Lecture 26

Mechanical properties of Materials- Part 2

Robert Hooke Isaac Newton

Prof. Divya Nayar

Department of Materials Science and Engineering
divyanayar@mse.iitd.ac.in
Recap…

1. Engineering Stress and Strain

2. Tensile test
3. Defined mechanical properties from tensile test
4. Atomic model of elastic deformation

Callister: Chapter 6, Raghavan: Chapter 11

 Why do we need to study Tensile test?
Why do we need to understand the failure of materials?

We want some materials to bend We want some materials to break We want some materials NOT to fail !!

Designing materials with tailored properties!

 (a) (b)stresses and strains 31

When

Uniaxial tensile test: Stress-strain curve

a solid is altogether free from mechanical loads (which,
strictly speaking, very seldom) these chemical bonds or springs
is

are in their neutral or relaxed position (Figure 1). Any attempt

(a) (b)

Load-Elongation curve

Figure L Simplified model of distorti

mechanical strain.

(a) Neutral, relaxed or strain-f

(b) Material strained in tensi
gets longer.
(c) Material strained in comp
material gets shorter.
Figure L Simplified model of distortion of interatomic bonds under
mechanical strain.
to push them closer together (whic
(a) Neutral, relaxed or strain-free position.
stretch them further apart (whic
(b) Material strained in tension, atoms further apart, material
gets longer. shortening or lengthening the inte
(c) Material strained in compression, atoms closer together,
material gets shorter.

to push them closer together (which we call compression) or to

stretch them further apart (which we call tension) involves
Figure L Simplified model of distortion of interatomic bonds under
shortening or lengthening
mechanical strain. the interatomic springs, by however

(a) Neutral, relaxed or strain-free position.

(b) Material strained in tension, atoms further apart, material
gets longer.
(c) Material strained in compression, atoms closer together,
material gets shorter.

to push them closer together (which we call compression) or to

stretch them further apart (which we call tension) involves
shortening or lengthening the interatomic springs, by however
 resistance to elastic deformation. The greater the modulus, t
the smaller the elastic strain that results from the applicati
modulus is an important design parameter used for comput

Elastic deformation
Metal Alloys Elastic deformation is nonpermanent, which means tha
is released, the piece returns to its original shape. As shown
(Figure 6.5), application of the load corresponds to movin

Deformation in which stress and strain are linearly proportional along the straight line. Upon release of the load, the line i
site direction, back to the origin.
There are some materials (e.g., gray cast iron, concrete,

• Hooke’s law:
which this elastic portion of the stress–strain curve is not lin
1496T_c06_131-173 12/21/05 7:43 Page 138
2ndasREV
is not possible to determine a modulus of elasticity descr
linear behavior, either tangent or secant modulus is normall
is taken as the slope of the stress–strain curve at some spec
secant modulus represents the slope of a secant drawn from
point of the s–! curve. The determination of these moduli i

138 • Chapter 6 / Mechanical Properties of Metals Figur

stress
non-l
• For most typical metals the magnitude of this modulus Figure
!2
6.5 Schematic stress–strain diagram showing
how s
ranges between 45 GPa (6.5 X 106 psi), for magnesium, and elastic deformation for loading and are d
unloading cycles.
Unload #!
= Tangent modulus (at !2)
407 GPa (59 X 106 psi), for tungsten. #"

• The greater the modulus, the stiffer the material, or the

Stress !
!1
smaller the elastic strain that results from the application of a

Stress
Slope = modulus
of elasticity
given stress.
• Elastic deformation is non-permanent: when the applied load
= Secant modulus
is released, the piece returns to its original shape
#!
#" (between origin and !1)
Load
• Young’s modulus is a characteristic of each substance due
0
to its chemical nature. 0
• Greater the modulus, stiffer is the material. Strain
Strain "
stress–strain diagram showing
linear elastic deformation for tangent or secant modulus for gray cast
elastic deformation Deformation in which stress and strain are proportional is called elasti
loading and unloading cycles iron, concrete, and many polymers
mation; a plot of stress (ordinate) versus strain (abscissa) results in a linear r
ship, as shown in Figure 6.5. The slope of this linear segment correspond
 Elastic properties of materials
6.5 Elastic Properties of Materials • 141
Poisson’s ratio: What happens to the cross-section area on elongation?
o PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS
TIC Poisson’s Ratio
Poisson’s
When ratio measures
a tensile stresstheis deformation
imposed oninathe material
metal in a direction
specimen, perpendicular
an elastic to the
elongation direction
and ac- of the applied force
eformation?
companying strain
Does the specimen resultremain
!zsection
cross in the direction
same of the
during tensile applied stress (arbitrarily taken
deformation?
toF be the z direction), as indicated in Figure 6.9. As x a result of this elongation, there
F
will be constrictions in the lateral (x and y) directions •perpendicular to theisapplied
IfFthe applied stress uniaxial (only in the z direction), and
W0 stress; from Lthese contractions, the compressive strains
z ! x and ! y may be determined. F
0+ΔL the material is isotropic, then ɛx = ɛy (x and y are lateral and z
If the applied stress is uniaxial (only in the z direction), and the material is isotropic,
W0 -ΔW W0 is longitudinal Ldirection).
+ΔL
then !x ! !yL. A parameter termed Poisson’s ratio n is defined as the ratio of the 0
0 y
lateral and axial strains, or • It is the ratio of lateral strain to longitudinal
W0 -ΔWstrain
Does shear strain have Poisson’s ratio? •
L
The negative sign
0 is so that the ratio is always positive
's ratio, ν: ∆𝐿 !x !y
𝜀𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑛𝑎𝑙 = n!# !# • ɛ or ɛ and ɛ will always (6.8)
be of opposite sign.
nd 𝐿 0 ! z ! z
x y z
Does shear strain have Poisson’s ratio?
~ 0.33 • Poisson's ratio, ν:
• A high Poisson's ratio denotes that the material exhibits
~ 0.25 𝜀 −∆𝑊
The 𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙
negative= sign is included in the expression so that large n willelastic
always be positive,
deformation, even when exposed to small
: ~ 0.40 𝑊0
since !x and !z will always be of opposite metals: sign. Theoretically,
~ 0.33 Poisson’s ratio for
−∆𝑊 1 amounts of strain.
isotropic materials
𝑊0 should be 4 ; furthermore,
𝜀𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙 the maximum
ceramics: ~ 0.25 value for n (or that value
for𝜐which
= − there
∆𝐿 =is−no𝜀𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑛𝑎𝑙
net volume change) is 0.50. For
polymers: ~ 0.40 •
manyMetals:
metals~0.33,
and ceramics:
other ~0.25
alloys, and polymers: ~0.40
values of Poisson’s
𝐿0
ratio range between 0.25 and 0.35. Table 6.1 shows n values for
several common metallic materials.
 Some obvious questions from stress-strain curve?
262 Plastic Deformation and Creep in Crystalline Materials

Maximum load
What if the elastic regime
Necking Neckin
Why the Engineering stress
is non-linear? How to find region decreases after necking?
Young’s modulus?

Fracture
What if elastic-to-plastic Load
Yield point

True stress
deformation is smooth? How
to find the yield point?

What property does this area

provide?

Elongation True
(a) (b
 Plastic deformation
Atomic model
• Plastic deformation corresponds to the breaking of bonds with original atom neighbours and then
reforming bonds with new neighbours as large numbers of atoms or molecules move relative to one
another
• Upon removal of the stress they do not return to their original positions.
• For crystalline solids, deformation is accomplished by means of a process called slip, which
involves the motion of dislocations
• The hardness and brittleness of crystalline ceramics is the difficulty of slip (or dislocation motion).
(1) the covalent bonds are relatively strong,
(2) there are also limited numbers of slip systems,
(3) dislocation structures are complex.
• Plastic deformation in non-crystalline solids (as well as liquids) occurs by a viscous flow mechanism
 tensile stress–strain behavior into the plastic region for a

Plastic deformation: Yield stress tion from elastic to plastic is a gradual one for most meta
at the onset of plastic deformation, which increases more
Offset yield stress: How to determine yield stress for gradual
elastic-plastic deformation?
Figure 1: The tension test.Figure 6.10 Elastic Plastic
Polyethylene (a) Typical stress–

strain behavior for

Upper yield
a metal showing !y
point
elastic and plastic
? deformations, the
proportional limit P,
and the yield strength !y
sy, as determined P Lower yield

Stress

Stress
point
using the 0.002
strain offset method.
(b) Representative
• Proportional Limit: point of yielding where initial departure stress–strain behavior
from linearity of the stress–strain
Figure curve.
2: Low-strain region foundcurve
of the engineering stress-strain forfor
some
annealed polycrystaline
• A straight line is constructed
copper; this curveparallel
is typical to theofelastic
of that portion
steels
many ductile metals. of the
demonstrating
stress–strain curve at some specified strain offset, usually the yield point
0.002. phenomenon.
In the early (low strain) portion of the curve, many materials obey Hooke’s law to a reason-
able approximation, so that stress is proportional to strain with the constant of proportionality
• Slope of this constructed straight
being the modulus line gives
of elasticity themodulus,
or Young’s Young’s denoted E:
modulus Strain Strain
σe = E"e (2)
0.002
As strain is increased, many materials eventually deviate from this linear proportionality,
the point of departure being termed the proportional limit. This nonlinearity is usually as- (a) (b)
sociated with stress-induced “plastic” flow in the specimen. Here the material is undergoing
a rearrangement of its internal molecular or microscopic structure, in which atoms are being
moved to new equilibrium positions. This plasticity requires a mechanism for molecular mo-
 yielding (Figure 6.15), of
orelasticity, the magnitudes of both yield and tensile strengths decline with increasing
Resilience temperature; just the reverse holds for ductility—it usually increases with temperature.
!y

What property does the

Resilience
!
area sd!
Figure 6.14 shows how the stress–strain behavior of iron varies with temperature.
under stress-strain (6.13a)
Ur !
give before
0 yielding point?
resilience Resilience is •theResilience:
capacity of athe material to absorb energy when it is deformed elas-
capacity of a material to absorb energy when it is deformed elastically
tically and then, upon unloading, to have this energy recovered.The associated prop-
Figure
erty is the6.15
and
modulus
then, upon
Schematic unloading,
representation
of resilience,
to have
Ur, whichshowing how
is the strain
this energy recovered.
modulus
energy per unit volume
σy required • Modulus
of resilience
to stress a materialoffrom
(corresponding resilience:
to an strain
theunloaded
shaded energy
area)
state to per unit volume
is determined
up the point required to stress a material from
of yielding.
from an unloaded
the tensile
Computationally, stress–strain
the modulusstateof up
behavior toofthe
resilience point of yielding
a material.
for a specimen subjected to a uni-
axial tension •testModulus
is just theof resilience
area under the isengineering
the area under the stress-strain
stress–strain curve taken curve
to taken to yielding.
• Resilience
yielding (Figure 6.15), or is energy absorbed per unit volume upto elastic limit.
Definition of !y
modulus of
! (6.13a)
Stress

Ur ! sd!
resilience 0

Figure 6.15 Schematic representation showing how modulus

σy of resilience (corresponding to the shaded area) is determined
from the tensile stress–strain behavior of a material.

y
0.002 Strain
Stress

y
0.002 Strain
of plastic deformation that has been sustained at fracture. A material that experi-
ences very little or no plastic deformation upon fracture is termed brittle. The ten-
Ductility and Brittle
sile stress–strain behaviors for both ductile and brittle materials are schematically
illustrated in Figure 6.13.
- Brittle: A material that experiences very little or no plastic deformation upon fracture.
Brittle
Figure materials
6.13 are approximately
Schematic representationsconsidered
of to be those having a fracture strain of
Brittle
B
less stress–strain
tensile than about 5%.behavior for brittle and
Ductile - Ductility:
ductile A measure
materials of the
loaded to degree of plastic deformation that has been sustained at
fracture.
fracture.
- Ductility may be expressed quantitatively as either percent elongation or percent
reduction in area.
Stress

B!

A C C!
Strain

Ductility in design:
- Degree of allowable deformation
- Degree to which structure deforms plastically
before fracture.
 Tensile strengths may vary anywhere from 50 MPa (7000 psi) for an aluminum
to as high as 3000 MPa (450,000 psi) for the high-strength steels. Ordinarily, when
the strength of a metal is cited for design purposes, the yield strength is used. This

True stress
is because by the time a stress corresponding to the tensile strength has been ap-
plied, often a structure has experienced so much plastic deformation that it is use-
less. Furthermore, fracture strengths are not normally specified for engineering
design purposes.
Engineering stress does not consider the instantaneous change in the cross-section area
- Once the maximum in the engineering curve has been reached, the localized
M
TS deformation at this site cannot be compensated by further strain hardening, so the
cross-section area is reduced further. This increases the local stress even more,
which accelerates the deformation further. This localized and increasing
F
deformation soon leads to a “neck” in the gage length of the specimen.
Stress

- Material at necking point experiences stress which is no longer uniaxial. The

Engineering stress does not take into account the reduction in cross-sectional area
at necking.

True Stress and True Strain L0

Strain True Stress and True Strain L0
𝐹 A0
Engineering Stress 𝜎𝐸 = 𝐹 A0
Engineering Stress 𝜎 = 𝐴0
𝐸 L0+ΔL
𝐴0
L0+ΔL
L0
L0
𝐹 A
True Stress 𝜎𝑇 = 𝐹 A
True Stress 𝜎𝑇 =𝐴
𝐴
L 0+ΔL
L +ΔL
0

𝐹 𝐹 𝐹 𝐹 𝐴0𝐴0 𝐴𝐴00 𝐿
𝐿 𝐿𝐿00++∆𝐿∆𝐿 ∆𝐿∆𝐿
𝜎𝑇 𝜎=𝑇 = = = ==𝜎𝜎 𝜎𝜎𝑇𝑇 =
=𝜎𝜎𝐸𝐸 𝐿 == 𝜎𝜎𝐸𝐸 ==𝜎𝐸𝜎𝐸 1 +
1 + = 𝜎=
𝐸𝐸 𝐿0 𝐿𝐿0 𝐿 𝐿
So now let us see why we don’t fall through the floor?
Unless you are sitting on a missile!

Is floor rigid or deformable?

N=Normal reaction N N

W=mg W=mg
W=mg

Floor is elastically deformable

Hooke’s law
Under the weight of the person, the floor deforms and in order
to come back to original state, it creates the normal force