) This is because the mean molecular path of gas molecule decreases the increasing the
increasing in density and thermal conductivity is directly proportional to the mean prepath of the
molecule.In case of non-metallic solids thermal conductivity is increases density.
Pressure:
In case of solids and liquids thermal conductivity is weekly dependent on pressure. In case
of gases the value of thermal conductivity independent of pressure. Above 10 bars of thermal the
thermal conductivity of gases is affected on pressure.
Note1: Sutherland deduced an equation from the kinetic theory which is applicable to the
variation of the thermal conductivity of gases with temperature.
K α T (1/2).
Note3: In case of gases the low molecular weight of molecule having higher thermal
conductivity than with molecular weight of gas molecule.
Note4: Generally, the freezing materials (Ice) having higher thermal conductivity than with l
Heat Conduction through Plane Wall:
Consider that the wall of made a material of thermal conductivity k is of uniform thickness L&
constant cross sectional area A.
Assume that k is independent of temperature and the area of wall is very large in comparison
with the thickness so that the heat losses from the edges are negligible. Hot face is at temperature
T1 and cold face at temperature T2 &both are isothermal surfaces. The direction of heat flow is
perpendicular to the wall & temperature varies in the direction of X-axis.
Q=kA (∆T)/L
Q=∆T/R
S=kA/L, watt/ºc.
Heat Flux:
The amount of heat transferred per cross sectional area. Units are watt/m2.
Since, the quantity of heat transmitted per unit time through each layer is same.
=Q[LA/kA+LB/kB+LC/kC].
=Q[RA+RB+RC]
Q= ∆T/(RA+RB+RC).
Q=∆T/R
Where R=RA+RB+RC
∆T/R=∆T1/RA=∆T2/RB=∆T3/RC.
Since, the cross sectional area of heat transfer may wary along the length of conduction
path, it is necessary to find the mean area for heat transfer rate calculations. If A1, A2 (or) r1, r2
are the areas &radiuses of the inside &outside of the surfaces.
• For a solid of constant cross section, example of large plat plate (A2/A1) <2
The mean area is given by
Am = (A1+A2)/2;
• For a solid whose cross sectional area of heat transfer is proportional to radius,
example of long hallow cylinder, The mean area is given by,
Consider a hallow cylinder made of material having constant thermal conductivity .Let r1,r2
are inner and outer radiuses .T1,T2 both are temperatures of inner and outer surface’s is a
constant thermal conductivity. The temperature distribution for a hallow cylinder is given by,
T-T1/ T2-T1=ln(r/r1)/ln(r2/r1)
1) The temperature distribution is logarithmic, not linear as in the case of plain wall.
2) Temperature at any point in the cylinder can be expressed as a function of radius only.
Alternative Method:
Consider an element at radius r and thickness dr for length of hallow cylinder through
which the heat is transmitted. Let dT be the temperature drop over the element. Area through
which heat is transmitted is given by
A=2πrL.
Q = 2πkL(T1 − T2 ) / ln r2 / r1
Q=∆T/R;
R=ln (r2/r1)/2πkL.
Case2:
General Eqn.for conduction heat transfer through hallow cylinders (variable thermal
conductivity)
i =n
Q = 2πL(T1 − Tn +1 ) / ∑ 1 / k i ln(r2 / r1 )
i =1
T1, T2 are temperature of inner and outer surface temperatures, k is thermal conductivity of
sphere. The temperature distribution is given by
Note: From the above eqn.,it is evident that ,the temperature distribution is associated
Q = 4πkr1 r2 ∆T /( r2 − r1 )
R=(r2-r1)/4πkr1r2.
Note1: General eqn.for conduction through a composite sphere is given by
i=n
Q = 4π (T1-Tn+1)/ ∑
i =1
(rn+1-rn)/knrnrn+1)
In a composite wall the calculations of heat flow are made on the assumptions,
1) The contact between the adjacent layers is perfect.
3) At the interface, the temperature is continuous, all though there is discontinuity in temperature
gradient.
In real systems , however due to surface roughness and ,void spaces ,usually, filled with air,
the contact surfaces touches only at discrete locations .Thus, there is not a single plane of contact
which mean that ,the area available for the flow of heat at the interface will be available is less
compared to geometric space area. Due to this reduced area and presence of air voids, the large
resistance to heat flow at the interface occur.
This resistance is known as thermal contact resistance, and it causes the temperature drop
between two materials at the interfaces.
Rth(AB )= (T2-T3)/(Q/A)
Rth(BC) = (T4-T5)/(Q/A)
Lumped Body Model The simplest case of transient conduction is the lumped body model.
model This
model considers the heat transfer between a solid and a surrounding fluid. The main assumption
in the model is that the solid can be approximated to have a uniform temperature; that is, there
are no temperature gradients within the solid. Furthermore, the surrounding fluid must be large
enough so that its temperature remains a constant throughout the process. This approximation
where h is the convection coefficient, k is the conductivity of the solid, and Lc is the
characteristic length of the solid, defined as the volume/area ratio. For a wall of thickness 2L,
2 Lc
= L; for a cylinder, Lc = r/2;
/2; for a sphere, it is r/3. The number Bi is a dimensionless parameter
called the Biot number.
For a lumped body, the temperature of the solid which is introduced into the fluid at time t = 0 is
given by:
where A is the surface area of the solid, m is the mass of the solid, cp is the specific heat of the
solid, Ti is the initial temperature of the solid, and T∞ is the temperature of the fluid. This
equation assumes that T∞ remains constant through the process. The newly introduced variable θ/
θi is the "normalized temperature," which measures the temperature in rel
relative
ative terms. That is, the
normalized temperature measures the percent change in temperature rather than exact change in
temperature in °C. Once the normalized temperature is known, the actual temperature of the solid
can be calculated based on initial temp
temperature and the surrounding temperature.
Semi-Infinite Solid
The second approximation often applied to analyze transient conduction is the semi-infinite
approximation. Semi-infinite solids can be visualized as very thick walls with one side exposed
to some fluid. The other side, since the wall is very thick, remains unaffected by the fluid
temperature. This condition is expressed as T(∞, t) = Ti, where Ti is the initial wall temperature.
This is illustrated in Figure. The condition at the exposed side of the wall is called the boundary
condition.
One possible condition for the wall surface is a constant temperature. In this case, the
temperature inside the wall at time t, at distance x from the surface, is given by:
where Tsurface is the constant wall temperature and α is the thermal diffusivity of the wall.
Thermal diffusivity, is related to the thermal conductivity, and is the measure of how quickly
heat is dissipated in a material. The function erf is called the Gaussian Error Function, and
values for erf(x) are often tabulated or available in graphical form for convenience.
Surface convection boundary condition
Another possible case is to have convection off the surface of the wall (Fig. 4.1b). In this case, h
is assumed to be constant at all times. The temperature in the wall at time t and distance x is:
• For tubular heat exchangers we must take into account the conduction resistance in the
wall and convection resistances of the fluids at the inner and outer tube surfaces. In
general the overall heat transfer coefficient is given by
1 1 1
= + Rcond +
UA hi Ai ho Ao
ln( Do / Di )
Rcond = 1 1 1
2πkL = =
or UA U i Ai U o Ao
Where,
Ai = πDi L
inner tube surface Ao = πDo L
Or
LMTD
Q& = UA(LMTD ) = n
∑ Ri i =1
1 n
1 ln (ro / ri ) 1
= ∑ Ri = + R f ,i + + R f ,o +
UA i =1 2πri hi L 2πk p L 2πro ho L
Individual Overall Heat Transfer coefficients:
1. Based on inside:
1 1 1 1 R"f ,i R "f ,o 1
= = = + + Rcond + +
UA U i Ai U o Ao hi Ai Ai Ao ho Ao
Where, R”fi =Inside fouling resistance, R”fo=Outside fouling resistance of inner tube
2. Based on Outside:
1
Uo = "
Ao AR f ,i 1
+ o + Ao Rcond + R"f ,o +
hi Ai Ai ho
Note:
Based on outer side surface diameter area, the individual temp drops in two fluids and
metal wall are proportional to the individual resistance
∆T\ (1\Uo) = ∆To\ (1\ho)
Fouling resistance
The phenomenon of rust formation & deposited of fluid properties in the tubes of a
In a heat exchanger, during the normal operation the tube surface gets covered by deposits
of ash, soot, dirt & scale Due to these surface deposits, the thermal resistance increased
Since, it is difficult acertile the thickness & thermal conductivity of the scale deposits, the
effect of scale on heat flow is considerable by specifying an equivalent scale heat transfer
coefficient (hs).
• Heat exchanger surfaces are subject to fouling by fluid impurities, rust formation, or
other reactions between the fluid and the wall material. The subsequent deposition of a
film or scale on the surface can greatly increase the resistance to heat transfer between
the fluids.
• An additional thermal resistance can be introduced: The Fouling factor, Rf.
Depends on operating temperature, fluid velocity and length of service of heat
exchanger. It is variable during heat exchanger operation.
If his= heat transfer coefficient of the scale inside surface of the inner tube
hso= heat transfer coefficient of the scale outside surface of the outer tube
1
Rsi= Inside scaling resistance; Rsi =
Ai hsi
1
Rso =Out side scale or fouling resistance of inner tube; Rso =
Ao hso
Note
Generally the dirt resistance inversely proportional to overall dirt heat transfer coefficient;
1
Rf =
Ud
Uc −Ud
Rf =
U cU d
Where Uc=Clean overall heat transfer coefficient is given by
1 1
Uc = =
1 ri ro r ro r r 1
+ ln + i + o ln o +
hi k ri ro ho ri hi k ri ho
Forced Convection
Forced convection refers to convective transport in flows that are externally driven. The flow
could be external to a surface (flow over a flat plate, flow past a solid object or across a pipe) or
internal (flow between two walls or through a pipe). Generally fluid flows become turbulent as a
result of flow instability, and viscosity resists random motion and therefore tends to make the
flow laminar. Thus the Reynolds number is often an indicator of whether a flow is laminar or
turbulent. Since the length especially and to some extent the velocity are defined in different
ways in different flow situations, the value of Re (unlike that of certain non-dimensional groups
such as Prandtl number, Pr = cµ / k , which are properties of the fluid) cannot be a criterion of
comparison for flows in different flow arrangements.
The Reynolds number (Re) is a fair criterion of transition of a boundary layer from laminar to
turbulent, although the exact condition under which transition occurs depends on boundary
conditions such as surface roughness and the level of free stream turbulence.
Empirical formulae express the Nusselt number, Nu = hL/k (where h is the heat transfer
coefficient, L a characteristic length and k the conductivity of the fluid. The thermal conductivity
of the fluid on the heat transfer coefficient is also contained in the Prandtl number, Pr = ρc /k
(which is the ratio of Kinematic viscosity µ / ρ to the thermal diffusivity α = k/ ρc ). In some
instances, formulae are given for the Stanton number St = h / ρcV (=Nu /Re Pr). Stanton number
is the heat transfer counterpart of the skin friction coefficient (really C f / 2 = τ w / ρV 2 where V is
the characteristic velocity, the free-stream velocity on flow over a plate and bulk mean velocity
in pipe flow). The Peclet number, Pe = Re Pr (= VLk / cµ ) is also used in empirical formulae,
especially in liquid metal heat transfer.
One needs to check whether a formula is for the local value of heat transfer coefficient or the
overall value. For flow over a flat plate, the formulae are often for the local value. In pipe flows,
commonly available formulae are for fully developed flows and where the entry region is short
compared to the entire pipe, thee effect of he entry region can be ignored. In other cases, it needs
to be taken into account.
Prandtl No (Pr)
The dimensionless number associated with momentum and thermal diffusion is called the
“Prandlt No”. Pr has been found to be the parameter which relates the relative thickness of the
velocity and the thermal boundary layer.
α Thermal Diffusivity
Applications: 1.To tests the dimensional homogeneity of any equation of fluid motion. 2.
To derive rational formula for a flow phenomenon 3. To derive equatio
equations
ns expressed in terms of
non-dimensional
dimensional parameters to show the relative significance of each parameter.
Dimensional analysis applied to Forced convection heat transfer: Let us assume that the heat
transfer coefficient is in a fully developed forced convec
convection
tion in a tube is a function of the
following variables.
h = f (ρ , d , v, µ , C p , k )
= f 1 (h, ρ , d , v, µ , C p , k )
Note: Generally heat transfer through forced convection the Nusselt num
number
ber is function of Re
and Pr numbers.
The heat transfer coefficient depends on fluid properties (heat capacity, viscosity, thermal
conductivity, and density) and flow properties (pipe diameter, velocity). Dimensional
analysis shows the relation between the variables:
ions that follow are limited to conduit flow without phase change.
The correlations change Different
geometries, boiling, and condensation will be covered in later lectures. Frictional heating
(viscous dissipation) is not included in these correlations. This should not be a problem,
probl since
this phenomena is typically neglected except for highly viscous flows or gases at high mach
numbers.
Unless otherwise specified, fluid properties should be evaluated at the "bulk average"
temperature -- the arithmetic mean of the inlet and outle
outlet temperatures:
Significance of Nusselt number: It is the ratio of heat flow rate by convection process under a
unit temperature gradient to the heat flow rate by conduction process under a unit
temperature gradient through a stationary thickness of L meters.
Case-I: Laminar flow heat transfer to flat plate:
0.332 1 1
For Laminar Flow: Nu = Re 2 Pr 3
xo 34
3 1− ( )
x
Where, the average heat transfer coefficient in forced convection is twice that of local heat
transfer coefficient is given by
h = 2hx
Note: For laminar flow in flat plates the Reynolds number range is
Re ≤ 3x10 5
Case: II-Heat transfer by forced convection in tubes or pipes: For laminar flow the Seider-
Tate equation for the calculation of the heat transfer coefficient for the laminar flow of fluids
inside horizontal tubes or pipes is
1 0.14
d 3 µ
N u = 1.86 Re Pr
L µw
hi d i d vρ
Where, N u = , Re = i
k µ
d
The equation is valid for Re ≤ 2100and Re Pr ≥ 100
L
All the fluid properties are evaluated at the arithmetic average bulk temperature of the
fluid, except µ w which is calculated at the average wall temperature.
From the above equation is related to h & G is
1 1
hi ∝ v orhi ∝ G
3 3
Graetz Number (NGz): It is related only for the heat flow to the fluid flowing through circular
pipe. It is defined as the ratio of heat capacity of fluid flowing through the pipe per unit
length of the pipe to the conductivity of the pipe.
π
Where, m is the mass flow rate is m = ρvA = ρvd 2
4
π d
Gz = Re Pr
4 L
Peclet number (Pe): The Peclet number is product of Reynolds number and
Prandtl number. Pe = Re Pr
π
Therefore Graetz number is given by, Gz=
Fo
Fully developed flow: A velocity distribution, fluid flow is unchanged with along the
length of the pipe is called fully developed flow.
If the flow is fully developed flow and constant wall temperature (Tw), the heat
transfer coefficient can be calculated by
mC p T − Ta
Nu = ln w
πkL Tw − Tb
For constant wall temperature and fully developed flow in laminar flow through
tubes, the equation is
N u = 3.66
For uniform heat flux or constant flux through the entire length of tube, the equation is
given by
N u = 4.36
υ ε
1. Reynolds analogy: = pr = M
α εH
By using above conditions in turbulent flow and smooth tube is given by
Nu − 02
= 0.023Re
Re xPr
−0.2 Nu
S t = 0.023Re [Where S t = ]
Re xPr
f h f
Therefore, S t = or =
2 C pG 2
For smooth tube turbulent flow conditions, the friction factor is given by
−0.2
f = 0.046Re
Note: Generally this analogy used for gases or thermal boundary is equal to hydrodynamic
boundary layer.
2. Chilton-Colburn analogy: For turbulent flow smooth tubes, the equation is given by
0. 8
1 µ 0.14
N u = 0.023Re Pr 3 ( )
µw
f
JH =
2
−0.14
2 µ
JH = S t Pr
3
µw
3. Prandtl analogy: This is a modification over the Reynolds analogy and the presence of the
Note: Prandtl analogy is more accurate analogy compared to other two analogies.
Limitations of analogy equations: All analogy equations connecting f & h have an important
limitation. They apply only to wall or skin friction and must not be used for situations in which form
drag appears.
For this no simple equation is applicable and therefore a graphical method is used.The graph
between JH Vs Re with lines of constant values of L/d.
Heat transfer to liquid metals
1. Liquid metals are used for high temperature heat transfer, especially in nucler reactors.
2. Liquid mercury, sodium and a mixture of sodium and potassium called Nak are
5. Molten metals have good specific heats, Low viscosities, and high thermal
Conductivities.
υ
εM
A correction for as a function of the Reynolds number is given in Fig.
υ
Generally the equation is may be written as
0.8
N u = 7 + 0.025Pe
For the critical Peclet number, the Nusselt number in case of liquid metals is given by
Nu = 7
Forced convection in spheres: For heat transfer between a flowing fluid and the surface of
single sphere, the following equation is recommended.
1 1
N u = 2 + 0.6 Re 2 Pr 3
Natural Convection
Heat transfer by natural convection occurs when a fluid is in contact with a surface hotter or
colder than itself. As the fluid is heated or cooled it changes its density. This difference in
density causes movement in the fluid that has been heated or cooled and causes the heat transfer
to continue.
General Considerations:
• Buoyancy forces may arise in fluids for which there are density gradients and a body force that
is proportional to density.
• In heat transfer, density gradients are due to temperature gradients and the body force is
gravitational.
• Stable(Conduction Only, No Fluid Motion) and Unstable(Free Convection Flow and Heat
Transfer)Temperature Gradients.
Flow regimes in natural convection is govern by Grashof number Gr (Like the flow regimes in
Forced convection are governed by Re). Gr represents the ratio of Buoyancy force over viscous
force acting on the fluid.
BuoyancyForces ρ 2 gβ (Tw − T∞ ) L3
Gr = Gr =
ViscousForces µ2
Empirical correlation for natural convection: The Grashof number has a similar significance
for natural convection as the Reynolds number has for forced convection, i.e. it represents a ratio
of buoyancy to viscous forces.
For natural convection process the rate of heat transfer would be expected to follow as relation:
N u = f ( N Gr N Pr )
N u = C ( N Gr N Pr )
n
The fluid properties in the dimensional groups are evaluated at the mean film temperature
Tf.
Tw + T∞
Tf =
2
change.
∂V
∂T P
β= , / 0C
V
• The coefficient of thermal expansion of an ideal gas is equal to the reciprocal of the
absolute temperature.
1 1
β= =
T 273 + T f
Where ρ1 and ρ 2 are density of fluid at T1 and T2 and ρ av is the average density of fluid.
ρ1 + ρ 2
ρ av =
2
Average Nusselt Number:
1
h.L 4 Gr L 4
3 4
Nu L = = (Pr) or
k
Nu L = 4 Nu L
3
Rayleigh number:It is the product of the Groshoff’s number and Prandtl numbers.
N Ra = N Gr N Pr
In natural convection the transition from a laminar to turbulent boundary layer occurs
when N Gr N Pr =109.
Many empirical correlations are available for free convection from bodies of different geometries
and flow conditions. The average film heat transfer coefficient in natural convection is generally
given by the correlation of the form:
N Nu = C[N Gr N Pr ]
n
For isothermal surfaces the exponent’s n is ¼ for laminar flow and 1/3 for turbulent flow.
The characteristic dimension L to be used in Nusselt or Grosshoff’s number depends
upon the geometry of the problem. For vertical plate or vertical cylinder it is height of the
plate or cylinder L; for the horizontal cylinder it is the diameter D.The fluid properties
must be evaluated at film temperature.
1. Vertical plates and vertical cylinders:
Ascending flow with the maximum velocity occurring in the boundary layer and zero
velocity at both the surface and outer edge.
1
N Nu = 0.59[N Gr N Pr ]4 For 104< N Gr N Pr < 10 9
1
N Nu = 0.1[N Gr N Pr ]3 For 109< N Gr N Pr < 1012
2. Horizontal cylinders:
1
N Nu = 0.53[N Gr N Pr ]4 For 104< ( N Gr N Pr ) < 10 9
1
N Nu = 0.13[N Gr N Pr ]3 For 10 9 < N Gr N Pr < 1012
1
N Nu = 0.48[N Gr N Pr ]4 For10 4 < N Gr N Pr < 10 7
1
N Nu = 0.125[N Gr N Pr ]3 For10 7 < N Gr N Pr < 1012
3. Horizontal plates: The average heat transfer coefficient from horizontal plate depends
upon whether a plate is warmer or cooler compared to the surroundings and also on
whether the plate is facing upward or down ward.
The characteristic dimension L to be used is given by
Surfaceareaoftheplate( A)
L=
Perimeteroftheplate(P )
1
N Nu = 0.54[N Gr N Pr ]4 For 2.6x104 < N Gr N Pr <8x106
1
N Nu = 0.15[N Gr N Pr ]3 For 8x106< N Gr N Pr <1011
Above correlations are also valid for the lower surface of heated plate.
heated plate /horizontal plate facing down ward/heated surface facing down
1
ward: N Nu = 0.27[N Gr N Pr ]4 For 105< N Gr G Pr <1011
Above equation is also valid for the upper surface of a cold vertical plate.
4. Spheres: The following empirical relation for free convection heat transfer from
Spheres of diameter D is:
1
N Nu = 2 + 0.43[N Gr N Pr ]4 For 1< N Gr N Pr <105
1
N Nu = 2 + 0.5[N Gr N Pr ]4 For 3x105< N Gr N Pr <8x108
N Nu = C[N Gr N Pr ]
n
For isothermal surfaces the exponent’s n is ¼ for laminar flow and 1/3 for turbulent flow.
The characteristic dimension L to be used in Nusselt or Grosshoff’s number depends
upon the geometry of the problem. For vertical plate or vertical cylinder it is height of the
plate or cylinder L; for the horizontal cylinder it is the diameter D.The fluid properties
must be evaluated at film temperature.
Heat transfer from condensing vapors
Convection processes associated with a change of phase of a fluid (at a solid-liquid interface).
Latent heat, hfg - this is an important property for phase change processes.
The primary function of a condensation or boiling is to remove latent heat or liberal latent heat
although it is sometimes necessary to remove sensible heat as well. Examples include:
• distillation columns
• reactors
• steam heaters, reboilers
• power plant boilers
• refrigeration systems
High heat transfer rates with small temperature differences & High heat transfer coefficients.
The heat transfer coefficient and rates, due to latent heat associated with phase change, are
generally much higher compared with the normal convection process(without phase change).
1. ∆T = Tsat - Ts
4. Surface tension, σ
5. Characteristic length, L
• Condensation occurs when a saturated vapor such as steam comes in contact with a solid
whose surface temperature is below the saturation temperature to form a liquid such as
water.
∆T = Tsat - Ts (Tsat>Ts)
Modes of condensation:
1. Surface condensation: Contact between vapor and surface at Ts < Tsat.Two types surface
condensation mechanisms are commonly observed during condensation of vapors in the
chemical industry. They are
Drop wise condensation: When a saturated vapor comes into contact with the cold solid
surface, the temperature of the solid surface is below the saturation temperature of the vapor,
some of the vapor condenses and drops are formed on the solid surface, if the condensing
liquid does not wet the surface readily. The drops grow larger till their weight overcomes the
surface tension forces holding then to the solid surface. Then the drops fall, cleaning the solid
surface for more condensation. This process is called drop wise condensation.
• Drops form in cracks, pits and cavities. This is facilitated by a non-wetting surface/liquid
combination.
• In general terms, condensate inhibits heat transfer between vapor and surface. Thus, drop
wise condensation is preferred. However, droplets not always stable so we generally
design for film condensation.
• In this type of condensation, a large portion of the area of solid surface is directly
exposed to vapor without an insulating film of condensate liquid, consequently higher
heat transfer rate achieved.
• Drop wise condensation has been observed to occur either on highly polished surfaces or
on surfaces contained with impurities like fatty acids and organic compounds.
• This type of condensation gives coefficient of heat transfer generally 5 to 10 times larger
than with film condensation.
• Although drop wise condensation would be preferred to film wise condensation yet it is
extremely difficult to achieve or maintain.
• This is because most surfaces become wetted after being exposed to condensing vapors
over a period of time.
• Drop wise condensation can be obtained under controlled conditions with the help of
certain additives to the condensate and various surface coatings but its commercial
viability has not yet been approved. For this reason the condensing equipment in use is
desired on the basis of film wise condensation.
• The maximum heat transfer coefficient in drop wise condensation is 110kW/m20K
• Liquid metals usually condense in the drop wise manner.
Note: the mixture of condensed and non-condensable vapors, the process of condensation
• After condensation, the liquid flows down the tube surface under the influence of gravity
(unless vapor rates are high enough to produce vapor shear). The flow may be laminar or
turbulent, depending on the fluid, rate of condensation, tube size, etc. The film tends to
thicken as it flows to the bottom of the tube, and the weight of the fluid may cause ripples
to form. These will cause deviations from pure laminar flow.
Film type condensation: When a saturated vapor comes into contact with the cold surface it
condenses and, if condensate wets the surface, it forms a continuous film of condensate through
which heat must be transferred. The liquid flows down the cooling surface under the action of
gravity and the larger continuously grows in thickness because of newly condensing vapors. The
process of condensation is called film type condensation.
• The continuous film offers thermal resistance and checks further transfer of heat between
the vapor and the surface.
• The heat is transferred from the vapor to the condensate formed on the surface by
convection and it is further transferred from the condensate film to the cooling surface by
conduction.
• This combined mode of heat transfer by conduction and convection reduces the rate of
heat transfer(compared with drop wise condensation).That is the reason that transfer rates
of film wise condensation are lower than the drop wise condensation.
• In both cases, nucleation is typically the rate limiting step, rather than heat transfer. Most
industrial applications are based on film mechanisms, since it is tricky and expensive to
build non-wetting surfaces.
Dimensionless parameters: For Boiling and Condensation,
h =f ( ∆T , g ( ρl − ρ v ), h fg , σ , L, ρ , c p , µ , k )
There are 5 fundamental dimensions: m, kg, s, J, K
The loading may be subscripted with a b when evaluated at the bottom of a vertical tube. This
can be used to calculate a Reynolds number .
The viscosity and most other properties used in the condensing correlations are evaluated at the
film temperature,, a weighted mean of the cold surface (wall) temperature and the (hot) vapor
saturation temperature.
Wall Temperatures:
As we've seen before, it is often necessary to calculate the wall temperature
by an iterative approach. The summa
summarized procedure is:
1. Assume a film temperature, Tf
2. Evaluate the fluid properties (viscosity, density, etc.) at this temperature
3. Use the properties to calculate a condensing heat transfer coefficient (using the
correlations to be presented)
4. Calculate the wall temperature. The relationship will typically be something like
Assumptions:-
- Laminar flow and const. fluid properties in the liquid film.
- Pure vapor, at uniform temperature of Tsat ⇒ no temperature gradient at liquid-vapor
interface.
- Shear stress at liquid-vapor interface is assumed to be negligible, i.e.
∂u
y =δ =0
∂x
Boundary Conditions:-
∂u
u (o) = 0 ; y =δ = 0
∂y
g ( ρl − ρv ).δ 2 y y
2
u( y) = δ − 12 δ
µl
δ = f(x) is unknown.
Condensate Mass Flow Rate per unit width,
.
m( x ) g ⋅ ρl (ρl − ρv )δ 3
Γ( x ) = =
b 3.µl
Considering a differential element:-
Rate of heat transfer, dq, into the film at the liquid-vapor interface = rate of energy release due to
condensation at the interface.
.
⇒ dq = h f .d m
g
⇒ dq = h fg dm& = qs ″ (b.dx )
.
k .(T − Ts ) h fg .d m
q"s = l sat =
δ b.dx
dΓ k .(T − Ts )
⇒ = l sat
dx δ .h fg
g .ρl .( ρl − ρv )δ 2 dδ
= ⋅
µl dx
⇒
1
4.k .µ .(T − T ).x 4
δ ( x) = l l sat s
g .ρl .( ρl − ρ v )h fg
−
Average heat transfer coefficient, h L
h L = 1 ∫ L0 hx dx
L
1
g .ρ .(ρ − ρ ).k 3.h ' fg 4
⇒ h L = 0.943 l l v l
µl ..(Tsat − Ts ).L
and
1
ρ .g ( ρl − ρ v )h ' fg .L3 4
Nu L = 0.943 l
µ l .kl .(Tsat − Ts )
Tsat + Ts
Liquid properties at Tf = ; hfg at Tsat
2
q = h L . A.[Tsat − Ts ]
. h L . A.(Tsat − Ts )
m = q ' =
h fg h' fg
Figure Film condensations on a vertical plate. (a) Condensate rate for plate of
Note-1:For inclined surfaces the gravitational force is gsin θ is the angle between the
1
k L 3 gh fg ρ L (ρ L − ρ V )sin θ 4
hinclined = 1.13
µ L L ∆T
1
Or hinclined = hvertical x(sin θ ) 4
Turbulent Flow outside Vertical Tubes:
When the condensate Reynolds Number is greater than 1800, the recommended
changes the constant in the second form from 0.725 to 0.729. The rippling condition (add 20%)
is suggested for condensate Reynolds Numbers greater than 40.
Condenser tubes are typically arranged in banks, so that the condensate which falls off one tube
will typically fall onto a tube below. The bottome tubes in a stack thus have thicker liquid films
and consequently poorer heat transfer. The correlation is adjusted by a factor for the number of
tubes, becoming for the Nth tube in the stack is
Splashing of the falling fluid further reduces heat transfer, so some authors recommend a
different adjustment
Condensation inside Tubes:
Condensate falls from tubes under the influence of gravity or by vapor shear. Outside of tubes,
there is usually enough
ough vapor space to keep velocities low enough that vapor shear is not
important; however, inside tubes the velocities are higher and more likely to effect the heat
transfer coefficient. Thus, for condensation inside tubes it is often necessary to calculate
calculat a second
value of the heat transfer coefficient (assuming vapor shear). The larger of the two values is then
used.
When vapor shear is controlling, the heat transfer coefficient can be determined from
As with vertical tubes, the designer should use the larger of the gravity or vapor shear controlled
forms.
Radiation between surfaces, radiation shielding
When non-black bodies are involved, the situation is much more complex and for all the energy
striking a surface will not be absorbed; part will be reflected back to another heat transfer
surface, and part will be reflected back to another heat transfer surface and part may be reflected
out of the system entirely.
To cope with the situation let us assume the surfaces considered in our analysis are diffusive and
uniform in temperature and the reflective and emissive properties are constant over all the
surfaces.
Ex: Two surfaces of area A1 and A2 of emissivities ε1 and ε 2 which exchange heat with each
other and nothing else would be represented by the following circuit diagram.
A2
A1
ε2
ε1
The net heat flow between two large parallel planes is given by
(
Q σ T1 − T2
=
4 4
)
A 1 1
+ −1
ε1 ε2
The net radiant heat energy between two large parallel cylinders is
Q=
( 4
A1σ T1 − T2
4
,
) Where A1 = 2πr1 L , A2 = 2πr2 L
1 A1 1
+ − 1
ε 1 A2 ε 2
1.Smaller heat transfer surface in large floor space as compared to other type of heat
exchangers.
Advantages:
1. The double pipe heat exchanger is very alternative, where the total heat transfer surface
required is small, 9.29 m2 to 14 m2 or less.
2. Control and direct flow patterns of the shell-side liquid and to act as.
Baffles are:-
In design considerations:-
A pass is when liquid flows all the way across from one end to the other of the exchanger. We
will count shell passes and tube passes. An exchange with one shell pass and two tube passes
is a 1-2 exchanger (shown in the figure). Almost always, the tube passes will be in multiples
of two (1-2, 1-4, 2-4, etc.), since odd numbers of tube passes have more complicated
mechanical stresses, etc. An exception: 1-1 exchangers are sometimes used for vaporizers and
condensers.
With the help of passes we can change the direction of flow in the shell and tubes.
Passes are generally used to obtain higher velocities and longer paths for a fluid to
travel, with out increasing the length of the exchanger, that leads to high heat transfer
rates.
The passes on shell side are single pass, two passes.
The passes on the tube side are one, two, four, and six up to twelve
Tube or pitch arrangement:-
Tube pitch :-(PT):-The shortest centre –to-centre distance the adjacent tubes is called as tube
pitch.
Tube clearance: - (CT):- The shortest distance between two tubes is called as
clearance.
Advantages: - Ease in cleaning, Lower pressure drop, Prepared when the fluid
handled is highly fouling.
Advantages:-More tubes in a particular shell, higher heat transfer coefficient, higher pressure
drop.
Disadvantages:-Difficult to clean, When the fluid handled is highly fouling this arrangement is not
used. If the fluids are very clean, a triangular pitch is used.
Tie rods:-These can be used; spacers are fluted to the tie rods.
Tube sheet:-It is essentially a flat circular plate with a provision for making gasket-joint
around periphery.
A large number of holes are drilled in the tube sheet according to the pitch
requirements.
Tube sheet thickness ranges from 6mm to 25.4mm for tube outside diameter of
6mm to 4mm.
Note: if the number of shell side passes or tube side passes are increases, the heat transfer
or heat transfer coefficient, pressure drop, frictional are increases.
The velocity of 1-4 heat exchanger =4x velocity of 1-1 heat exchanger.
The heat transfer coefficient(h) of 1-4 H.E= 40.8xheat transfer coefficient 1-1 H.E
The pressure drop for 1-4 H.E=41.8xpressure drop of 1-1 H.E.
The frictional loss of 1-4 H.E= 42.8xFrictional loss of 1-1 H.E
Note: Based upon number of passes provide on tube side as well as shell side
,the shell and tube heat exchangers are referred as 1-2 shell and tube, 1-
4 shell and tube heat exchanger, 2-4 shell and tube heat exchanger.
Fluid Allocation
Usually, common sense is a reliable guide when deciding which fluid belongs on the shell side
and which on the tube side:
• Fluids which are prone to fouling belong in tubes, where the higher velocities will
reduce buildup. Mechanical cleaning is also much more practical for tubes than for
shells.
• Corrosive fluids are usually best in tubes, as are very high temperature fluids that
require alloy construction. Tubes are cheaper to fabricate from exotic materials.
• Viscous fluids require a judgment call. Placing the more viscous fluid on the shell side
will improve heat transfer, but using the tube side will lead to lower pressure drop.
• Toxic fluids should go inside the tubes to improve containment.
• Streams with low flow rates typically go on the tube side to increase the velocity and
turbulence.
• High pressure streams usually go inside the tubes, since they are less expensive to
build strong.
• Streams with low allowable pressure drop should usually be placed on the tube side.
General design of heat exchange equipment
Fluids flowing in Annuli-The equivalent diameter: When a fluid flows in a conduit having
other than circular cross-section, Such as an annulus, It is convenient to express heat transfer
coefficients and friction factors by the same type of equations and curves used for pipes and
tubes.
To permit this type of representation for annulus heat transfer it has been found advantageous
to employ an equivalent diameter De.
The hydraulic radius is obtained as the ratio of the flow area to the welted perimeter.
Flowarea
rH =
Wettedperi meter
Flowarea
There fore, De = 4 ×
Wettedperimeter
Case -1: For heat transfer calculations, the wetted perimeter is the outer circumference of the
inner pipe with diameter d1 and De is given by
2 2
d 2 − d1
De =
d1
Case-2: In pressure drop calculations the friction not only results from the resistance of the
outer pipe but is also affected by the outer surface of the inner pipe. The total wetted perimeter
is given by π (d1 + d 2 )
' Flowarea
De = 4 ×
Frictionalwettedperimeter
De =
' (
4π d 2 − d 1
2 2
)
4π (d1 + d 2 )
De ' = d 2 − d1
Design calculations and procedure for Double pipe heat exchanger: The prime objective
in the design of an exchanger is to determine the surface area, required for the specified duty
using the temperature differences available.
Q = U D A∆Tm
In the step wise procedure of calculation given below.
Step 1: Process Conditions Required:
2. Check the heat balance, of the heat exchanger, of the temperature is unknown by using
energy balance equation to calculate unknown temperature. The following equation is
given by
Q = mh C ph (Th1 − Th 2 ) = mc C pc (Tc 2 − Tc1 )
Parallel Flow
3. Calculate log mean temperature difference (LMTD) for co or current flow.
∆T1 − ∆T2
LMTD =
∆T
ln 1 ∆T1 = Th ,i − Tc ,i
∆T2 ∆T2 = Th ,o − Tc ,o
1. Evaluate the physical properties of hot and cold fluid at the arithmetic mean of Th1 and
µ 0.14
Th2 and Tc1 and Tc2.For non-viscous fluids ( ) may be taken as 1 as Assumed
µw
below.
Step 2: Lanner pipe Calculations:-
d i vρ diG
1. Reynolds number is given by N Re = =
µ µ
m
Where’d=Tube inner diameter, m, u=Inner flow velocity, , ρ= Density of inner
sec
fluid, kg/m3, µ=viscosity of inner fluid, kg/m.sec, G=Mass velocity of fluid, kg/m2.sec.
m
G=
Ai
Th1 + Th2 Tc1 + Tc2
2. From C p , µ , k all obtained at Thm = , Tcm = , The value of
2 2
Prandtl number is given by
Cpµ
N Pr =
k
3. Obtain the value of inside heat transfer coefficient hi using Seider-Tate or Dittus-
0.14
µ
Boelter equation taking =1
µw
hi d i
k
= 0.023 N Re ( ) (N )0.8
Pr
n
1. Flow area = Aa =
(
π d 2 2 − d1 2 )
4
Where, d1 = Inside diameter of inner pipe, d2 = Inside diameter of outer pipe.
Obtain equivalent diameter from following relation (based on the heat transfer) is given
by
2 2
d − d1
De = 2 ,m
d1
De G a
3. The Reynolds number is given by N Re =
µ
4. Obtain C p , µ , k at Thm and Tcm (take mean temperature) , Prandtl number is given
by
Cpµ
N Pr =
k
0.14
µ
=1
µw
ho De
= 0.023( N Re ) ( N Pr )
0.8 n
7. Finally,
1
UD = or
1 r r r R f ro
+ R f o + o ln o + o + i
ho k ri hi ri ri
1
UD =
1 1 ro ro r r
+ + ln + o + o
ho hso k ri hi ri hsi ri
A
8 .The length of heat exchanger is L=
πd o
9. For a given fouling period, the total Dirt resistance is given by
Uc −UD
Rd =
U cU D
Step-4: Pressure drop calculations (inner pipe): The pressure drop allowance in an
exchange is the static fluid pressure which may be expended to drive the fluid through the
exchanger. The pump selected for the circulation of a process fluid is one which develops
sufficient head at the desired capacity to overcome the frictional losses caused by connecting
piping, fitting, and control regulators.
Where, f is fanning friction factor, depends on the type of flow. For laminar flow,
smooth pipe is
16
f =
N Re
0.125
For smooth tube and turbulent flow is f = 0.0014 + 0.32
N Re
2. The pressure drop exited due to velocity head of fluid enters or leaves exchanger is
given by
v2
∆pv =
2g
Note: If the Total pressure drop>Maximum allowable pressure drop, the design of
double pipe heat exchanger is not satisfied.
hi ∝ G 0.8
The best use of available pressure is to increase the mass velocity which also increases
hi and less the size and cost of the apparatus.
Shell and Tube Heat Exchangers: Design Calculations
Step-1: Thermo physical properties of hot and cold fluids are given below.
Hot fluid: Th1 , Th 2 , mh , C ph , s, µ , k , Rd , ∆p
Step-2: for the shell-tube heat exchanger the following data must be known.
Shell-side: ID of shell, Baffle spacing, passes on shell side.
Tube side: BWG number, Length, Outside diameter, pitch and passes.
Step-3: Heat balance of exchanger is
Q = mh C ph (Th1 − Th 2 ) = mc C pc (Tc 2 − Tc1 )
Step-4: Temperature correction factor (F): In double pipe or 1-1 heat exchangers, when the
hot and cold fluids in heat exchanger are in true counter current flow or in parallel flow, the
log mean temperature difference should be used. In the cases where a multipass heat
exchanger is involved, the mean temperature is depending on the arrangement of the shell and
tube passes. Consider 1-2 heat exchanger, the cold fluid in the first tube pass is in counter flow
with the hot fluid. In the second tube pass the cold fluid is in parallel flow with the hot fluid.
So, in case of multi pass heat exchanger to use temperature correction factor (F) to calculate
true temperature drop. The basic design calculation for any heat exchanger is the
determination of heat transfer area. Most generally, this is done using
although in practice it is more common to assume that fluid properties can be treated as
constant at the bulk average values, and approximate the design equation with:
To use this equation, it is necessary to determine the heat transfer coefficient and the
temperature difference. We have seen that for a double pipe heat exchanger the required
average temperature difference is the log mean temperature difference (LMTD).
Unfortunately, the flow patterns in shell and tube exchangers are such that the LMTD by itself
is no longer adequate. It must first be adjusted by means of a correction factor. The second
parameter that must be calculated for a typical process design is the pressure drop in the fluids
moving through the exchanger.
The LMTD was developed for a model restricted to parallel and countercurrent flow patterns.
In shell and tube exchangers, the flow pattern is a mixture of concurrent, countercurrent, and
cross flow, so the LMTD does no
not directly apply. Instead, a corrected LMTD must be used.
Correction factors (F correction factors) are tabulated and used to adjust:
The correction factor charts are available from many sources. They aare
re based on two
parameters:
Th1 − Th 2 T − Tc1
R= And P = c 2
Tc 2 − Tc1 Th1 − Tc1
These parameters are cross-referenced on the appropriate chart to find the F factor. A different
chart is needed for each exchanger layout (1- 2, 1-4, etc.). Note that the charts provided in
MSH are written using hot and cold subscripts and assume that the hot fluid is on the shell
side of the exchanger. Be careful and do what is right for your problem.
F factor curves drop off rapidly below 0.8. Consequently, if your design is indicating
an F less than 0.8, you probably need to redesign (add tube passes, increase
temperature differences, etc.) to get a better approximation of countercurrent flow and
thus higher F values.
Similar correction factors are available for exchanger types other than shell and tube,
including cross flow and compact exchangers.
Tube Side Heat Transfer Coefficients
Tube side heat transfer coefficients are easy to determine, since the Seider-Tate equation (or
equivalent) applies. The most common slipup made at this stage is to incorrectly divide the
stream flow among the tubes. Be sure to adjust all flow rates and velocities for the number of
tubes and the number of tube passes. If an exchanger has 200 tubes in 2 passes, the total flow
will be moving through 100 tubes at a time; if there are 4 passes, it will go through 50 tubes.
The mass velocity in tube side is given by
Massflowrate int ubeside × n
Gt =
Flowareaofeachtube × N
Where, n = is the number of tube passes, N= is the number of tubes.
0.8
From the Dittus-boilter equation, hi ∝ Gt , or hi ∝ n 0.8
Step-5: Shell side calculations: The shell side heat transfer coefficient (ho) can
be calculated by using following relation
ho d e
= 0.36( N Re ) (N pr )
0.55 0.33
k
Where, de=Equivalent diameter of shell side heat transfer is depends
upon the pitch arrangement.
2 π 2
4 PT − d o
de =
4
For square pitch arrangement
πd o
2 π 2
4 0.86 PT − d o
de =
4
For triangular pitch
πd o
d e Gs Cpµ
Where, N Re = , N Pr =
µ k
massflowrateinshellside
Gs = Shell side mass velocity =
shellsideflowarea
ID × B × CT
Shell side flow area (As) is given by As =
PT
Where ID=inner dia of shell
B = Baffle spacing
CT =Tube clearance = PT − Outsidediaoftube
PT = Tube pitch
0.55 1
From the above equation hoαGs or ho ∝
B 0.55
Step-6: Calculation of clean overall heat transfer coefficient:
1
U o orU c =
ro 1 r r
+ + o ln o
hi ri ho k ri
Step-7: Overall design heat transfer coefficient:
1
UD =
1 r R fi ro ro ro
+ R fo + o + + ln
ho hi ri ri k ri
Step-7: Overall dirt factor or scale factor (Rd):
Uc −UD
Rd =
U cU D
Note: If Rd (deposited)>Rd (allowed), the heat exchanger cannot be operate.
Step-8: Number of tubes: In shell-tube heat exchanger, the overall rate of heat transfer is
Q = FU D Ao ∆Tlm
Where Ao = πd o nNL
2
fGt Ln N
∆P f = , Where, s=Specific gravity,
d e sφ t m2
φt = Tube side viscosity correction factor.
The pressure drop due to velocity gradient is given by
4n v 2
∆Pv =
s 2g
Total pressure drop in tube side is
∆PT = ∆Pf + ∆Pv
2
From the above correlations ∆P ∝ Gt Ln or ∆P ∝ n 3
Step-10: Shell side pressure drop:
The shell side flow path is considerably more complex than for a tube, so the calculation of
shell side pressure drop is significantly more complicated as well. For our purposes, we will
use a correlation presented by Kern. It is somewhat dated, but has the advantage of mirroring
the tube side calculation.Begin by determining a shell side equivalent diameter, de.
To transform the friction factor to a pressure drop, we need a count of how many times the
fluid crosses the tube bundle. It crosses between the baffles, so the "crosses" will be one more
than the number of baffles, NB. If the number of baffles isn't already known, it can be
determined using the baffle spacing:
Tubelength L
Number of crosses = N B + 1 = =
Bafflespacing B
The pressure drop is then determined using the equivalent diameter, cross flow velocity,
friction factor, number of crosses, and fluid properties:
fG s d s (N B + 1) N
2
∆Ps = ,
2 gρ d e φ s m2
Note: In shell-tube heat exchanger, there should always be an odd number of crosses (Even
number of baffles), if both shell nozzles are on opposite sides of the shell and an even number,
if both shell nozzles are on the same side of the shell.
From the above equation,
1
∆Ps ∝ Gs ( N B + 1) Or ∆Ps ∝
2
B3
NTU-Method: 1.The LMTD method may be applied to design problems for which the fluid
flow rates and inlet temperatures, as well as a desired out let temperature are prescribed. For a
specified Heat exchanger type, the required sizes, as well as the other out let temperature, are
readily determined.
2. If the LMTD is used in performance calculations for which both out let temperatures must
be determined from the knowledge of the inlet temperatures, the solution procedure is
iterative.
3. For both design and performance calculations, the effectiveness-NTU method may be used
without iteration.
4. NTU-method is used when the temperatures of the fluids leaving the exchanger are not
known.
Definition of NTU: is defined as the change in temperature of one stream divided by the
average temperature difference or driving force in the exchanger.
NTU can be based on either stream, but generally the stream with the lower capacity
(mCp) is chosen.
The temperature change is always taken as a positive number, when the Cp and U are
UA
constant. NTU =
(mC p )min
Capacity ratio(R): It is the ratio of lower capacity stream to higher-capacity stream.
mC p (lowercapacitystrem )
R=
mC p (highercapasitystream )
If m h C ph > mc C pc (Hot fluid capacity > Cold fluid capacity),the capacity ratio is
mc C pc
R=
mh C ph
Heat exchanger effectiveness ( ε ): is defined as the ratio of actual heat transfer to the
maximum possible heat transfer. Thus
Actualheattransferhotorcoldfluid
ε=
Maximumpossibleheattransfer
mh C ph (Th1 − Th 2 ) Th1 − Th 2
Case-1: If m h C ph < mc C pc , ε= =
mh C ph (Th1 − Th 2 ) Th1 − Tc1
mc C pc (Tc 2 − Tc1 )
Case-2: If m h C ph > mc C pc , ε=
m h C ph (Th1 − Tc1 )
For the above equations, generally less capacity will take on numerator.
Case-3: For counter flow heat exchanger (mh C ph < mc C pc ) , the effective ness is given by
1 − Exp[− NTU (1 − R )]
ε=
1 − RExp[− NTU (1 − R )]
Case-4: For parallel flow heat exchanger (mh C ph < mc C pc ) , the effectiveness is given by
1 − Exp[− NTU (1 + R )]
ε=
1+ R
Case-5: For steam condensers and evaporators, by using above case, we arrive at the
following common expression for parallel flow as well as counter flow heat
ε = 1 − Exp(− NTU )
Case-6: For regenerators, when R=1, in case of parallel flow, the effectiveness is
1 − Exp (− 2 NTU )
ε=
2
NTU
For counter flow regenerators the effectiveness is ε =
1 + NTU
Evaporation
There are three main measures of evaporator performance:
1. Capacity (kg vaporized / time)
2. Economy (kg vaporized / kg steam input)
3. Steam Consumption (kg / hr)
Capacity: Capacity of an evaporator is defined as the number of kilograms of water
evaporated per hour.
The rate of heat transfer Q through the heating surface of evaporator is the product of area of
heat transfer surface A, the overall heat transfer coefficient U and the overall temperature drop
∆T
Q = UA∆T
Where, ∆T = Ts − TL
If the feed solution is at the boiling temperature corresponding to the pressure in vapor
space of evaporator, then all the heat transferred through heating surface is available
for evaporation and capacity is proportional to rate of heat transfer.
Steam economy
Evaporator performance is rated on the basis of steam economy. Steam economy is defined as
the kilograms of the solvent evaporated per kilogram of steam used. The greatest increase in
steam economy is achieved in a multiple effect evaporator, by using the vapor from one effect
as the heating medium for the next effect, in which boiling takes place at a lower temperature
and pressure. The steam economy of a multiple effect evaporator will increase in proportion to
the number of effects.
Single effect evaporators: When a single evaporator is used, the vapor from the boiling liquid
is condensed and discarded the method is known as single-effect evaporation.
However, the vapors produced are still steam, and thus can be used to provide the heat for
evaporation in a subsequent stage. Therefore, steam can be used many times to provide
evaporation in a series of operations.
Evaporation by heating with steam in a single vessel is called evaporation in a single effect.
They are used when the required capacity is small, steam is cheap and are operated in batch,
semi-batch or continuous modes. This method of operation is rarely used, since it requires that
the body be large enough to hold the entire charge of feed.
Multiple effect evaporators: Most of the evaporators use low pressure steam for heating
purpose. Due to addition of heat to solution in evaporator by condensation of steam, the
solutions in the evaporator boil.
Vapors leaving the evaporator are fed to same form of condenser then heat associated
with vapor will be lost and system is said to make poor use of system.
Vapor coming out of evaporator can be used as heating media another evaporator
which will be operating at pressure lower than the pressure in the evaporator from
which vapors are issuing so as to provide sufficient temperature gradient for heat
transfer in the evaporator.
Method of increasing the evaporation per kilo gram of steam by employing series of
evaporator’s between steam supply and condenser is known as multiple – effect –
evaporation.
It is one way to increase the economy of evaporator system.
Multiple effect evaporation system is commonly used in large scale operation. In such
system, evaporators are arranged in series so that the vapor from one evaporator is
used as heat source for the next one that is operating under lower pressure and
temperature each unit in series is called as an effect.
In case of triple effect evaporator , If the first effect is operating at atmospheric
pressure , then the second and third effect operate under vacuum , steam is fed the first
effect and vapor from third effect is condensed in condenser connected to vacuum
pump.
The economy of multiple effect evaporation is grater than one.
With multiple effect evaporation system, it is possible theoretically to evaporate, ‘N’
kgs of water from 1kg of initial steam fed, where ‘N’ is the number of effects.
Note: - In multiple effect evaporation, the temperatures and pressure gradually decrease from
effect to effect.
If the vapor from the first evaporator is taken for heating in a second evaporator, we have a
double effect. The heat in the original steam is reused in the second effect. The evaporation
achieved by a unit mass of steam fed to the first effect is approximately doubled. Additional
effects can be added in the same manner.
Thus, with three vessels, we have a triple effect and so on like a quadruple, quintuple or a
sextuple effect. There are thus as many evaporator vessels as the effects. The most common
evaporators encountered in practice are the triple, quadruple and quintuple effects.
2. Vapor recompression.
Determination for strong solutions, one can take advantage of Duhring's Rule
The boiling point of a given solution is a linear function of the boiling point of water at the
same temperature.
This lets us plot TBP solution against TBP water and get a straight line for each concentration.
Another way of thinking of these plots -- they plot the temperature where the vapor pressure
of the solution is equal to some fixed value against the temperature where the vapor pressure
of water equals the same value.
For Duhring Plots to be valid the range of boiling points must be relatively narrow and the
solution must obey Raoult's Law.
A Duhring Plot for the NaOH/Water system can be found in McCabe.
To use a Duhring plot:
1. For a particular system pressure, determine the boiling temperature of pure water. This
can be done from a vapor pressure equation or steam table.
2. Enter the plot from the bottom (the water boiling point), trace up to the diagonal line
representing the NaOH fraction, and then trace left to read the solution boiling point
from the vertical axis.
3. The boiling point elevation is the difference between the two temperatures.
Liquid head ( ∆Th ): The pressure exerted by the column of boiling liquid above the heating
surface enhances the boiling point of solution, which is called the hydrostatic head effect in
boiling point elevation.
Where, ∆Th = Hydrostatic elevation in boiling point 0C. v R = Specific volume of water, m3/kg,
TR= Solution boiling point,0K, λ s = Latent heat at saturation pressure, Kcal/kg.
1
∆P = × Liquidlevelabovetheheatingsurface, m
2
The true temperature drop in evaporator is given by
∆TTrue = ∆T App − BPE − ∆Th
Where, ∆T App = Ts − TL
BPE and Hydrostatic effect on multiple- effect evaporation: 1. for same terminal
conditions (input and out put temperature), and BPE is negligible, the capacity of single effect
is equal to the multiple effect evaporators.
2. When the BPE is negligible, the effective overall ∆T is equals the sum of the ∆T ' s
In each effect, and the amount of water evaporated per unit area of surface in an N-effect
multiple-effect evaporator is approximately (1/N)th that in the single effect.
3. If the BPE is considered, the capacity of multiple effect evaporator is lees than the single
effect evaporation..
6. The liquid head and the BPE influence the capacity of multiple-effect evaporator even more
than does that of a single effect.
7. The liquid head reduces the temperature drop available in each effect of a multiple-effect
evaporator, as does the BPE.
Methods of feeding
Methods of Feeding:-Most common methods used in chemical industry for feeding the
multiple evaporation system are.
Forward feed arrangement: - In this arrangement, the liquid feed flows in the same direction
as the vapor flows.
The thin liquid is fed to the first effect by means of a pump and flows through
Feed is introduced in the effect and the concentrated product is taken out from
the first effect.
The feed flows in the direction of increasing pressure and temperature, which is
opposite to that of the vapor flow.
Here liquid pumps are used in each effect
This type of operation is used when the feed is cold, since it saves a huge
quantity of live steam and makes for batter steam economy.
The operation is also used when the concentrated product is highly viscous the
high temperature in the early effects reduces the viscosity, thereby increasing
the heat transfer coefficients.
Mixed Feeding:- In this feed arrangement, steam is admitted to steam chest of first effect and
vapors leaving first effect evaporator are fed to the steam chest of first of second effect and so
on.
Feed solution is admitted to an intermediate effect and flows to the first effect from
where it is fed to last effect for final concentration.
This arrangement is combination of forward and backward feed adopted for best
overall performance.
Parallel Feeding:-In the parallel operation the feed is introduced directly in to each effect and
no material is transferred from effect to effect.
2. Forward feed arrangement does not need pump for moving the solution from effect to
effect as vacuum is maintained on the last effect.
Back ward feed arrangement needs pumps for moving the solution from effect
to effect as transfer of solution is to be done from evaporator operating at high pressure.
3. In forward feed as heating of cold feed solution is done in first effect, less vapor is
4. With forward feed most concentrated liqueur is in the lost effect where in the
lowest , thus the overall coefficient can be moderate high in spite of high viscosity.
5. In case of forward feed, the maintenance charging and power cost is less.
In case of backward feed, the maintenance charging and power cost is more for same
duty.