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TRADITIONAL FOOD PROCESSING TECHNIQUES AND MICRONUTRIENTS

BIOAVAILABILITY OF PLANT AND PLANT-BASED FOODS: A REVIEW

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 Annals. Food Science and Technology
2019

TRADITIONAL FOOD PROCESSING TECHNIQUES AND MICRONUTRIENTS

BIOAVAILABILITY OF PLANT AND PLANT-BASED FOODS: A REVIEW

Sarafa Adeyemi Akeem*1, Fausat Lola Kolawole2, John Kolade Joseph2, Rowland Monday Ojo Kayode2
Olaide Akinwunmi Akintayo2
1
Department of Food Technology, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria
2
Department of Home Economics and Food Science, University of Ilorin, Ilorin, Nigeria
*E-mail: akeemsarafa@yahoo.com

Abstract
Majority of the world’s population, especially those inhabited in the developing countries lack access to balanced diets
because larger portion of the population live on staple plant-based foods which usually lack diversity and consequently
resulted in micronutrient deficiencies. It has been established that micronutrient deficiencies arising from the
consumption of plant and plant-based foods are mainly caused by failure of absorption rather than dietary deficiency. It
is therefore necessary to explore the means through which substantial part of the available minerals would be made
bioavailable. Fortunately, many simple, low cost household's traditional food processing techniques have the potentials
to improve the bioavailability of many of these essential micronutrients including zinc, iron, vitamins B group and C
majorly through reduction of the inherent anti-nutritional factors. This paper therefore discusses micronutrients
absorption and bioavailability using iron and zinc as examples and the traditional food processing techniques that
could enhance the bioavailability of some of these micronutrients in plant-based diets with the aim of ensuring nutrition
security and eradicating hidden hunger among the indigenous people of Africa and other developing countries. This
review also realised the need for more studies on the in-vitro and in vivo micronutrients bioavailability of plant and
plant-based foods in order to effectively tackle micronutrient deficiency among the populace.
Keywords: Anti-nutritional factors, micronutrients, traditional food processing techniques, bioavailability, nutrition
security

Received: 18.12.2018 Reviewed: 07.03.2019 Accepted: 08.03.2019

1. INTRODUCTION including vitamin A deficiency (VAD), folic

acid, vitamin B12, iron and iodine deficiency
Food supply nutrients which are absolutely disorders (IDD) remain important global public
vital for sustenance and maintenance of good health challenges (Aworh, 2008). For instance,
health. Adequate supply of these nutrients is osteopenia and osteoporosis which are
best achieved through consumption of a conditions characterised by brittle bones are
balanced food-based diet (Adda Bjarnadottir, attributed to calcium and vitamin D
2017). However, the typical modern diet is deficiencies while anaemia has also been
deficient in several essential nutrients. known as a disorder of iron deficiency. VAD
Children, young women, the elderly and has damaging consequences on the eye
vegetarians seem to be the most vulnerable to (xerophthalmia and night blindness) and it is
these nutrients deficiencies (Adda Bjarnadottir, also a major contributory factor to the high
2017). Micronutrient deficiencies also known rates of child and maternal morbidity and
as hidden hunger include both vitamins and mortality (Aworh, 2008). Consumption of
minerals deficiencies. Nutrient deficiencies balanced food-based diets containing nutrients
alter bodily functions and processes such as from both plant and animal origins could be
water balance, enzyme function, nerve regarded as the most effective approach to
signalling, digestion, and metabolism at the tackle nutrient deficiency.
most basic cellular level. Tackling these In third world countries, insufficient amounts
deficiencies is important for optimal body of food coupled with poor nutritional quality of
growth, development, and function. The the available food supply especially among
various micronutrient deficiency disorders plant-based diets containing only little amounts

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of micronutrient-dense animal-source foods are their bioavailability with haem iron having
responsible for various forms of malnutrition about 15-35% absorption and lower absorption
(Brown, 1991; Golden, 1991). The major factor range of 2-20% non-haem iron (Allen and
limiting the quality of plant foods such as Ahluwalia, 1997). The individual’s iron status
cereals, legumes and spices is the low and requirements, the sources and content of
availability of nutrients owing to the presence iron in the meal, and the other meal
of certain anti-nutritional factors such as constituents are some of the factors that could
oxalate and phytate which have strong binding influence the amount of iron absorbed from a
affinity to important minerals such as calcium, meal. While individual characteristics generally
iron and zinc (Apata and Ologhobo, 1997; influence iron absorption, anti-nutritional
Enneking and Wink, 2000; Akeem et al., factors such as tannins, selected dietary fibres
2016). Considering the heavy reliance of low- and phytate pose a more serious threat to the
income populations on plant diets, the bioavailability of non-haem iron (Hallberg,
detrimental effects of low mineral 1981; Lestienne et al., 2005a). Phytic acid is
bioavailability on mineral status and considered the most potent inhibitor of non-
consequently health are therefore worth given haem iron and is present in large concentrations
special considerations (Hotz and Gibson, in cereals, legumes, and vegetables (Allen et
2007). al., 1992; Gibson, 1994). The main source of
iron for the majority of people in developing
2. IRON ABSORPTION AND countries is non-haem iron and therefore any
BIOAVAILABILITY approach to reduce the phytic acid content of
Iron deficiency leads to anaemia and it is well- plant foods should be helpful in improving the
known as the most common dietary deficiency absorption of non-haem iron and the iron status
in different parts of the world affecting mostly of at-risk populations (Ruel and Levin, 2000).
children and women of reproductive age
(Gillespie, 1998; Ruel and Levin, 2000;
3. ZINC ABSORPTION AND
McLean et al., 2009). Iron deficiency is
BIOAVAILABILITY
detrimental regardless of age. For example, Phytate is a common constituent of most cereal
iron deficiency could cause the impairment of grains, some vegetables and fruits (Wang et al.,
cognitive development, immunity and physical 1992). The anti-nutritional role of phytate in
growth in young children and affect their human nutrition is attributed to its mineral
school performance at school age; fatigue and binding capacity, which inhibits the absorption
reduction in work capacity could be observed and bioavailability of minerals such as zinc
at adulthood while anaemia which is known to (Sandstrom, 1997). Myoinositol hexaphosphate
be responsible for a large proportion of (IP6) is the most abundant form of phytate
maternal deaths may cause foetal growth existing in plants. However, food processing
retardation or low birth-weight among pregnant techniques and digestion could result in
women (Gillespie, 1998). It has been degradation of IP6 to less phosphorylated
established that more than half of all pregnant products like pentaphosphates, tetraphosphates,
women in the world and minimum of one third and triphosphates which have lower mineral-
of preschoolers suffer from anaemia, and more binding ability (Agte and Joshi, 1997). Other
are iron deficient to some extent (UN familiar zinc inhibitors include oxalate, fibre,
ACC/SCN, 1997; McLean et al., 2009). The ethylene diamine tetra-acetate (EDTA) and
existence of iron in food is in two forms; polyphenols such as tannins (Larsson et al.,
namely haem (found in flesh foods such as 1996). In many low-income countries, diets are
meat, fish, and poultry) and non-haem (found primarily composed of few animal-sourced
in dairy products and eggs, and in plant foods foods which are both free of phytates and rich
such as beans, cereals, nuts, fruits, and in zinc (Wallwork and Sandstead, 1990).
vegetables) (Ruel, 2001). They differ based on Dietary combinations of foods that have high

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levels of phytates are consumed mostly by Other characteristics of traditional food

rural populations and may have complexities processing include poor handling and storage
regarding bioavailability and utilization of zinc. techniques. Several studies have shown that
This calls for serious consideration of the physical treatments, including dehulling,
assessment of the indigenous food processing soaking, cooking, thermal treatments and
techniques that could enhance zinc protein fractionation, moreover, germination
bioavailability in order to prevent or alleviate and fermentation, could reduce anti-nutritional
its malnutrition. compounds in plant foods (Frias et al., 1995;
Kozlowska et al., 1996). Hence, the effective
4. CHARACTERISTICS OF use of traditional processing methods for
TRADITIONAL FOOD PROCESSING preparation of locally available and
TECHNIQUES inexpensive food is very essential to ensure
Traditional food processing techniques food and nutrition security especially among
constitutes indigenous methods gathered the rural populace of the developing nations.
through experience from time immemorial. Roasting and malting of grains are village level
This crucial indigenous knowledge has been traditional food processing techniques which
passed from one generation to another and this are known to improve acceptability, flavour
is the rationale for which most of the traditional and texture of food, destroy anti-nutritional
processing techniques have survived through compounds and prolong the shelf-life of food
ages (Aworh, 2008). Traditional foods and (Manay and Sadaksharaswamy, 2000). Aworh
traditional food processing techniques have (1993) has presented the objectives and main
been integrated into the total way of life of features of some of the West African
people, most especially, those in the rural indigenous traditional food processing
areas. Unfortunately, this vital body of techniques. It is therefore essential to review
indigenous knowledge is often lowly regarded the traditional processing techniques that could
(Aworh, 2008). The contributions of various enhance the bioavailability of micronutrients in
simple, low-cost, traditional food processing plant-based foods.
techniques to food security and national
development most especially in Africa cannot 4.1. Soaking
be overemphasized. Based on the fact that most Soaking is mostly used as a prerequisite to
of the traditional methods of food processing many other food processing techniques such as
and preservation in West Africa are still based germination, roasting, fermentation, drying and
on experience gathered through trial and error cooking. Soaking which involve steeping the
experimentation, the methods are still crude food materials in water increases the amount of
and not standardized making them currently soluble minerals such as iron through passive
unsuitable for commercial scale production diffusion or leaching of water soluble anti-
(Aworh, 2008). The processes are also nutritional factors including sodium,
laborious and time consuming for substantial potassium, or magnesium phytate. For
profit to be made. In general, traditional example, soaking of flour for 24 hours has
technologies tend to be cheap, easy to produce, been shown to increase the amount of soluble
apply, maintain, and repair. Traditional food iron by tenfold (Ruel and Levin, 2000). The in
processing in Nigeria is characterized by vitro iron and zinc bioavailability of white
rudimentary technologies, inconsistent quality sorghum varieties has been shown to increase
and quantity, lack of innovativeness and from 8.02−13.16% to 14.62−20.75% and
product diversification, inadequate use of 7.35−9.73% to 9.07−10.72%, respectively after
appropriate packaging, poor processing soaking treatment (Afify et al., 2011). Simple
methods, poor market for processed foods, and soaking could therefore lead to improvements
access to appropriate technologies and in the iron, zinc and calcium absorption of
processing information (Karim et al., 2014). cereal-based foods. Soaking may also promote

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the hydrolysis of some polyphenols and thiamine, in vitro iron and calcium
oxalates that inhibit iron and calcium bioavailability of germinated cowpea,
absorption, respectively (Erdman and Pneros- chickpea, green gram and lentil with reductions
Schneier, 1994). Agte and Joshi (1997) also in phytate and tannin concentrations, although
attributed the decrease in IP6 and a a dehusker was used for the dehulling process.
corresponding increase in zinc solubility by The study of Pal et al. (2016) depicted that
about 40% after soaking of wheat batter for 12 dehulling resulted in reduction of tannin,
hours at 10°C to probable increase in the phytate, oxalate, trypsin inhibitors, iron, zinc
activity of endogenous phytases. According to and calcium contents but in an increase in
Hotz and Gibson (2007), the extent of copper content of horsegram flours. The
hydrolysis of phytic acid depends on the authors attributed the reduction in anti-
species, pH conditions, temperature, conditions nutrients and minerals to their concentration in
of soaking and soaking time. Phytate content of the hulls of the legumes. The scarcity of
unrefined maize flour could be reduced by 50% information on the influence of dehulling on
with the use of simple and appropriate micronutrients bioavailability of plant foods
households soaking procedure (Hotz and calls for more studies on which evident
Gibson, 2001). The leaching of water soluble conclusion could be drawn.
micronutrients especially during long soaking
period is however an impediment to the use of 4.3. Germination/Malting
this processing technique (Taiwo, 1998; Germination is a natural process that involves
Lestienne et al., 2005b). This challenge could placement of dormant but viable seeds in the
be overcome by combining soaking with other dark at room temperature with frequent
processing techniques or by carrying out the watering usually for about 72 hours to induce
soaking process at optimized conditions. sprouting. Phytase activity increases and phytic
acid is broken down during germination. Other
4.2. Dehulling anti-nutritional factors such as tannin and
Dehulling, also known as decortication, is polyphenols are also adversely affected by
another traditional processing technique of germination. For example, Laminu et al.
importance that is commonly applicable to (2014) observed a significant reduction in
legume seeds and it involves the removal of phytic acid (65%) and tannin content (64%)
hull from the seeds. Dehulling is usually with a significant increase in the levels of
preceded by processing techniques such as calcium, iron and zinc in germinated wheat.
roasting, milling or grinding, soaking and Similarly, a recent study has shown the anti-
boiling depending on the hardness of the seed nutritional factors (phytate and tannin) in finger
coat or hull and the objective of the dehulling millet to be reduced by 50% after germination
process. In contrast, dehulling could also act as for 0-96 hours (Abioye et al., 2018). Afify et
a prerequisite to other processing techniques al. (2011) have also shown the potential of
such as drying, fermentation and extraction of germination in enhancing iron and zinc
macronutrients such as oil, starch and protein. bioavailability of white sorghum varieties.
Generally, traditional dehulling could be Similarly, decrease in phytate, tannin and
achieved in two ways; dry method in which the oxalate contents after germination for 48 hours
seeds are milled or ground (mechanically has been reported to enhance the calcium, iron
processed) and the hulls are blown off and wet and copper contents of horsegram flours (Pal et
method in which the hulls are manually al., 2016). Germination of green gram,
separated from the cotyledons after boiling chickpea and finger millet for 24 and 48 hours
and/ or soaking and the separated hulls are was observed to decrease tannin but not the
decanted with water (Omafuvbe et al., 2007). phytate contents and consequently improved
Ghavidel and Prakash (2007) have shown the the bioaccesibility of iron but not that of zinc
further enhancement potentials of dehulling on (Hemalatha et al., 2007). Another study has

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also observed significant increase in the 4.4. Fermentation

thiamine, in vitro iron and calcium Fermentation being one of the oldest and
bioavailability of lentil, cowpea, chickpea and perhaps the most important traditional food
green gram with about 20% and 30% processing and preservation techniques
reductions in phytate and tannin respectively (Aworh, 2008) has contributed immensely in
after 24 hours germination (Ghavidel and ensuring food and nutrition security among
Prakash, 2007). Some vitamins such as local and urban populace in various parts of the
riboflavin, vitamins B6 and C of legume seeds world. Food fermentation is defined as a
could also be improved by germination process of biochemical modification of primary
(Fasoyiro et al., 2012). It has been postulated food products brought about by
that the increase in activity of endogenous microorganisms and enzymes for the
phytase activity in cereals, legumes, and oil production of foods with distinct quality
seeds during germination or malting could be characteristics such as taste, aroma, shelf-life,
attributed to the de novo synthesis and/or texture and nutritional value which are quite
activation of intrinsic phytase of the plant different from the original agricultural raw
materials (Hotz and Gibson, 2007). Lower material. It simply involves the metabolism of
endogenous phytase activity has been reported food sugars such as lactose and glucose mostly
for some tropical cereals such as maize and by action of lactic acid bacteria and yeast to
sorghum compared to buckwheat, wheat, produce lactic acid, alcohol and carbon-dioxide
barley, rye and triticale (Egli et al., 2002). (Badmos et al., 2014). Fermentation is a
Therefore, micronutrients malnutrition could be common household technology in many parts
prevented in infants and children through of the world though regional differences occur
preparation of porridge containing a mixture of in manufacturing practices, consumption
germinated and ungerminated tropical cereal habits, quality and level of acceptability of the
flours. The rate of phytate hydrolysis varies fermented products. Traditional food
depending on the pH, stage of germination, fermentation; a biotechnological process
variety, species, temperature, moisture content, produced by taking advantage of the natural
presence of certain inhibitors and solubility of microbiota associated with fresh food
phytate (Sandberg et al., 1999; Egli et al., materials, is one of the most practical,
2002). Germination reduces the phytate content economical and widely applied empirical
of millet, rice and mung to a very large extent methods to preserve and often enhance
(Egli et al., 2002). Significant reductions of organoleptic and nutritional quality of fresh
phytates and increase in riboflavin of black and foods; and it has been unique to historical
white cultivars of beans, lentils, chicken-pea countries in different parts of the world.
and peas after germination have been Fermentation enhances the nutritive value of
documented (Camacho et al., 1992). The food by increasing thiamine, nicotinic acid,
reductions in these anti-nutritional factors are riboflavin, minerals and protein content or
expected to promote iron and other relevant quality as a result of microbial activity
minerals absorption. Malting is a process that (Steinkraus, 1985; Odunfa, 1985; Soetan and
involves grinding and softening of grains by Oyewole, 2009). Fermentation has been
soaking them in water until spouting occurs reported to reduce phytic acid and tannin
and this process also increases the content of pearl millet (akamu) by 72% and
bioavailability of iron and zinc by reducing 71% respectively resulting in a significant
phytic acid level through activation of native increase in the levels of calcium, iron and zinc
phytases (Ruel and Levin, 2000). The ability of (Laminu et al., 2014). Lopez et al. (1983) also
malting to improve vitamin C and facilitate the observed availability of minerals and release of
availability of phosphorus and tryptophan in phosphorus from phytate during fermentation
foods has also been documented (Manay and of corn (Zea mays).
Sadaksharaswamy, 2000).

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The principle of micronutrients availability mortal and pestle for dehulling and milling into
through fermentation is based on hydrolysis of flour) made iron about 14 times more available
phytate to lower inositol phosphate usually less than from flour processed directly by
than 5 phosphate groups by the action of mechanical method. Milling has also been
phytase enzymes (Lopez et al., 1983; Ragon et reported to favour the reactions between
al., 2008). This is desirable due to the fact that phytases and phytate content (Lestinne et al.,
lower myo-inositol phosphates (IP3 and IP4) 2005c) and this may facilitate the degradation
have been reported to have no adverse effect on of phytate into its less phosphorylated
zinc and calcium absorption (Lonnerdal et al., derivatives with lower minerals binding
1989), although the findings of Sandberg et al. affinity. Accessibility and bioavailability of
(1999) recommended the degradation of carotenoids could also be enhanced by
inositol phosphates to be less phosphorylated mechanical processes through disruption of the
inositol phosphates than IP3 to improve iron subcellular membranes in which the
absorption of cereals and legumes. Based on carotenoids are bound (Hotz and Gibson,
this processing technique, higher inositol 2007). Though this technique could enhance
phosphate of food commodities such as maize, the bioavailability of iron, zinc, and calcium, it
soy beans, sorghum, cassava, cocoyam, may not be the best choice owing to the fact
cowpeas, and lima beans could be reduced by that significant amount of vitamins and
90% or more. Naturally, the microbial phytases minerals may be lost during the process. As a
are often originated from the microflora on the result of this limitation, superiority may be
surface of plant food materials. The phytate attached to other processing techniques such as
content of some cereals such as bulrush millet fermentation and germination/malting which
and red sorghum may not be reduced have been described earlier in this paper.
effectively due the inhibition of phytase
activity by tannin (Sandberg, 1991). The low- 4.6. Thermal processing techniques
molecular-weight organic acids such as citric, Thermal processing involves the use of heat
malic and lactic acids produced during treatment such as boiling, cooking and roasting
fermentation have the capability to enhance to promote the bioavailability of some
iron and zinc absorption through the formation micronutrients including vitamins and minerals
of soluble ligands while simultaneously through destruction of heat labile anti-
generating a low pH that optimizes the activity nutritional factors such as goitrogens,
of endogenous phytase from cereal or legume thiaminases, trypsin inhibitors etc. Some
flour (Teucher et al., 2004). However, majority existing evidence have shown that boiling of
of the available knowledge on the potential of tubers and blanching of green leaves incurred
organic acids in enhancing iron and zinc moderate losses (5–15%) of phytate (Yeum and
absorption are based on in-vitro studies which Russell, 2002; Yadav and Sehgal, 2002).
needs to be verified by relevant in vivo However, mild heat treatment is known to
experiments (Hotz and Gibson, 2007). reduce the phytic acid of tubers but not cereals
and legumes and this could be due to the strong
4.5. Mechanical processing and complex interraction of phytate with
Pounding or milling is another technique that nutrients in cereals and legumes. Cooking in
could be used to reduce the phytic acid content iron pots has been found to be effective in
of cereals at household level provided the enhancing iron bioavailability of plant-based
phytic acid is localized within a specific foods (Lestinne et al., 2005c). The disruption
portion of the grain such as germ in corn or of food matrix caused by thermal processing
aleurone layer in wheat, triticale, sorghum, could result to release of certain micronutrients
rice, or rye (O' Dell et al., 1972). Mbofung and such as thiamine, vitamin B6, niacin, folate,
Ndjouenkeu (1990) have shown that processing and carotenoids, thereby enhancing their
maize by traditional method (pounding in bioavailability (Rodrigues-Amaya, 1997;

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Yeum and Russell, 2002). However, there is chickpea, green gram and finger millet
dearth of information on whether the subjected to soaking (16 hours) and
micronutrients bioavailability enhancing effect germination (48 hours), although the
of thermal processing compensate for the germination was able to compensate in most
losses of heat-labile and water-soluble vitamins cases for the loss of selenium that occurred
such as thiamine, riboflavin, vitamin C and during the soaking procedure (Khanam and
folate (Hotz and Gibson, 2007). Shorter Platel, 2016). The potential of combination of
cooking time and steaming rather than boiling germination (24 hours) and dehulling in the
could minimize the oxidation of carotenoids better enhancement of thiamine, in vitro
and its loss in cooking water (Rodriguez- calcium and iron bioavailability of chickpea,
Amaya, 1997). lentil, cowpea and green gram, with about 50%
and 48% reductions in phytate and tannin
4.7. Combined and Food-based Strategies respectively, compared to germination alone
Combined strategy is a short term integrated has been documented (Ghavidel and Prakash,
approach that aims at combining two or more 2007). Combined strategy may also involve
traditional processing techniques to enhance food fortification such as the addition of
the bioavailability of micronutrients in plant- legume or fortificant to cereal-based foods as a
based diets. For instance, dehulling and milling plan to enhance the content and bioavailability
of millet grains before soaking promoted the of micronutrients of plant-based diets in poor
leaching of phytate and phytases, degraded communities (Gibson et al., 2003). The study
phytate and decreased phytate-iron and of Podder et al. (2018) showed higher iron
phytate-zinc molar ratios (Lestinne et al., concentration, ferritin formation and relative in
2005c). Combination of soaking and sprouting vitro iron bioavailability but lower phytate and
or germination has been shown to decrease phytate-iron molar ratio for iron (NaFeEDTA
phytate content, increase digestibility, enhance with iron concentration of 2800 µg/g) fortified
iron and zinc bioavailabilities in legumes and lentil meals in comparison to the unfortified
cereals (Gibson, 1994; Luo and Xie, 2014; lentil meals. The authors also noted significant
Asogwa et al., 2017). Recently, fenugreek correlation between iron concentration and
seeds were soaked in water for 24 hours relative iron bioavailability as well as between
followed by germination for 24─72 hours relative iron bioavailability and phytate-iron
(Atlaw et al., 2018). Although the highest molar ratio of iron fortified lentil meals.
reduction in anti-nutrients was observed after Cooking has been found to enhance the
72 hours of germination, the highest amounts selenium bioaccessibility of fermented batters
of minerals (iron, calcium and zinc) were of dosa (non-oil pan fried rice and decorticated
recorded after 48 hours of germination. This black gram mixture in 3:1), idli (steam cooked
suggests the requirement for further study to mixture of rice and decorticated black gram in
assess the relationship between this increment 2:1) and dhokla (steam cooked mixture of
in minerals content, germination period and chickpea, decorticated green gram, decorticated
minerals bioavailability on which effective black gram and rice in 2:2:1:1) which are
conclusion could be drawn. Also, the report of commonly consumed breakfast diets in India,
Erba et al. (2018) showed that while combine though the increment did not compensate for
strategy (germination and cooking) generally the loss of selenium observed during soaking
decreased the phytate and increased the (10 hours) and fermentation (14 hours) that
calcium content of chickpea and green pea, its preceded the cooking procedures (Khanam and
effect on their other minerals (magnessium, Patel, 2016). Also, Hemalatha et al. (2007)
iron, zinc and phosphorus) and accessibility of have shown the potential of fermentation (14
calcium and magnesium was conflicting. hours) in reducing phytate and tannin contents
Similar observations have been reported for the and consequently improved the bioaccessibility
bioaccessible selenium and selenium content of of zinc and iron of the batters of cereal-pulse

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combination used in the preparation of idli and However, Mamiro et al. (2004) studied and
dosa but not that of dhokla. Similarly, compared the effects of feeding unprocessed
investigation on the influence of traditional and processed complementary food on anaemia
fermentation and cooking of finger millet sour and iron status in a large community based
porridge consumed by the inhabitants of Ushe randomized controlled trial involving 6 months
community in Zimbabwe was recently old infants in Tanzanian. The traditionally
investigated (Gabaza et al., 2018). Four processed foods had lower phytate-iron molar
traditional finger millet varieties were used in ratio than the unprocessed food but the
the preparation of the porridge and about 41% unprocessed food had higher total iron content
and 35% reductions were reported for phenolic and this suggests no significant improvement in
compounds and condensed tannins respectively the iron absorption. A similar trend has been
while only one variety recorded a phytate reported for zinc and this necessitates the
reduction of 22-54%. The authors however did evaluation of phytate-iron and phytate-zinc
not observe any significant improvement in molar ratios that could result in significantly
iron and zinc bioavailability of the porridges. It improved iron and zinc absorption and
could therefore be asserted that the consequently, higher iron and zinc
effectiveness of combine strategy in enhancing bioavailability of plant foods. In contrast, Erba
micronutrients of plant-based foods and their et al. (2017) reported insignificant correlation
accessibilities depends on the specific between phytate-calcium molar ratio and
micronutrient, the type, structure, combination calcium in vitro accessibility of whole-wheat
and composition of plant materials, the products (bread, biscuits and pasta), semi-
processing methods and conditions employed. skimmed milk and parmesan. This implied that
Hence, optimization of ingredients and phytate-calcium molar ratio may be unreliable
processing conditions could be explored as a in predicting the availability of calcium in
combined approach for enhancing food-based diets. The exploration and
micronutrients bioavailability of plant foods in effectiveness of food-based or combined
the future. Food-based strategy is a long term strategies are based on the fact that no single
micronutrients intervention and sustainable strategy can eradicate hidden hunger globally.
micronutrient deficiencies' solution approach Apart from eradicating nutritional deficiencies,
that is mainly based on dietary modification food-based strategy could also ensure food
(through food fortification, supplementation, security in the targeted communities. However,
diet diversification, diet planning and nutrition the major limitations of food-based strategy
education) and evaluation of the targeted compared to combine approach such as mere
population. Unlike combined strategy which food fortification are the high initial
focused on mere fortification and expenditure and long time (5-10 years)
supplementation programmes, food based required for its implementation and evaluation
strategy aimed at increasing the micronutrients (Ruel, 2001).
composition of plant-based diets as well as
enhancing their bioavailability for efficient 5. CONCLUSION
absorption and utilization (Ruel, 2001). Many
researchers have elaborated the use and This review has clearly shown that many
efficiency of food-based strategy in tackling traditional food processing techniques have the
micronutrients deficiencies most especially in potential to address many of the concerns about
developing countries (Ruel, 2001; Oyarzun et the bioavailability of micronutrients mostly
al., 2001; Tontisirin et al., 2002). Food-based through reduction of the inherent anti-
strategy has been found to be very effective in nutritional factors in plant-based diets thereby
reducing anti-nutritional factors, enhancing eradicating hidden hunger and ensuring
micronutrients bioavailability of plant foods nutrition security among the indigenous people
and consequently eradicating hidden hunger. of Africa and other developing countries.

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 Annals. Food Science and Technology
2019

Fortunately, many of the processing [6]. Enneking, D. and Wink, M. (2000). Towards the
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