Nine Categories of Instructional Strategies Proven to Improve Student

Achievement

Based on studies focused on a wide variety of instructional strategies, researchers at

McREL (Mid-continent Research for Education and Learning) have identified nine
categories of instructional strategies proven to improve student achievement in K-12
classrooms, across a variety of subject areas:

1. Identifying similarities and differences Research tells us that students need

explicit structure when they first begin identifying similarities and differences. As
they progress, however, students can use the process on their own to stimulate a
wide-ranging exchange of ideas. Research also shows that graphic and symbolic
representations can help students to understand and effectively use processes for
identifying similarities and differences. Involve students in processes that involve
identifying how items, events, processes, or concepts are similar and different.

Applications:
* Use Venn diagrams or charts to compare and classify items.
* Engage students in comparing, classifying, and creating metaphors and analogies.

2. Summarizing and note taking Research tells us that effective summaries

involve deleting, substituting, and keeping some information, and that to carry out
these processes well, students must analyze the information they are working with in
a complex way. Research also shows that understanding the explicit structure of
information helps students to summarize. Note taking is similar to summarizing
because students need to think about and shape the information they are recording.
Research shows that taking more notes is better than fewer notes, though verbatim
note taking is ineffective because it does not allow time to process the information.
Teachers should encourage and give time for review and revision of notes; notes can
be the best study guides for tests. Further, students need to consider their notes a
work in progress; they should revise and review their notes.

Applications:
* Provide a set of rules for creating a summary.
* When summarizing, ask students to question what is unclear, clarify those
questions, and then predict what will happen next in the text.
* Use teacher-prepared notes.
* Stick to a consistent format for notes, although students can refine the notes as
needed.

3. Reinforcing effort and providing recognition Research shows that students

may not realize the influence effort has on their success in school, but they can learn
that effort helps them succeed. Simply teaching students that added effort pays off
in terms of enhanced achievement actually increases student achievement. In fact,
one study (Van Overwalle & De Metsenaere, 1990) found that students who were
taught about the relationship between effort and achievement achieved more than
students who were taught techniques for time management and comprehension of
new material. Research also shows that reward is most effective when contingent on
successfully completing a specific level of performance. We also know that symbolic
recognition is more powerful than tangible rewards.
Applications:
* Share stories about people who succeeded by not giving up.
* Have students keep a log of their weekly efforts and achievements, reflect on it
periodically, and even mathematically analyze the data.
* Find ways to personalize recognition. Give awards for individual accomplishments.
* "Pause, Prompt, Praise." If a student is struggling, pause to discuss the problem,
then prompt with specific suggestions to help her improve. If the student's
performance improves as a result, offer praise.

4. Homework and practice Research on homework tells us some things about

homework and practice. First, in general, teachers should assign less homework to
younger students than to older students. Second, parents should be minimally
involved in their children's homework. Third, teachers should communicate the
purpose of homework and comment on it.

Applications:
* Establish a homework policy with advice-such as keeping a consistent schedule,
setting, and time limit-that parents and students may not have considered.
* Tell students if homework is for practice or preparation for upcoming units.
* Maximize the effectiveness of feedback by varying the way it is delivered.
* Assign timed quizzes for homework and have students report on their speed and
accuracy.
* Focus classroom practice on difficult concepts and set aside time to accommodate
practice periods.

5. Nonlinguistic representations Research tells us that we can use a variety of

activities to help students represent knowledge in different ways. Research also
indicates that nonlinguistic representations are more effective if they elaborate on or
add to students' knowledge.

Applications:
* Incorporate words and images using symbols to represent relationships.
* Use physical models and physical movement to represent information.
* Create graphic organizers. (Thinking Maps)
* Generate mental pictures.

6. Cooperative learning Hundreds of studies support the effectiveness of

cooperative learning (Johnson et al., 1981; Walberg, 1999). In general, research
indicates that students who work in cooperative groups consistently outperform
students who don't. We also know that adding competition to the mix does not
enhance achievement. You gain nothing by asking cooperative groups to compete
against one another. Finally, we know that cooperative groups should be small and
that different types of groups should be organized for different purposes.

Applications:
* When grouping students, consider a variety of criteria, such as common
experiences or interests.
* Vary group sizes and objectives.
* Design group work around the core components of cooperative learning-positive
interdependence, group processing, appropriate use of social skills, face-to-face
interaction, and individual and group accountability.
7. Setting objectives and providing feedback Setting objectives and providing
feedback engage the metacognitive thinking of students. In other words, objectives
and feedback give students direction and help them think about their own learning.
Research shows that instructional goals narrow students' focus. Educators should set
flexible learning goals and encourage students to personalize them. In terms of
providing feedback, we know feedback should explain to students what they are
doing correctly and incorrectly. Also, feedback should be timely and refer to a
specific level of performance. Further, studies show that students can give feedback
to each other.

Applications:
* Set a core goal for a unit, and then encourage students to personalize that goal by
identifying areas of interest to them. Questions like "I want to know" and "I want to
know more about . . ." get students thinking about their interests and actively
involved in the goal-setting process.
* Use contracts to outline the specific goals that students must attain and the grade
they will receive if they meet those goals. * Make sure feedback is corrective in
nature; tell students how they did in relation to specific levels of knowledge. Rubrics
are a great way to do this.
* Keep feedback timely and specific.
* Encourage students to lead feedback sessions.

8. Generating and testing hypotheses When students generate and test

hypotheses, they are applying knowledge. The student who observes that a metal
toy boat floats in water when a lighter piece of metal sinks, can apply his knowledge
to hypothesize that the surface area of an object affects buoyancy. Next, he
experiments with objects of various sizes, shapes, and weights to test his
conjectures. As with many thinking and reasoning skills, students generate and test
hypotheses all the time. If I do this, what might happen? If that thing acts in this
way, what might happen? Although we usually think of generating and testing
hypotheses about the physical world, such as what allows a heavy ship to float, this
process can be applied to psychological phenomena. For example, based on how
people relate to specific types of visual stimuli, someone might generate and test a
hypothesis about the effects of a specific type of advertisement. Research shows that
asking students to explain their hypotheses and conclusions enhances their learning.

Applications:
* Ask students to predict what would happen if an aspect of a familiar system, such
as the government or transportation, were changed.
* Ask students to build something using limited resources. This task generates
questions and hypotheses about what may or may not work.

9. Activating Prior Knowledge: Cues, questions, and advance organizers

Accessing what students already know enhances their learning about new content.
This process is commonly referred to as "accessing prior knowledge." Imagine you
are reading an article about the best vacation spots in France. When you read the
title of the article, you might pause for a moment before reading the article and
recall the last vacation you took—what you liked about it and what you did not like
about it. Recalling your experience provides a context for reading the article. It
allows you to compare and contrast what is stated in the article with what you
already know. Although mature learners usually access their prior knowledge
automatically, K-12 students must sometimes be reminded and even helped to
access what they already know. Research shows that cues and questions should
focus on what is important, not on what is unusual. When using questions in the
classroom, teachers should focus on "higher-level" questions because they produce
deeper learning. Also, waiting briefly before accepting responses from students
increases the depth of students' answers. We also know questions are effective
learning tools even when asked before a learning experience.

Applications:
* Pause briefly after asking a question. Doing so will increase the depth of your
students' answers. (Wait Time/Think Time)
* Vary the style of advance organizer used: The teacher can tell a story, skim a text,
or create a graphic image. There are many ways to expose students to information
before they "learn" it.

These strategies are explained in the book Classroom Instruction That

Works by Robert Marzano, Debra Pickering, and Jane Pollock.